A MOST ancient and celebrated empire of Asia, extending in length from the mouth of the river Araxes to that of the river Indus, about 1840 of our miles, and in breadth from the river Oxus, to the Persian gulf, about 1080 of the same miles. It is bounded on the north by the Caspian sea, the river Oxus, and Mount Caucasus; on the east, by the river Indus and the dominions of the Great Mogul; on the south, by the Persian gulf and the Indian ocean; and on the west, by the dominions of the Grand Signior.

We learn from Sir William Jones, the illustrious president of the Asiatic Society, that Persia is the name of only one province of this extensive empire, which by the present natives, and all the learned Mussulmans who reside in the British territories in India, is called Irán. It has been a practice not uncommon in all ages to denominate the whole of a country from that part of it with which we are best acquainted; and hence have the Europeans agreed to call Irán by the name of that province of which Shiraz is the capital: See SHIRAZ.

The most ancient name, however, of this country was that of Elam, or, as some write it Elam, from Elam the son of Shem, from whom its first inhabitants are descended. Herodotus calls its inhabitants Cepheans; and in very ancient times the people are said to have called themselves Artai, and the country where they dwelt Artaca. In the books of Daniel, Esdras, &c., it is called by the names of Pars, Pharas, or Faras, whence the modern name of Persia; but whence those names have been derived, is now uncertain.

That Persia was originally peopled by Elam the son of Shem, has been very generally admitted; but the truth is, that of the ancient history of this distinguished empire very little is perfectly known. For this ignorance, which at first seems strange, satisfactory reasons may easily be assigned; of which the principal are the superficial knowledge of the Greeks and Jews, and the loss of Persian archives or historical compositions. "That the Grecian writers before Xenophon had no acquaintance with Persia, and that their accounts of it are wholly fabulous, is a paradox too extravagant to be seriously mentioned; but (says Sir William Jones) their connection with it in war or peace had been generally confined to bordering kingdoms under feudatory princes; and the first Persian emperor, whose life and character they seem to have known with tolerable accuracy, was the great Cyrus." Our learned author, however, is so far from considering Cyrus as the first Persian monarch, that he thinks it evident a powerful monarchy had subsisted in Irán for ages before the accession of that hero; that this monarchy was called the Mahédé-dian dynasty; and that it was in fact the oldest monarchy in the world. The evidence upon which the pres- shepherd, out of compassion, exposed a still-born child which his wife happened to be then delivered of, and brought up the son of Mandane as his own, giving him the name of Cyrus.

When the young prince had attained the age of ten years, as he was one day at play with other children of the same age, he was chosen king by his companions; and having, in virtue of that dignity, divided them into several orders and classes, the son of Artembares, a lord of eminent dignity among the Medes, refused to obey his orders; whereupon Cyrus caused him to be seized, and whipped very severely. The boy ran crying to his father; and he immediately hastened to the king's palace, loudly complaining of the affront his son had received from the son of a slave, and intreating Astyages to revenge, by some exemplary punishment, the indignity offered to him and his family. Astyages, commanding both the herdsman and his son to be brought before him, asked the latter, how he, who was the son of so mean a man, had dared to abuse the son of one of the chief lords of the kingdom? Cyrus replied, that he had done no more than he had a right to do; for the boys of the neighbourhood having chosen him king, because they thought him most worthy of that dignity, and performed what he, vested with that character, had commanded, the son of Artembares alone had slighted his orders, and for his disobedience had suffered the punishment he deserved. In the course of this conversation Astyages happening to recollect, that his grandson, whom he had ordered to be destroyed, would have been about the same age with Cyrus, began to question the shepherd concerning his supposed son, and at last obtained from him a confession of the whole truth.

Astyages having now discovered Cyrus to be his grandson, sent for Harpagus, who also confessed that he had not seen Mandane's son destroyed, but had given him to the shepherd; at which Astyages was so much incensed, that, having invited Harpagus to an entertainment, he caused him to be served with the flesh of his own son. When he had done, the king asked him whether he liked his victuals; and Harpagus answering, that he had never tasted any thing more delicious, the officers appointed for that purpose brought in a basket, containing the head, hands, and feet of his son, desiring him to uncover the basket, and take what he liked best. He did as they desired, and beheld the mangled remains of his only child without betraying the least concern, so great was the command which he had over his passions. The king then asked him, whether he knew with what kind of meat he had been entertained. Harpagus replied, that he knew very well, and was always pleased with what his sovereign thought fit to ordain; and having thus replied, with a surprising temper he collected the mangled parts of his innocent son, and went home.

Astyages having thus vented his rage on Harpagus, began next to consult what he should do with Cyrus. The magi, however, eased him of his fears with regard to him, by assuring him, that as the boy had been once chosen king by his companions, the dream had been already verified, and that Cyrus never would reign in any other sense. The king, being well pleased with this answer, called Cyrus, and, owning how much he had been wanting in the affection which he ought to have had towards him, desired him to prepare for a journey into Persia, where he would find his father and mother in circumstances very different from those of the poor shepherd and his wife with whom he had hitherto lived. Cyrus, on his arrival at his father's house, was received with the greatest joy. When he grew up, he soon became popular on account of his extraordinary parts; till at last his friendship was courted by Harpagus, who had never forgot the cruel treatment he received from Astyages. By this means a conspiracy was formed against Astyages; who being overthrown in two successive engagements, was taken prisoner and confined for life.

The account given by Xenophon of the rise of Cyrus is much more consonant to Scripture; for he tells us, that Babylon was conquered by the united forces of the Medes and Persians. According to him, Cyrus was the son of Cambyses king of the Medes, and Mandane the daughter of Astyages king of Persia. He was born a year after his uncle Cyaxares, the brother of Mandane. He lived till the age of twelve with his parents in Persia, being educated after the manner of the country, and inured to fatigues and military exercises. At this age he was taken to the court of Astyages, where he resided four years; when the revolt of the Medes and Persians from the Babylonians happened, and which ended in the destruction of the Babylonish empire, as related under the article BABYLON.

While Cyrus was employed in the Babylonish war, His war before he attacked the metropolis itself, he reduced all with the nations of Asia Minor. The most formidable of these were the Lydians, whose king Croesus assembled a very numerous army, composed of all the other nations in that part of Asia, as well as of Egyptians, Greeks, and Thracians. Cyrus being informed of these vast preparations, augmented his forces to 196,000 men, and with them advanced against the enemy, who were assembled near the river Pactolus. After long marches, he came up with them at Thymbr, not far from Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Besides the horse and foot, which amounted to 196,000, as already observed, Cyrus had 300 chariots armed with scythes, each chariot drawn by four horses abreast, covered with trappings that were proof against all sorts of missile weapons: he had likewise a great number of chariots of a larger size, upon each of which was placed a tower about 18 or 20 feet high, and in each tower were lodged 20 archers. These towers were drawn by 16 oxen yoked abreast. There was moreover a considerable number of camels, each mounted by two Arabian archers, the one looking towards the head, and the other towards the hinder part of the camel. The army of Croesus consisted of 420,000 men. The Egyptians, who alone were 120,000 in number, being the main strength of the army, were placed in the centre. Both armies were drawn up in an immense plain, which gave room for the extending of the wings on either side; and the design of Croesus, upon which alone he founded his hopes of victory, was to surround and hem in the enemy's army.

When the two armies were in sight of each other, The battle Croesus, observing how much his front exceeded that of Cyrus, made the centre halt, but commanded the two main main body, which marched up to the front of the Persian army, while the two wings attacked them in flank; so that Cyrus's army was hemmed in on all sides, and, as Xenophon expresses it, was inclosed like a small square drawn within a great one. This motion, however, did not at all alarm the Persian commander; but, giving his troops the signal to face about, he attacked in flank those forces that were going to fall upon his rear so vigorously, that he put them into great disorder.

At the same time a squadron of camels was made to advance against the enemy's other wing, which consisted mostly of cavalry. The horses were so frightened at the approach of these animals, that most of them threw their riders, and trod them under foot; which occasioned great confusion. Then Artageses, an officer of great valour and experience, at the head of a small body of horse, charged them so briskly, that they could never afterwards rally; and at the same time the chariots, armed with scythes, being driven in among them, they were entirely routed. Both the enemy's wings being thus put to flight, Cyrus commanded his chief favourite Abradates to fall upon the centre with the large chariots above mentioned. The first ranks, consisting mostly of Lydians, not being able to stand so violent a charge, immediately gave way; but the Egyptians, being covered with their bucklers, and marching so close that the chariots had not room to penetrate their ranks, a great slaughter of the Persians ensued. Abradates himself was killed, his chariot overturned, and the greatest part of his men were cut in pieces. Upon his death, the Egyptians, advancing boldly, obliged the Persian infantry to give way, and drove them back quite to their engines. There they met with a new shower of darts and javelins from their machines; and at the same time the Persian rear advancing sword in hand, obliged their spearmen and archers to return to the charge. In the mean time Cyrus, having put to flight both the horse and foot on the left of the Egyptians, pushed on to the centre, where he had the misfortune to find his Persians again giving ground; and judging that the only way to stop the Egyptians, who were pursuing them, would be to attack them in the rear, he did so; and at the same time the Persian cavalry coming up to his assistance, the fight was renewed with great slaughter on both sides. Cyrus himself was in great danger; for his horse being killed under him, he fell among the midst of his enemies: but the Persians, alarmed at the danger of their general, threw themselves headlong on their opponents, rescued him, and made a terrible slaughter; till at last Cyrus, admiring the valour of the Egyptians, offered them honourable conditions; letting them know at the same time, that all their allies had abandoned them. They accepted the terms offered them; and having agreed with Cyrus that they should not be obliged to carry arms against Croesus, they engaged in the service of the conqueror, and continued faithful to him ever after.

The next morning Cyrus advanced towards Sardis, and Croesus marched out to oppose him at the head of the Lydians only: for his allies had all abandoned him. Their strength consisted mostly in cavalry; which Cyrus being well apprised of, he ordered his camels to advance; by whom the horses were so frightened, that they became quite ungovernable. However, the Lydians dismounted, and for some time made a vigorous resistance on foot; but were at last driven into the city, which was taken two days after: and thus the Lydian empire was totally destroyed.

After the conquest of Sardis, Cyrus turned his arms against Babylon itself, which he reduced in the manner related under that article. Having settled the civil government of the conquered kingdoms, Cyrus took a review of all his forces, which he found to consist of 600,000 foot, 120,000 horse, and 2000 chariots armed with scythes. With these he extended his dominion all over the nations to the confines of Ethiopia, and to the Red sea; after which he continued to reign peaceably over his vast empire till his death, which happened about 529 before Christ. According to Xenophon, he died a natural death; but others tell us, that, having engaged in a war with the Scythians, he was by them overthrown and cut in pieces with his whole army, amounting to 200,000 men. But this is very improbable, seeing all authors agree that the tomb of Cyrus was extant at Pasargadae in Persia in the time of Alexander the Great; which it could not have been if his body had remained in the possession of the Scythians, as these authors assert.

In the time of Cyrus, the Persian empire extended from the river Indus to the Ægean sea. On the north it was bounded by the Euxine and Caspian seas, and on the south by Ethiopia and Arabia. That monarch kept his residence for the seven cold months at Babylon, by reason of the warmth of that climate; three months in the spring he spent at Susa, and two at Ecbatana during the heat of summer. On his deathbed he appointed his son Cambyses to succeed him in the empire; and to his other son, Smerdis, he gave several considerable governments. The new monarch immediately set about the conquest of Egypt; which he accomplished in the manner related in the history of that country.

Having reduced Egypt, Cambyses next resolved to turn his arms against the Carthaginians, Hammonians, conquerors and Ethiopians. But he was obliged to drop the first of these enterprises, because the Phoenicians refused to supply him with ships against the Carthaginians, who were a Phoenician colony. However, he sent ambassadors into Ethiopia with a design to get intelligence of the state and strength of the country. But the Ethiopian monarch, being well apprised of the errand on which they came, treated them with great contempt. In return for the presents sent him by Cambyses, he sent his own bow; and advised the Persians to make war upon the Ethiopians when they could bend such a strong bow as easily as he did, and to thank the gods that the Ethiopians had no ambition to extend their dominions beyond their own country.

Cambyses was no sooner informed of this answer by his ambassadors than he flew into a violent passion; and ordered his army immediately to begin their march, without considering that they were neither furnished with provisions nor any other necessary. When he arrived at Thebes in Upper Egypt, he detached 50,000 Hammonians, with orders to destroy the temple of Jupiter Ammon: but all these perished in the desert; not a single person arriving either at the oracle, or returning to Thebes. The rest of the army, led by Cambyses himself, experienced incredible hardships; for not being provided with any necessaries, they had not marched a fifth part of the way, when they were obliged to kill and eat their beasts of burthen. When these failed, the soldiers fed on grass and roots, as long as any could be found; and at last were reduced to the dreadful necessity of eating one another; every tenth man, on whom the lot fell, being condemned to serve as food for his companions. The king, however, obstinately persisted in his design; till, being apprehensive of the danger he himself was in, he retreated to Thebes, after having lost the greatest part of his army.

Cambyses was a man of a very cruel and suspicious temper, of which he gave many instances; and the following proved indirectly the cause of his death.—We have already observed that the king of Ethiopia sent his bow in return for the presents brought to him by the ambassadors of Cambyses. The only man in the Persian army who could bend this bow was Smerdis the king's brother; and this instance of his personal strength so alarmed the tyrant, that, without any crime alleged, he caused him to be murdered. This gave occasion to one Smerdis, a magian, who greatly resembled the other Smerdis in looks, to assume the name of the deceased prince, and to raise a rebellion against Cambyses who was generally hated for his cruelty; and this he could the more easily do, as the chief management of affairs had been committed to this Smerdis during the king's absence. Cambyses, on receiving the news of this revolt, immediately ordered his army to march, in order to suppress it; but as he was mounting his horse, his sword, slipping out of its scabbard, wounded him in the thigh. On this accident, he asked the name of the city where he was; and being told that it was Ecbatana, he said in the presence of all his attendants, "Fate has decreed that Cambyses the son of Cyrus shall die in this place." For, having consulted the oracle of Butos, which was very famous in that country, he was told that he should die at Ecbatana. This he had always understood of Ecbatana in Media, and had therefore resolved to avoid it. Being now, however, convinced that his end approached, he assembled the chief Persian lords who served in the army, and having told them that his brother was certainly dead, he exhorted them never to submit to the impostor, or suffer the sovereignty again to pass from the Persians to the Medes, to which nation Smerdis belonged, but to use their utmost endeavours to place one of their own blood on the throne.

As the king's wound mortified, he lived but a few days after this; but the assembly supposing that he had spoken only out of hatred to his brother, quietly submitted to the impostor, who was thus for a time established on the throne. Indeed, from his conduct during the short time which he enjoyed the kingdom, he appears to have been not at all undeserving of a crown. He began with granting to all his subjects an exemption from taxes and military service for three years, and treated all of them in the most beneficent manner. To secure himself on the throne the more effectually, he married Atossa the daughter of Cyrus; thinking, that in case of a discovery he might hold the empire by her title. She had before been married to her brother Cambyses, on a decision of the magi that a king of Persia might do as he pleased; and by virtue of this decision Smerdis also married her as her brother. The extreme caution of Smerdis, however, promoted the discovery of his imposture. He had married all his predecessors wives, among whom was one Phedyma, the daughter of Otanes a Persian nobleman of the first rank. Otanes, who suspected that the king was not Smerdis the son of Cyrus, sent a trusty messenger to his daughter, desiring to know whether he was so or not; but Phedyma, having never seen this Smerdis, could not give any answer. Her father then desired her to inquire at Atossa, who could not but know her own brother. However, he was again disappointed; for Phedyma acquainted him that all the king's wives were lodged in distinct and separate apartments, without being allowed to see each other. This greatly increased the suspicions of Otanes; upon which he sent his daughter a third message, desiring her, the next time she should be admitted to the king's bed, to take an opportunity of feeling whether he had ears or not: for Cyrus had formerly caused the ears of Smerdis the magian to be cut off for some crime of which he had been guilty; so that, if the king had ears, she might then be assured that he was Smerdis the son of Cyrus. The event showed that the suspicions of Otanes were just; and Phedyma having acquainted her father that the king had no ears, a conspiracy was immediately formed against him. While the conspirators were debating about the proper means of carrying their designs into execution, Darius the son of Hystaspes happened to arrive at Susa where his father was governor, they all agreed to make him privy to their design. He told them, at their first meeting, that he thought nobody in the empire but himself had known that Smerdis the son of Cyrus was dead, and the throne usurped by one of the magi; that he had come with a design to kill the usurper, without imparting his design to anyone, that the glory of such an action might be entirely his own. But since others were apprised of the imposture, he insisted that the usurper should be dispatched without delay. Otanes, on the other hand, was for putting off the enterprise till some better opportunity offered; but Darius protested, that if they did not make the attempt that very day, he would prevent any one from accusing him, by disclosing the whole matter to the impostor himself.

In the mean time, Smerdis and his brother had by great promises prevailed on Prenaspe (the executioner of the true Smerdis) to bind himself by an oath not to discover the fraud they had put on the Persians, and even to make a public speech, declaring that the present king of Persia was really the son of Cyrus. At the time appointed, he began his discourse with the genealogy of Cyrus, putting his hearers in mind of the great favours the nation had received from that prince. After having extolled Cyrus and his family, to the great astonishment of all present, he confessed the whole transaction with regard to the death of Smerdis; telling the people that the apprehension of the danger he must inevitably run by publishing the imposture had constrained him to conceal it so long; but now, not being able any longer to act such a dishonourable part, he acknowledged that he had been compelled by Cambyses to put his brother to death with his own hand, and that the person who possessed the throne was Smerdis the magian. He then begged pardon of the gods and men for the crime he had committed; and subjoining many imprecatious against the Persians if they failed to reco- ver the sovereignty, he threw himself headlong from the top of the tower on which he stood, and died on the spot.

In the meantime the conspirators, who were advancing towards the palace, were informed of what had happened; and Otanes was again for deferring the execution of their enterprise: but Darius insisting upon the danger of delay, they proceeded boldly to the palace; and being admitted by the guards, who did not suspect them, they killed both the usurper and his brother; after which they exposed their heads to the people, and declared the whole imposture. The Persians at this were so enraged, that they fell on the whole sect, and killed every one of the magi they could meet with; and had not the slaughter been stopped by night, not one of the order would have been left alive. The day on which this slaughter happened was afterwards celebrated by the Persians with the greatest solemnity, and called by the name of Magophonia, or the slaughter of the Magi. On that festival the magi durst not appear abroad, but were obliged to shut themselves up in their houses. Smerdis the magian reigned only eight months.

When the tumult was a little subsided, the conspirators, who were seven in number, met together in order to elect a new king, or to determine what form of government they should next introduce. Otanes was for a republic; but being overruled by the rest, he declared, that as he was determined not to be a king, neither would he be ruled by one; and therefore insisted that he and his family should ever afterwards remain free from subjection to the royal power. This was not only granted, but it was further agreed by the other six, that whoever was chosen should every year present Otanes with a Median vest, a mark of great distinction among the Persians, because he had been the chief author of the enterprise. They further agreed to meet at a certain place next morning at sunrise on horseback, and that he whose horse first neighed should be king. This being overheard by Oebares, who had the care of Darius's horses, he led a mare over-night to the place, and brought his master's horse to her. The next morning, the horse remembering the place, immediately neighed for the mare; and the five lords dismounting, saluted Darius as their king.

Darius Hystaspes was elected king of Persia in the year 522 B.C. Immediately after his accession, he promoted the other six conspirators to the first employments in the kingdom, married the two daughters of Cyrus, Atossa and Artystona, Parmys the daughter of the true Smerdis, and Phedyma the daughter of Otanes, who had detected the imposture of the magian. He then divided the whole empire into 20 satrapies or governments, and appointed a governor over each division, ordering them to pay him an annual tribute. The inhabitants of Colchis, with some others, were enjoined only to make annual presents, and the Arabians to furnish every year such a quantity of frankincense as equalled the weight of 1000 talents. Thus Darius received the yearly tribute of 14,560 Euboeic talents, upwards of 360,000 pounds sterling.

Under Darius, the building of the temple of Jerusalem, which had been obstructed by Cambyses and Smerdis, went on successfully, and the Jewish state was entirely restored. The most remarkable of Darius's other transactions were his expeditions against Babylon: against Scythia, India, and Greece. The expedition against Babylon took place in the year 517 B.C., when the people, unable to bear the oppression of the Persians, and likewise discontented because the seat of government was removed from their city to Susa in Persia, took the opportunity of the troubles which happened in the reigns of Cambyses and Smerdis, to store their city with all kinds of provisions sufficient to serve them for many years; after which they broke out into an open rebellion, and thus quickly brought upon them Darius with all his forces. The Babylonians perceiving themselves shut up by so numerous an army, turned all their thoughts towards the supporting of a long siege, which they imagined would tire out the king's troops. To prevent the consumption of their provisions, they took the most barbarous and cruel resolution that ever was put in execution by any nation. They agreed among themselves to get rid of all unnecessary mouths; and therefore, gathering together all the old men, women, and children, they strangled them without distinction; every one being allowed only to keep the wife he liked best, and a maid-servant to do the work of the house. The siege continued for a year and eight months; nor was there any likelihood of its being ended, when Zopyrus, one of Darius's chief commanders, put him in possession of it by the following stratagem. He cut off his nose and ears, and having mangled his body with stripes in a most cruel manner, he fled to the Babylonians thus disfigured, pretending that he had been so treated by Darius for advising him to raise the siege. Being intrusted with the command of some forces, he cut off several parties of the Persian army, whom Darius thus sacrificed in order to raise the character of Zopyrus the higher among the Babylonians. In this manner he so much established his credit, that at last he was made commander in chief of all the Babylonish forces, and the guard of the city committed entirely to his care; and no sooner was this done than he delivered it up to Darius, who, to prevent their rebelling a second time, beat down the walls of that metropolis to the height of 50 cubits. Three thousand of the most active in the rebellion were impaled; the rest pardoned. As they had destroyed most of their women, the neighbouring nations were commanded to furnish them with wives, and 50,000 women were sent to that city, by which means it was prevented from being depopulated. Zopyrus was rewarded with the highest honours, and had the whole revenues of Babylon bestowed on him for life.

After the reduction of Babylon, Darius undertook a Scythian expedition, directed against those nations which ceaseless exile between the Danube and the Tanais. His pretext for this war was, to revenge the calamities which these nations had brought upon Asia about 120 years before, when they invaded and subdued Media; keeping it in subjection for the space of 28 years, as we have related under that article. In this expedition he was attended with an army of 700,000 men. With these he marched to the Thracian Bosphorus; which having passed on a bridge of boats, he reduced all Thrace. From Thrace he advanced to the Danube, where he had appointed his fleet to meet him. This river he passed on another bridge of boats, and entered Scythia. His enemies, however, were too wise to oppose such a formidable power in the open field; and therefore retired before him, wasting the Persia. the country as they went along, till at last the king, sensible of the danger he was in, resolved to give over the enterprise and return home. In order to do so with safety, he lighted a great number of fires in the nighttime, and decamped; leaving behind him the old men and the sick, who fell into the hands of their enemies. The Scythians perceiving that Darius was gone, detached a considerable body to the bridge over the Danube; and as they were well acquainted with the roads, they got thither before the Persians. The Scythians had sent expresses before hand to persuade the Ionians, whom Darius had left to guard the bridge, to break it down and retire to their own country; and this they pressed the more earnestly, that as the time prescribed by Darius was now expired, they were at liberty to return home, without breaking their word or being wanting in their duty. Miltiades, prince of the Chersonesus of Thrace, was for embracing so favourable an opportunity of cutting off Darius's retreat, and shaking off the Persian yoke at once: all the other commanders agreed with him, except Hystaspes prince of Miletus; who represented to the Ionian chiefs, that their power was connected with that of Darius, since it was under his protection that each of them was lord in his own city; and that the cities of Ionia would not fail to depose them and recover their liberty, if the Persian power should sink or decline. This speech made a deep impression on the rest, and it was at last determined that they should wait for Darius; and in order to deceive the Scythians, they began to break down the bridge, but advised them to return back and defeat Darius. They did so, but missed him; and he having thus safely escaped so great a danger, immediately repassed the Bosphorus, and took up his winter quarters at Sardis, leaving Megabyzus, one of his chief generals, to complete the conquest of Thrace.

The king having sufficiently refreshed his troops who had suffered extremely in the Scythian expedition, began to think of extending his dominions eastward; and in order to facilitate his design, resolved in the first place to discover those countries. With this view he caused a fleet to be built and equipped at Caspaturus, a city on the river Indus. The command of this fleet he gave to one Scylax, a Grecian of Caryanda, a city of Caria, who was well versed in maritime affairs. Him he ordered to sail down the current, and make the best discoveries he could of the countries lying on either side of the river, till he arrived at the southern ocean; from whence he was to steer his course westward, and that way return to Persia. Scylax, having exactly observed his instructions, and sailed down the river Indus, entered the Red sea by the straits of Babelmandel, and on the thirtieth month from his first setting out, landed at the same place from whence Necbu king of Egypt formerly sent out the Phoenicians who circumnavigated Africa. From hence Scylax returned to Susa, where he gave a full account of his discoveries; upon which Darius, marching into India at the head of a powerful army, reduced that large country, and made it a province of the Persian empire, drawing from thence an annual tribute of 360 talents of gold.

Soon after the expedition of Darius against India happened the revolt of the Ionians, which gave occasion to his expedition into Greece; an account of which is given under the articles Attica, Greece, Sparta, &c. The ill success which attended him here, however, was so far from making him drop the enterprise, that it only made him the more intent on reducing the Grecians; and he resolved to head his army in person, having attributed his former bad success to the inexperience of his generals. But while he was employed in making the necessary preparations for this purpose, he received intelligence that the Egyptians had revolted, so that he was obliged to make preparations for reducing them also; and before this could be done, the king died, after having reigned 36 years, leaving the throne to his son Xerxes.

This prince ascended the throne of Persia in the year 485 B.C.; and his first enterprise was to reduce the Egyptian princes; which he effectually did, bringing them in, against to a worse state of slavery than they ever had experienced before. After this he resolved on an expedition into Greece; the unfortunate event of which is related under the article Attica. By his misfortunes in the Grecian expedition, he became at last so dispirited, that he thenceforth abandoned all thoughts of war and conquests; but growing tyrannical, and oppressing his subjects, he was murdered in his bed, in the year 464 B.C., and 21st of his reign; and was succeeded by his third son Artaxerxes, surnamed Longimanus on account of the great length of his arms.

This prince is named Ahaseurus in Scripture, and is the same who married Esther, and during the whole of his reign showed the greatest kindness to the Jewish nation. In the beginning of his reign he was opposed by Hystaspes the second son of Xerxes, whom, however, he overcame, though not without considerable difficulty. After this he applied himself to the settlement of the affairs of government, and reforming many abuses which had crept in; and then, being fully established on the throne, he appointed feasts and rejoicings to be made for 180 days in the city of Susa; at one of which he resolved to divorce his queen for disobedience; and afterwards married Esther, as we find it recorded in the sacred writings.

In the fifth year of the reign of Artaxerxes the Egyptians revolted anew, and being assisted by the Athenians, held out for six years; but were again obliged to submit, and continued in subjection during the whole of his reign. Nothing else remarkable happened during the life of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who died in the 41st year of his reign; and was succeeded by Xerxes II., the only son he had by his queen, though by his concubines he had 17. Xerxes having drunk immoderately at an entertainment immediately after his accession, retired to a chamber in order to refresh himself with sleep; but here he was murdered by Sogdianus, the son of Artaxerxes by one of his concubines, after he had reigned 45 days.

Sogdianus was scarce seated on the throne when he put to death Bagorazus, the most faithful of all his father's eunuchs; by which, and the murder of his sovereign, he became generally odious. Upon this, sensible of the dangerous situation in which he was, he sent for one of his brothers named Ochus, whom he suspected, with a design to murder him the moment he arrived. Ochus, however, understanding his design, put off, by several pretences, his coming, till he had drawn together a powerful army, with which he advanced to the confines of Persia. Here he openly declared, that his design was to revenge his brother's death; which brought over to him many of the nobility and governors of provinces, by whom he was immediately proclaimed king. Sogdianus, seeing himself thus deserted, contrary to the advice of all his friends, came to an accommodation with Ochus; who no sooner had him in his power than he caused him to be suffocated among ashes; a punishment invented on purpose for him.

Ochus being firmly settled on the throne by the death of Sogdianus, changed his name to Darius; and is by historians commonly called Darius Nothus, or The Bastard. But Arsites, another of the brothers, seeing in what manner Sogdianus had got the better of Xerxes, and been afterwards driven out by Ochus, began to entertain thoughts of treating him in the same manner. He was not, however, so successful; for, being defeated in an engagement, he surrendered himself in hopes of mercy, but was immediately put to death by suffocation in ashes. Several other persons were executed; but these severities did not procure him the repose which he expected; for his whole reign was disturbed with violent commotions in various parts of the empire. One of the most dangerous was raised by Pisuthna, governor of Lydia; but he being deserted by his Greek mercenaries, was at last overcome, and put to death; however, his son Amorgas continued to infest the maritime provinces of Asia Minor for two years; till he also was taken prisoner by Tissaphernes, the new governor of Lydia, who put him to death. Other insurrections quickly followed this; but the greatest misfortune which befell Darius during the whole course of his reign was the revolt of the Egyptians, who could not be reduced. Before his death he invested Cyrus his youngest son with the supreme government of all the provinces of Asia Minor. This was done through the persuasions of his mother Parysatis, who had an absolute sway over her husband; and she procured this command for him, that he might thereby be enabled to contend for the kingdom after his father's death. She even insisted that the king should declare him heir to the crown before he died; but this he could not by any means be induced to do. He died in the year 405 B.C. and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes, by the Greeks surnamed Memon on account of his extraordinary memory.

The most remarkable transaction which happened during the reign of this prince was the revolt of his brother Cyrus. This young prince had been raised to so great power through the interest of his mother, on purpose that he might revolt, as we have already seen. He began with gaining over the cities under the government of Tissaphernes; which quickly produced a war with that governor. Cyrus then began to assemble troops, which he pretended were designed only against Tissaphernes. As he had given great assistance to the Macedonians in their wars against the Athenians, he now in return demanded assistance from them; which request they very readily complied with, ordering their fleet immediately to join him, and to obey in every thing the commands of Tamos his admiral. At last Cyrus, having collected an army of 13,000 Greek mercenaries and 100,000 regular troops of other nations, set out from Sardis, directing his march towards Upper Asia; the army being entirely ignorant of the expedition on which they were going. When they arrived at Tarsus, the Greeks, suspecting that they were marching against the king, refused to proceed any further; but Cyrus having gained them over with presents and promises, they soon went on with satisfaction. Having arrived at Cunaxa in the province of Babylon, Cyrus found his brother with 900,000 men ready to engage him. Whereupon leaping out of his chariot, he commanded his troops to stand to their arms and fall into their ranks; which was done with great expedition, no time being allowed the soldiers to refresh themselves. Clearchus, the commander of the Peloponnesian troops, advised Cyrus not to charge in person, but to remain in the rear of the Greek battalions; but this advice he rejected with indignation, saying, that he should thus render himself unworthy of the crown for which he was fighting. As the king's army drew near, the Greeks fell upon them with such a fury, that they routed the wing opposite to them almost at the first onset; upon which Cyrus was with loud shouts proclaimed king by those who stood next to him. But he, in the mean time, perceiving that Artaxerxes was wheeling about to attack him in flank, advancing against him with 600 chosen horse, killed Artageses captain of the king's guards with his own hand, and put the whole body to flight. In this encounter, discovering his brother, he spurred on his horse, and, coming up to him, engaged him with great fury; which in some degree turned the battle into a single combat. Cyrus killed his brother's horse, and wounded him on the ground; but he immediately mounted another horse, when Cyrus attacked him again, gave him a second wound, and had already lifted up his hand to give him a third, when the guards, perceiving the danger in which their king was, discharged their arrows at once against his antagonist, who at the same time throwing himself headlong upon his brother, was pierced through by his javelin. He fell dead upon the spot; and all the chief lords of his court, resolving not to survive him, were slain in the same place.

In the mean time, the Greeks having defeated the enemy's left wing commanded by Tissaphernes, and the king's right wing having put to flight Cyrus's left, both parties, being ignorant of what had passed elsewhere, imagined that they had gained the victory. But Tissaphernes acquainting the king that his men had been put to flight by the Greeks, he immediately rallied his troops, in order to attack them. The Greeks, under the command of Clearchus, easily repulsed them, and pursued them to the foot of the neighbouring hills. As night was drawing near, they halted at the foot of the hill, much surprised that neither Cyrus himself, nor any messenger from him, had appeared; for as yet they knew nothing of his death nor the defeat of the rest of the army. They determined therefore to return to their camp, which they did accordingly; but found there that the greatest part of their baggage had been plundered, and all their provisions taken, which obliged them to pass the night in the camp without any sort of refreshment. The next morning, as they were still expecting to hear from Cyrus, they received the news of his death, and the defeat of that part of the army. Whereupon they sent deputies to Ariaces, who was commander in chief of all the other forces of Cyrus, offering him, as conquerors, the crown of Persia. Ariaces rejected the offer, and acquainting them that he intended to set out early in the morning on his return to Ionia, advised them to join him in the night. They followed his advice, and, under the conduct of Clearchus, began their march. march, arriving at his camp about midnight, whence they set out on their return to Greece. They were at a vast distance from their own country, in the very heart of the Persian empire, surrounded by a victorious and numerous army, and had no means of retreat but by forcing their way through an immense tract of the enemy's country. But their valour and resolution mastered all these difficulties; and, in spite of a powerful army, which pursued and harassed them all the way, they made good their retreat for 2325 miles through the provinces belonging to the enemy, and got safe to the Greek cities on the Euxine sea. This retreat (the longest that was ever made through an enemy's country) was conducted at first by Clearchus; but he being cut off through the treachery of Tissaphernes, Xenophon was chosen in his room, who at last brought his men safe into Greece: but for a full account of that famous retreat, see the article XENOPHON.

The war with Cyrus was scarcely ended, when another broke out with the Lacedemonians, on the following account. Tissaphernes being appointed to succeed Cyrus in all his power, to which was added all which he himself possessed formerly, began to oppress the Greek cities in Asia in a most cruel manner. On this they sent ambassadors to Sparta, desiring the assistance of that powerful republic. The Spartans having ended their long war with the Athenians, willingly laid hold of the present opportunity of breaking again with the Persians, and therefore sent against them an army under the command of Thimbro, who, being strengthened by the forces which returned under Xenophon, took the field against Tissaphernes. But Thimbro being soon recalled upon some complaints, Dercyllidas, a brave officer and experienced engineer, was appointed to succeed him; and he carried on the war to much more advantage than his predecessor. On his arrival in Asia, finding that Tissaphernes was at variance with another governor named PHARNABAZUS, he concluded a truce with the former, and marching against Pharnabazus, drove him quite out of Æolis, and took several cities in other parts. The latter, however, immediately repaired to the Persian court, where he made loud complaints against Tissaphernes, but gave the king a most salutary advice, which was to equip a powerful fleet, and give the command of it to Conon the Athenian, the best sea officer of his time, by which means he would obstruct the passage of further recruits from Greece; and thus soon put an end to the power of the Lacedemonians in Asia. This advice being approved of, the king ordered 500 talents for the equipment of a fleet, with directions to give Conon the command of it.

In the mean time, Dercyllidas, with all his valour and skill, suffered himself to be drawn into such a disadvantageous situation that he must inevitably have been destroyed with his whole army, had it not been through the cowardice of Tissaphernes, who having experienced the Grecian valour at the battle of Cunaxa, could not by any means be induced to attack them. The Lacedemonians, however, having heard that the Persian monarch was fitting out a great fleet against them, resolved to push on the war as vigorously as possible; and for this purpose sent over Agesilaus one of their kings, and a most experienced commander, into Asia. This expedition was carried on with such secrecy, that Agesilaus arrived at Ephesus before the Persians had the least notice of his designs. Here he took the field with 10,000 foot and 4000 horse, and falling upon the enemy while they were totally unprepared, carried every thing before him. Tissaphernes deceived him into a truce till he had leisure to assemble his forces, but gained little by his treachery; for Agesilaus deceived him in his turn, and while Tissaphernes marched his troops into Caria, the Greeks invaded and plundered Phrygia.

Early in the spring, Agesilaus gave out that his design was to invade Lydia; but Tissaphernes, who remembered the last year's stratagem, now taking it for granted that Agesilaus would really invade Caria, made his troops again march to the defence of that province. But Agesilaus now led his army into Lydia as he had given out, and approached Sardis; upon which Tissaphernes recalled his forces from their former route, with a design to relieve the place. But Caria being a very mountainous country, and unfit for horse, he had marched thither only with the foot, and left the horse behind on the borders of that province. Whence, on their marching back to the relief of Sardis, the horse being some days' march before the foot, Agesilaus took the advantage of so favourable an opportunity, and fell upon them before the foot could come to their assistance. The Persians were routed at the very first onset; after which Agesilaus overran the whole country, enriching both himself and his army with the spoils of the conquered Persians.

By this continued ill fortune Artaxerxes was so much provoked against Tissaphernes, that he soon after caused him to be put to death.

On the death of Tissaphernes, Tithraustes, who was appointed to succeed him, sent large presents to Agesilaus, in hopes of persuading him to abandon his conquests; but finding that commander was not by any means to be induced to relinquish the war, he sent Timaocrates of Rhodes into Greece, with large sums of money to corrupt the leading men in the cities, and rekindle a war against the Lacedemonians. This stratagem produced the intended effect; for the cities of Athens, Thebes, Argos, Corinth, and others, entering into a league or confederacy, obliged them to recall Agesilaus to the defence of his own country.

After the departure of Agesilaus, which happened Lacedemonians in the year 354 B.C., the Lacedemonian power received a severe blow at Cnidus, where their fleet was entirely defeated by that of Artaxerxes under Conon, 50 of their ships being taken in the engagement; after which, Conon and Pharnabazus being masters of the sea, sailed round the islands and coasts of Asia, taking the cities there which had been reduced by the Lacedemonians. Sestos and Abydos only held out, and resisted the utmost efforts of the enemy, though they had been besieged both by sea and land.

Next year Conon having assembled a powerful fleet, again took Pharnabazus on board, and reduced the island of Meles, from whence he made a descent on the coasts of Lycaonia, pillaging all the maritime provinces, and loading his fleet with an immense booty. After this, Conon obtained leave of him to repair to Athens with 80 ships and 50 talents, in order to rebuild the walls of that city; having first convinced Pharnabazus. Pharnabazus, that nothing could more effectually contribute to the weakening of the power of Sparta than putting Athens again in a condition to rival its power. He no sooner arrived at Piraeus the port of Athens, but he began to work; which, as he had a great number of hands, and was seconded by the zeal of all those that were well inclined to the Athenians, was soon completed, and the city not only restored to its former splendour, but rendered more formidable than ever. The Lacedaemonians were now reduced to the necessity of accepting such terms of peace as they could procure. The terms were, that all the Greek cities in Asia should be subject to the king of Persia, as also the islands of Cyprus and Clazomenæ; that the islands of Scyros, Lemnos, and Imbros, should be restored to the Athenians, and all the cities of Greece, whether small or great, should be declared free; and by the same treaty, Artaxerxes engaged to join those who accepted the terms he proposed, and to assist them to the utmost of his power against such as should reject them.

Artaxerxes, being now disengaged from the Grecian war, turned his arms against Evagoras king of Cyprus. This man was descended from the ancient kings of Salamis, the capital city of the island of Cyprus. His ancestors had held that city for many ages in quality of sovereigns; but were at last driven out by the Persians, who, making themselves masters of the whole island, reduced it to a Persian province. Evagoras, however, being a man of an enterprising genius, soon became weary of living in subjection to a foreign power, drove out the Persian governor, and recovered his paternal kingdom. Artaxerxes attempted to drive him out of it; but, being diverted by the Greek war, was obliged to put off the enterprise. However, Conon, by means of Ctesias chief physician to Artaxerxes, got all differences accommodated, and Artaxerxes promised not to molest him in the possession of his small kingdom. But Evagoras soon becoming discontented with such a narrow possession, gradually reduced under his subjection almost the whole of the island. Some, however, there were, who held out against him, and these immediately applied to Artaxerxes for assistance; and he, as soon as the war with Greece was at an end, bent all his force against Evagoras, intending to drive him quite out of the island. The Athenians, however, notwithstanding the favours lately conferred upon them by the king of Persia, could not forbear assisting their old ally in such a dreadful emergency. Accordingly, they sent him ten men of war under the command of Philocrates; but the Lacedaemonian fleet, commanded by Talentias brother to Agesilaus, falling in with them near the isle of Rhodes, surrounded them, so that not one ship could escape. The Athenians, determined to assist Evagoras at all events, sent Chabrias with another fleet and a considerable body of land forces; and with the assistance of these he quickly reduced the whole island. But in a short time, the Athenians being obliged, in consequence of the treaty concluded with the Persians, to recall Chabrias, Artaxerxes attacked the island with an army of 300,000 men, and a fleet of 300 ships. Evagoras applied to the Egyptians, Libyans, Arabians, Tyrians, and other nations, from whom he received supplies both of men and money; and fitted out a fleet, with which he ventured an engagement with that of Artaxerxes. But being defeated, and obliged to shut himself up in Salamis, he was closely besieged by sea and land. Here at last he was obliged to capitulate, and abandon to the Persians the whole of the island except Salamis, which he held as a king tributary to Artaxerxes.

The Cyprian war being ended, Artaxerxes turned his arms against the Cadusians, whose country lay between the Euxine and Caspian seas. But these nations were too well accustomed to war to be overcome by the Persians; and therefore the king was obliged to abandon the project, after having lost a great number of his Cadusian troops and all the horses which he took out with him, and Egyptian. In his Egyptian expedition, which happened immediately after the Cadusian war, he was attended with little better success; which, however, was owing to the bad conduct of his general Pharnabazus. This commander being entrusted with the management of the Egyptian war, sent an ambassador to Athens, complaining that Chabrias had engaged in the service of an enemy of the king of Persia, with whom the state of Athens was in alliance, and threatening the republic with his master's resentment if proper satisfaction was not given; at the same time he demanded Iphicrates, another Athenian, and the best general of his time, to command the Greek mercenaries in the Persian service. This the Athenians complied with; and Iphicrates having mustered his troops, so exercised them in all the arts of war, that they became afterwards very famous among the Greeks, under the name of Iphicretian soldiers. Indeed he had sufficient time to instruct them; for the Persians were so slow in their preparations, that two whole years elapsed before they were ready to take the field. At the same time Artaxerxes, that he might draw the more mercenaries out of Greece, sent ambassadors to the different states in it, declaring it to be his will and pleasure that they should live at peace with each other, on the terms of the treaty lately concluded; which declaration was received with pleasure by all the states except Thebes, who aspired at the sovereignty of Greece; and accordingly refused to conform to it. All things, however, at last being ready for the expedition, the troops were mustered at the city then called Ace, and since Ptolemais; where they were found to consist of 200,000 Persians under the command of Pharnabazus, and 20,000 Greeks led by Iphicrates. The fleet consisted of 300 galleys, besides a vast number of other vessels which followed with provisions. The fleet and army began to move at the same time; and that they might act in concert, they separated as little as possible. It was proposed, that the war should begin with the siege of Pelusium; but Nectanebus, the revolted king of Egypt, had provided so well for the defence of the place, that it was thought expedient to drop the enterprise, and make a descent at one of the mouths of the Nile. In this they succeeded; for the Egyptians not expecting them at that place, had not taken such care to fortify it as at Pelusium. The fortress of consequence was easily taken, and all the Egyptians in it put to the sword. After this, Iphicrates was for embarking the troops without loss of time, and attacking Memphis the capital of Egypt. Had this opinion been followed before the Egyptians recovered from the consternation into which they were thrown, it is highly probable that the whole country might have been reduced at once; but Pharnabazus would undertake nothing before the rest of the forces were come up. Iphicrates then, in the utmost vexation at losing so favourable an opportunity, pressed Pharmabazus to allow him to attack the place with the Greek mercenaries only; but he refused this also, from a mean jealousy of the honour which Iphicrates might acquire; and in the mean time the Egyptians recovered sufficient courage to put themselves in such a posture of defence, that they could not be attacked with any probability of success; and at the same time, the Nile overflowing as usual, obliged them to return to Phoenice. The expedition was again undertaken 12 years after, but without success.

The last years of the reign of Artaxerxes were greatly disturbed by dissensions in his family; which at last broke his heart, and he died in the 94th year of his age, and 46th of his reign. He was succeeded by one of his sons named Ochus, who behaved with such cruelty, that almost one half of his dominions revolted as soon as he came to the throne. But, by reason of the dissensions of the rebels among themselves, all of them were reduced, one after another; and among the rest, the Sidonians, finding themselves betrayed, burnt themselves to the number of 40,000, together with their wives and children.

Ochus, having quelled all the insurgents, immediately set himself about reducing Egypt, and for this purpose procured a reinforcement of other 10,000 mercenaries from Greece. On his march, he lost a great number of his men drowned in the lake Serbonis, which lies between Phoenice and Egypt, extending about 30 miles in length. When the south wind blows, the whole surface of this lake is covered with sand, in such a manner that no one can distinguish it from the firm land. Several parties of Ochus's army were lost in it for want of proper guides; and it is said that whole armies have sometimes perished in the same place. When he arrived in Egypt, he detached three bodies to invade the country in different parts; each being commanded by a Persian and a Greek general. The first was led by Lachares the Thetan, and Rosaces governor of Lydia and Ionia; the second by Nicestratus the Thetan and Aristazanes; the third by Mentor the Rhodian and Bagoas an eunuch. The main body of the army he kept with himself, and encamped near Pelusium, with a design to watch the events of the war there. The event was successful, as we have related under the article Egypt; and Ochus having reduced the whole country, dismantled their strongholds, plundered the temples, and returned to Babylon loaded with booty.

The king, having ended this war with such success, conferred very high rewards on his mercenaries and others who had distinguished themselves. To Mentor the Rhodian he gave 100 talents, and other presents to a great value; appointing him also governor of all the coasts of Asia, and committing to his care the whole management of the war which he was still carrying on against some provinces that had revolted in the beginning of his reign; and all these either by stratagems, or by force, he at last reduced; restoring the king's authority in all these places.—Ochus then, finding himself free from all troubles, gave his attention to nothing but his pleasures, leaving the administration of affairs entirely to Bagoas the eunuch, and to Mentor. These two agreed to share the power between them; in consequence of which the former had the provinces of Upper Asia, and the latter all the rest. Bagoas, being by birth an Egyptian, had a great zeal for the religion of his country, and endeavoured, on the conquest of Egypt, to influence the king in favour of the Egyptian ceremonies; but, in spite of all his endeavours, Ochus not only refused to comply, but killed the sacred bull, the emblem of the Egyptian god Apis, plundered the temples, and carried away their sacred records. This Bagoas supposed to be the highest offence which a human creature could commit; and therefore poisoned his master and benefactor in the 21st year of his reign. Nor did his revenge stop here; for he kept the king's body, causing another to be buried in its stead; and because the king had caused his attendants eat the flesh of Apis, Bagoas cut his body in pieces, and gave it so mangled to be devoured by cats, making handles for swords of his bones. He then placed Arses the youngest of the deceased king's sons on the throne, that he might the more easily preserve the whole power to himself.

Arses did not long enjoy even the shadow of power which Bagoas allowed him, being murdered in the second year of his reign by that treacherous eunuch, who now conferred the crown on Darius Codomannus, a distant relation of the royal family. Neither did he incline to let him enjoy the crown much longer than his predecessor; for, finding that he would not suffer himself to be guided by him in all things, the treacherous Bagoas brought him a poisonous potion; but Darius got rid of him by his own artifice, causing him to drink the poison which he brought. This established Darius in the throne as far as security from internal enemies could do so; but in a very little time his dominions were invaded, and, we may say, the same moment conquered, by Alexander the Great. The particulars of that hero's conquest are related under the article Macedon; we shall therefore here only take notice of the fate of Darius himself, with which the Persian empire concluded for many ages. After the battle of Arbela, which was decisive in favour of Alexander, the latter took and plundered Persepolis, from whence he marched into Media, in order to pursue Darius, who had fled to Ecbatan the capital of that province. This unhappy prince had still an army of 30,000 foot, among whom were 4000 Greeks, who continued faithful to the last. Besides these, he had 4000 slingers and 3000 horse, most of them Bactrians, and commanded by Besus governor of Bactria. When Darius heard that Alexander was marching to Ecbatan, he retired into Bactria, with a design to raise another army; but soon after, changing his mind, he determined to venture a battle with the forces he still had left. On this Besus governor of Bactria, and Nabarzanes a Persian lord of great distinction, formed a conspiracy against him, proposing to seize his person, and, if Alexander pursued them, to gain his friendship and protection by betraying their master into his hands; but if they escaped, their design was to murder him, and usurp the crown. The troops were easily gained over, by representing to them the desperate situation of Darius's affairs; but Darius himself, though informed of their proceedings, and solicited to trust his person among the Greeks, refused to give credit to the report, or follow such a salutary counsel. The consequence of this was, that he was in a few days seized by the traitors; who, out of respect to the own subjects, royal dignity, bound him with golden chains, and shutting him up in a covered cart, fled with him towards Bactria. The cart was covered with skins, and strangers appointed to drive it without knowing who the prisoner was. Bessus was proclaimed commander in chief in the room of Darius by the Bactrian horse; but Artabazus and his sons, with the forces they commanded, and the Greeks, under the command of one Patron, retired from the body of the army under Bessus, and marched over the mountains towards Parthian. In the mean time Alexander arriving at Ecbatana, was informed that Darius had left the place five days before. He then dispatched orders to Clitus, who had fallen sick at Susa, to repair, as soon as he recovered to Ecbatana, and from thence to follow him into Parthia with the cavalry and 6000 Macedonians, who were left in Ecbatana. Alexander himself with the rest of the army pursued Darius; and the 11th day arrived at Rhages, having marched in that space of time 3300 furlongs. Most of those who accompanied him died through the fatigue of so long a march; insomuch that, on his arrival at Rhages, he could scarcely muster 60 horsemen. Finding that he could not come up with Darius, who had already passed the Caspian straits, he staid five days at Rhages, in order to refresh his army and settle the affairs of Media. From thence he marched into Parthia, and encamped at a small distance from the Caspian straits, which he passed the next day without opposition. He had scarcely entered Parthia, when he was informed that Bessus and Nabarzanes had conspired against Darius, and designed to seize him. Hereupon, leaving the main body of the army behind with Craterus, he advanced with a small troop of horse lightly armed; and having marched day and night without ever halting, except for a few hours, he came on the third day to a village where Bessus with his Bactrians had encamped the day before. Here he understood that Darius had been seized by the traitors; that Bessus had caused him to be shut up in a close cart, which he had sent before, that he might be the more sure of his person; and that the whole army except Artabazus and the Greeks, who had taken another route, obeyed Bessus. Alexander therefore taking with him a small body of light-armed horse, for the others could not possibly proceed further, at last came in sight of the barbarians, who were marching in great confusion. His unexpected appearance struck them, though far superior in number, with such terror, that they immediately betook themselves to flight; and because Darius refused to follow them, Bessus and those who were about him discharged their darts at the unfortunate prince, leaving him wallowing in his blood. After this they all fled different ways, and were pursued with great slaughter by the Macedonians. In the meantime the horses that drew the cart in which Darius was, stopped of their own accord (for the drivers had been killed by Bessus), near a village about four furlongs from the highway. Thither Polystratus a Macedonian, being pressed with thirst in the pursuit of the enemy, was directed by the inhabitants to a fountain to refresh himself, not far from the place where they stopped. As he was filling his helmet with water, he heard the groans of a dying man; and looking round him, discovered a cart with a team of horses, unable to move by reason of the many wounds they had received. When he drew near, he perceived Darius lying in the cart, and very near his end, having several darts sticking in his body. However, he had strength enough left to call for some water, which Polystratus readily brought him. Darius, after drinking, turned to the Macedonian, and with a faint voice told him, that, in the deplorable state to which he was reduced, it was no small comfort to him that his last words would not be lost: he then charged him to return his hearty thanks to Alexander for the kindness he had shown to his wife and family, and to acquaint him, that, with his last breath, he besought the gods to prosper him in all his undertakings, and make him sole monarch of the universe. He added, that it did not so much concern him as Alexander to pursue and bring to condign punishment those traitors who had treated their lawful sovereign with such cruelty, that being the common cause of all crowned heads. Then, taking Polystratus by the hand, "Give Alexander your hand," says he, "as I give you mine, and carry him, in my name, the only pledge I am able to give, in this condition, of my gratitude and affection." Having uttered these words, he expired in the arms of Polystratus. Alexander coming up a few minutes after, bewailed his death, and caused his body to be interred with the highest honours. The traitor Bessus being at last reduced to extreme difficulties, was delivered up by his own men naked and bound into the hands of the Macedonians; on which Alexander gave him up to Oxathres the brother of Darius, to suffer what punishment he should think proper. Plutarch tells us that he was executed in the following manner: Several trees being by main force bent down to the ground, and one of the traitor's limbs tied to each of them, the trees, as they were suffered to return to their natural position, flew back with such violence, that each carried with it the limb that was tied to it.

Thus ended the empire of Persia, 259 years after it had been founded by Cyrus. After the death of Alexander the Persian dominions became subject to Seleucus Nicator, and continued subject to him for 62 years, when the Parthians revolted, and conquered the greatest part of them. To the Parthians they continued subject for 475 years; when the sovereignty was again restored to the Persians, as related under the article PARTHIA.

The restorer of the Persian monarchy was Artaxerxes, or Artaxares, who was not only a private person, but of spurious birth. However, he possessed great abilities, by which means he executed his ambitious projects. He was no sooner seated on the throne than he took the pompous title of king of kings, and formed a design of restoring the empire to its ancient glory. He therefore gave notice to the Roman governors of the provinces bordering on his dominions, that he had a just right, as the successor of Cyrus, to all the Lesser Asia; which he therefore commanded them immediately to quit, as well as the provinces on the frontiers of the ancient Parthian kingdom, which were already his. The consequence of this was a war with Alexander Severus the Roman emperor. Concerning the event of this war there are very different accounts. It is certain, however, that on account of his exploits against Artaxares, Alexander took the titles of Parthicus and Pericus; though, it would seem, with no great great reason, as the Persian monarch lost none of his dominions, and his successors were equally ready with himself to invade the Roman territories.

Artaxares dying after a reign of 12 or 15 years, was succeeded by his son Sapor; a prince of great abilities both of body and mind, but fierce, haughty, untractable, and cruel. He was no sooner seated on the throne than he began a new war with the Romans. In the beginning he was unsuccessful; being obliged, by the young emperor Gordian, to withdraw from the Roman dominions, and was even invaded in his turn; but, in a short time, Gordian being murdered by Philip, the new emperor made peace with him upon terms very advantageous to the Persians. He was no sooner gone than Sapor renewed his incursions, and made such alarming progress, that the emperor Valerian, at the age of 75, marched against him in person with a numerous army. An engagement ensued, in which the Romans were defeated, and Valerian taken prisoner. Sapor pursued his advantages with such insolence of cruelty, that the people of the provinces took arms, first under Callistus a Roman general, and then under Odenatus prince of Palmyrene. Thus they not only protected themselves from the insults of the Persians, but even gained many great victories over them, and drove Sapor with disgrace into his own dominions. In his march he is said to have made use of the bodies of his unfortunate prisoners to fill up the hollow roads, and to facilitate the passage of his carriages over such rivers as lay in his way. On his return to Persia, he was solicited by the kings of the Cadusians, Armenians, Bactrians, and other nations, to set Valerian at liberty; but to no purpose. On the contrary, he used him the worse; treated him daily with indignities, set his foot upon his neck when he mounted his horse, and, as is affirmed by some, flayed him alive after some years confinement; and caused his skin to be tanned, which he kept as a monument of his victory over the Romans.

This extreme insolence and cruelty was followed by an uninterrupted course of misfortune. Odenatus defeated him in every engagement, and even seemed ready to overthrow his empire; and after him Aurelian took ample vengeance for the captivity of Valerian. Sapor died in the year of Christ 273, after having reigned 31 years; and was succeeded by his son Hormisdas, and he by Varanes I. Concerning both these princes we know nothing more than that the former reigned a year and ten days, and the latter three years; after which he left the crown to Varanes II. who seems to have been so much awed by the power of the Romans, that he durst undertake nothing. The rest of the Persian history, to the overthrow of the empire by the Saracens, affords nothing but an account of their continued invasions of the Roman empire, which more properly belongs to the history of Rome; and to which therefore we refer. The last of the Persian monarchs, the Persian empire of the line of Artaxares, was Isdigertes, or Jezdegerd, as he is called by the Arabian and Persian historians, who was contemporary with Omar the second caliph after Mahomet. He was scarcely seated on the throne, when he found himself attacked by a powerful army of Saracens under the command of one Sad, who invaded the country through Chaldea. The Persian general took all imaginable pains to harass the Arabs on their march; and having an army superior to them in numbers, employed them continually in skirmishes; which were sometimes favourable to him and sometimes otherwise. But Sad, perceiving that this lingering war would destroy his army, determined to hasten forward, and force the enemy to a general engagement. The Persians declined this for a long time; but at length, finding a convenient plain where all their forces might act, they drew up in order of battle, and resolved to wait for the Arabs. Sad having disposed his men in the best order he could, attacked the Persians with the utmost fury. The battle lasted three days and three nights; the Persians retiring continually from one post to another, till at last they were entirely defeated; and thus the capital city, and the greatest part of the dominions of Persia, fell into the hands of the Arabs. The conquerors seized the treasures of the king; which were so vast, that, according to a Mahometan tradition, their prophet gave the Saracen army a miraculous view of those treasures before the engagement, in order to encourage them to fight.

After the loss of this battle, Jezdegerd retired into Chorasan, where he maintained himself as king, having under his subjection two other provinces, named Kerman and Segestan. But after he had reigned in this limited manner for 19 years, one of the governors of the few towns he had left betrayed it, and called in the Turks. This place was called Merow, seated on the river Gibon or Oxus. Jezdegerd immediately marched against the rebels and their allies. The Persians were defeated; and the unfortunate monarch, having with much difficulty reached the river, found there a little boat, and a fisherman to whom it belonged. The king offered him a bracelet of precious stones; but the fellow, equally brutal and stupid, told him that his fare was five farthings, and that he would neither take more nor less. While they disputed, a party of the rebel horse came up, and knowing Jezdegerd, killed him, in the year 652.

Jezdegerd left behind him a son named Fireuz, and a daughter named Dara. The latter espoused Bostanay, whom the rabbinical writers have dignified with the title of the head of the captivity; and who, in fact, was the prince of the Jews settled in Chaldea. As for Fireuz, he still preserved a little principality; and when he died, left a daughter named Mah Afrid, who married Walid the son of the caliph Abdalmalek, by whom she had a son named Yessid, who became caliph, and consequently sovereign of Persia; and so far was this prince from thinking himself above claiming the title derived from his mother, that he constantly styled himself the son of Khosroo king of Persia, the descendant of the caliph Maroon, and among whose ancestors on the side of the mother were the Roman emperor and the khagan.

Persia continued to be subject to the Arabs till the State of decline of the Saracen empire, when it was seized by various usurpers, till the time of Jenghis Khan, who conquered it as well as almost all the rest of Asia. After his death, which happened in the year 1227, Persia, together with the neighbouring countries, were governed by officers appointed by his successors, who reigned at Kerakorum, in the eastern parts of Tartary, till the year 1253, when it became once more the seat of a mighty empire under Hulaku the Mogul, who in 1256 abolished the caliphate, by taking the city of Bagdad, as related under that article. After the death of Hu- laku, his son Abaka succeeded to his extensive dominions; and his first care was to shut up all the avenues of his empire against the other princes of the race of Jenghiz Khan, who reigned in different parts of Tartary. His precautions, however, were of little avail; for in the very beginning of his reign he was invaded by Barkan Khan, of the race of Jagatay the son of Jenghiz Khan, from Great Bukharia, with an army of 300,000 men. Abaka was but indifferently prepared to oppose such a formidable power; but, happily for him, his antagonist died before the armies came to an engagement, upon which the invaders dispersed and returned to Tartary. In the year 1264, Armenia and Anatolia were ravaged by the Mamlukes from Egypt, but they were obliged to fly from Abaka; who thus seemed to be established in the possession of an empire almost as extensive as that of the ancient Persian kings. His tranquillity, however, was of short duration; for, in 1268, his dominions were invaded by Borak Khan, a prince likewise of the race of Jagatay, with an army of 100,000 men. He quickly reduced the province of Chorasan, where he met with little opposition, and in 1269 advanced as far as Aderbijan, where Abaka had the bulk of his forces. A bloody battle ensued; in which Abaka was victorious, and Borak obliged to fly into Tartary, with the loss of all his baggage and great part of his army. Abaka died in 1282, after a reign of 17 years, not without suspicion of being poisoned; and was succeeded by his brother Ahmed Khan. He was the first of the family of Jenghiz Khan who embraced Mahometanism; but neither he nor his successors appear to have been in the least versed in the arts of government; for the Persian history, from this period, becomes only an account of insurrections, murders, rebellions, and poisonings, till the year 1335, when it split all to pieces, and was possessed by a great number of petty princes; all of whom were at perpetual war with each other till the time of Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, who once more reduced them all under one jurisdiction.

After the death of Tamerlane, Persia continued to be governed by his son Shah Rukh, a wise and valiant prince; but immediately after his death fell into the same confusion as before; being held by a great number of petty tyrants, till the beginning of the 16th century, when it was conquered by Shah Ismael Safi, or Sefi; of whose family we have the following account. His father was Sheykh Hayder or Haydr, the son of Sultan Juneyd, the son of Sheykh Ibrahim, the son of Sheykh Ali, the son of Sheykh Musa, the son of Sheykh Sefi, who was the 13th in a direct line from Ali the son-in-law of the prophet Mahomet. When Tamerlane returned from the defeat of Bajazet the Turkish sultan, he carried with him a great number of captives out of Caramania and Anatolia, all of whom he intended to put to death on some remarkable occasion; and with this resolution he entered Ardebil, or Ardevil, a city of Aderbijan, about 25 miles to the east of Taursus, where he continued for some days. At this time lived in that city the Sheykh Safi, or Sefi, above mentioned, reputed by the inhabitants to be a saint, and, as such, much reverenced by them. The fame of Safi's sanctity so much moved Tamerlane, that he paid him frequent visits; and when he was about to depart, promised to grant whatever favour he should ask. Sheykh Safi, who had been informed of Tamerlane's design to put the captives to death, requested of the conqueror that he would spare the lives of those unfortunate men. Tamerlane, desirous of obliging him, not only granted this request, but delivered them up to him to be disposed of as he thought fit; upon which the Sheykh furnished them with clothes and other necessaries as well as he could, and sent them home to their respective countries. This generous action proved very beneficial to the family; for the people were so much affected with such an extraordinary instance of virtue, that they repaired in great numbers to Safi, bringing with them considerable presents; and this so frequently, that few days passed in which he was not visited by many. Thus the descendants of the Sheykh made a conspicuous figure till the year 1486, when they were all destroyed by the Turcomans except Ismael, who fled to Ghilan, where he lived under the protection of the king of that country; after which he became conspicuous on the following occasion.

There was at that time, among the Mahometans, a vast number of people dispersed over Asia; and among these a particular party who followed that of Haydr the father of Ismael, which Sheykh Safi, one of his ancestors, had brought into great reputation. Ismael, who had assumed the surname of Safi, or Sefi, finding that Persia was all in confusion, and hearing that there was a great number of the Hayderian sect in Caramania, removed thither. There he collected 7000 of his party all devoted to the interest of his family; and while he was yet only 14 years of age, conquered Shirwan. After this he pursued his conquests; and as his antagonists never united to oppose him, had conquered the greatest part of Persia, and reduced the city of Baghdad, by the year 1510. However, his conquests on the west side were soon stopped by the Turks; for, in 1511, he received a great defeat from Selim I. who took Tauris; and would probably have crushed the empire of Ismael in its infancy, had he not thought the conquest of Egypt more important than that of Persia. After his defeat by Selim, Ismael never undertook any thing of consequence. He died in 1523, leaving the crown to his eldest son Thamasp I.

The new shah was a man of very limited abilities, and was therefore invaded by the Turks almost instantly on his accession to the throne. However, they were obliged to retreat by an inundation, which overflowed their camp, and which frightened them with its red colour, probably arising from the nature of the soil over which it passed. Thamasp, however, reduced Georgia to a province of the Persian empire; that country being in his time divided among a number of petty princes, who, by reason of their divisions, were able to make little opposition.

The reigns of the succeeding princes afford nothing remarkable till the time of Shah Abbas I. surnamed the Shah Abbas Great. He ascended the throne in the year 1588; and has the first care was to recover from the Turks and Tartars Great the large provinces they had seized which formerly belonged to the Persian empire. He began with declaring war against the latter, who had seized the finest part of Chorasan. Accordingly, having raised a powerful army, he entered that province, where he was met by Abdallah Khan the chief of the Ustek Tartars. The two armies lay in sight of each other for six months; but at length Abbas attacked and defeated his enemies, forcing them, for that time, to abandon Chorasan. Here he continued for three years; and on his leaving that place, fixed the seat of government at Isfahan, where it has continued ever since. His next expedition was against the Turks. Understanding that the garrison of Tauris was in no expectation of an enemy, he formed a design of surprising the place; and having privately assembled a few forces, he marched with such celerity, that he reached a pass called Shibli very near Tauris, in six days, though it is usually 18 or 20 days' journey for the caravans. Here the Turks had posted a few soldiers, rather for the purpose of collecting the customs on such commodities as were brought that way, than of defending the pass against an enemy. Before they came in sight of this pass, Abbas and some of his officers left the rest of the army, and rode briskly up to the turnpike. Here the secretary of the custom house taking them for merchants, demanded the usual duties. Abbas replied, that the person who had the purse was behind, but at the same time ordered some money to be given him. But while the secretary was counting it, he was suddenly stabbed by the Shah's order; and the officers who were with him suddenly falling upon the few soldiers who were there, obliged them to submit; after which he entered the pass with his army. The governor of Tauris marched out with all the troops he could collect on so short a warning; but being inferior to the Persians, he was utterly defeated, and himself taken prisoner; after which the city was obliged to submit, as also a number of places in the neighbourhood. One city only called Orum, being very strongly situated, resisted all the efforts of Abbas; but was at last taken by the assistance of the Curds, whom he gained over by promising to share the plunder of the place with them. But instead of this, he formed a design to cut them all off at once; fearing that they might at another time do the Turks a service of the same nature that they had done to him just now. For this reason he invited their chiefs to dine with him; and having brought them to a tent, the entrance to which had several turnings, he stationed on the inside two executioners, who cut off the heads of the guests as soon as they entered.

After this Shah Abbas considerably enlarged his dominions, and repelled two dangerous invasions of the Turks. He attempted also to promote commerce, and civilize his subjects; but stained all his great actions, by his abominable cruelties, which he practised on every one who gave him the least cause of offence; nay frequently without any cause at all. He took the isle of Ormus from the Portuguese, who had kept it since 1507, by the assistance of some English ships in 1622; and died six years after, aged 70.

The princes who succeeded Shah Abbas the Great, were remarkable only for their cruelties and debaucheries, which occasioned a revolution in 1716, when the Shah Hussein was dethroned by the Afghans, a people inhabiting the country between Persia and India; who being oppressed by the ministers, revolted under the conduct of one Merweis. The princes of the Afghan race continued to enjoy the sovereignty for no more than 16 years, when Ashraf the reigning shah was dethroned by one of his officers. On this Thamasp, otherwise called Prince Thamas, the only survivor of the family of Abbas, assembling an army, invited into Persia his service Nadir Khan, who had obtained great reputation for his valour and conduct. He was the son of a Persian nobleman, on the frontiers of Usbeck Tartary; and his uncle, who was his guardian, keeping him out of possession of the castle and estate which was his inheritance, he took to robbing the caravans; and, having increased his followers to upwards of 5000 men, became the terror of that part of the country, and especially of his uncle, who had seized his estate. His uncle therefore resolved to make his peace with him, and with that view invited him to the castle, where he entertained him in a splendid manner; but Nadir Khan ordered his throat to be cut next night, and all his people to be turned out of the castle. No sooner had Nadir Khan got the command of the Persian army, than he attacked and defeated the usurper Esriff, put him to death, and recovered all the places the Turks and Russians had made themselves masters of during the rebellion; and then Prince Thamas seemed to be established on the throne; but Nadir Khan, to whom Thamas had given the name of Thamas Kouli Khan, that is, the Slave of Thamas, thinking his services not sufficiently rewarded, and pretending that the king had a design against his life, or at least to set him aside, conspired against his sovereign, and put him to death, as is supposed; after which, he usurped the throne, styling himself Shah Nadir or King Nadir.

He afterwards laid siege to Candahar, of which a son of Merweis had possessed himself. During this siege, the court of the Great Mogul being distracted with factions, one of the parties invited Shah Nadir to come to their assistance, and betrayed the Mogul into his hands. He thereupon marched to Delhi, the capital of India, and summoned all the viceroys and governors of provinces to attend him, and bring with them all the treasures they could raise; and those that did not bring as much as he expected, he tortured and put to death. Having thus amassed the greatest treasure that ever prince was master of, he returned to Persia, giving the Mogul his liberty, on condition of his resigning the provinces on the west side of the Indus to the crown of Persia. He afterwards made a conquest of Usbeck Tartary, and plundered Bochara the capital city. Then he marched against the Daghestan Tartars; but lost great part of his army in their mountains, without fighting. He defeated the Turks in several engagements; but laying siege to Bagdad, was twice compelled to raise the siege. He proceeded to change the religion of Persia to that of Omar, hanged up the chief priests, put his own son to death, and was guilty of such cruelty, that he was at length assassinated by his own relations, anno 1747. A contest upon this ensued between these relations for the crown, which has rendered Persia a scene of the most horrible confusion for upwards of 40 years.

The reader will form some notion of the troubles of Different this unhappy country from the following series of pre-pretender tenders to the throne between the death of Nadir and the accession of Kerim Khan. We give it from Franck-Persia's Observations: 1st, Adil Shah.—2d, Ibraheim Shah.—3d, Shah Rokh Shah.—4th, Suleeman Shah.—5th, Ismael Shah.—6th, Azan Khan Afghan.—7th, Hosson Khan Kejar.—8th, Ali Merdan Khan Bukhteari.—9th, Kerim Khan Zund. Their reigns, or more properly the length of time they respectively governed with their party, were as follows: Adil Shah, nine months; Hiraheem Shah, six months; Shah Rokh Shah, after a variety of revolutions, at length regained the city of Meshed; he is now alive (1787), and above 80 years of age, reigning in Chorasan, under the direction of his son Nussir Ullah Meerza. Suleeman Shah, and Ismael Shah, in about forty days were both cut off, almost as soon as they were elevated. Azad Khan Afghan, one of Kerim Khan's most formidable rivals and competitors, was subdued by him, brought prisoner to Shiraz, and died there a natural death. Hossein Khan Kejar, another of Kerim Khan's competitors, was besieging Shiraz, when his army suddenly mutinied and deserted him. The mutiny was attributed to their want of pay. A party sent by Kerim Khan took him prisoner. His head was instantly cut off, and presented to Kerim Khan. His family were brought captives to Shiraz. They were well treated, and had their liberty given them soon after, under an obligation not to quit the city. Ali Merdan Khan was killed by a musket shot as he was walking on the ramparts of Meshed encouraging his men. Kerim Khan Zund, by birth a Curdistan, was a most favourite officer of Nadir Shah, and at the time of his death was in the southern provinces. Shiraz and other places had declared for him. He found means at last, after various encounters with doubtful success, completely to subdue all his rivals, and finally to establish himself as ruler of all Persia. He was in power about 30 years; the latter part of which he governed Persia under the appellation of vakeel or regent, for he never would receive the title of Shah. He made Shiraz the chief city of his residence, in gratitude for the assistance he had received from its inhabitants and those of the southern provinces. He died in the year 1779, regretted by all his subjects, who esteemed and honoured him as the glory of Persia.

When the death of Kerim Khan was announced in the city, much confusion arose; two and twenty of the principal officers of the army, men of high rank and family, took possession of the ark, or citadel, with a resolution to acknowledge Abul Futtah Khan (the eldest son of the late vakeel) as their sovereign, and to defend him against all other pretenders; whereupon Zikea Khan, a relation of the late vakeel by the mother's side, who was possessed of immense wealth, enlisted a great part of the army into his pay, by giving them very considerable bounties. Zikea Khan was of the tribe of Zund (or the Lackeries); a man remarkably proud, cruel, and unrelenting. Having assembled a large body of troops, he immediately marched them to the citadel, and laid close siege to it for the space of three days; at the expiration of which, finding he could not take it by force, he had recourse to treachery. To each of the principal khans he sent a written paper, by which he swore upon the Koran, that if they would come out and submit to him, not a hair of their heads should be touched, and that they should have their effects secured to them. Upon this a consultation was held by them; and it appearing that they could not subsist many days longer, they agreed to surrender themselves, firmly relying on the promises that had been made them. Zikea Khan, in the mean time, gave private orders, for the khans to be seized, and brought separately before him as they came out of the citadel. His orders were strictly obeyed, and these deluded men were all massacred in his presence; he was seated the whole time, feasting his eyes on the cruel spectacle.

Zikea Khan's tyranny became soon intolerable, and murdered he was cut off by his own body guard, when Abul Futtah Khan, who was at the time in the camp, was proclaimed king by the unanimous voice of the troops, whom he immediately led back to Shiraz. On his arrival he was acknowledged as sovereign by all ranks of people, and took quiet possession of the government.

Mahomed Sadick Khan, only brother of the late Mahomed Kerim Khan, who had during that prince's life filled the high office of beglerbeg of Fars, and had been appointed guardian of his son Abul Futtah Khan, was at this period governor of the city of Bassora, which had been taken by the Persians, previous to the vakeel's death. Upon hearing the news of his brother's decease he became ambitious of reigning alone, and from that instant formed schemes for the destruction of his nephew; but as it was necessary for him to be on the spot for the advancement of his views, he determined to withdraw the Persian garrison from Bassora, who were all devoted to his interest; accordingly he evacuated that place, and marched immediately for Shiraz.

The news of Sadick Khan's approach threw the inhabitants of Shiraz into the greatest consternation; their minds were variously agitated on the occasion; some, from his known public character, expected he would honestly fulfil the commands of his deceased brother; others, who had been witnesses to the confusion of former times, on similar occasions, rightly imagined that he would set up for himself; and indeed this proved to be the case: for having entered Shiraz a very few days after, he caused Abul Futtah Khan to be seized, deprived of sight, and put into close confinement.

After this event, Sadick Khan openly assumed the government. As soon as the intelligence reached Ali effects Murad Khan, who was at Ispahan, that lord instantly rebelled: deeming himself to have an equal right to the government with Sadick Khan, as in fact he had, he could ill brook the thought of being obedient to him, and openly declared himself a competitor for the empire. Persia was by this means again involved in all the horrors of a civil war. Ali Murad Khan indeed took possession of Shiraz, assumed the government, and gave to the empire the flattering prospect of being settled under the government of one man; but this prospect was soon obscured by the power and credit acquired by Akau Mahomed Khan.

On the night following Kerim Khan's death, this Akau Manman found means to make his escape from Shiraz, and joined the northward, where collecting some troops, he Khan collected soon made himself master of Mazanderan and Gilan, and is proclaimed nearly about the time that Ali Murad Khan had taken Shiraz. "It is remarkable (says Mazanderan our author), that from his first entering into competition for the government, he has been successful in every battle which he has fought. He is an eunuch, having been made so whilst an infant, by the command of Nadir Shah, but possesses great personal bravery."

Ali Murad Khan, hearing of the success of Akau Mahomed Khan, determined to go against him; but as he was previously proceeding to Ispahan to suppress a rebellion, he fell suddenly from his horse and expired on the spot.

"At this period, Jaafar Khan, the eldest and only surviving son of Sadick Khan, was governor of Khani; he deemed this a favourable opportunity to assert his pretensions to the government, and immediately marched with what few troops he had to Ispahan: soon after his arrival he was joined by the greater part of the malcontents, who were then in arms. In this situation he remained some time; but Akau Mahomed Khan coming down upon him with his army, he was obliged to risk his fate in a battle, and, being defeated, fled with the small remains of his troops, taking the road to Shirauz. Soon after finding himself strengthened by an increase of his army, he determined to venture a second engagement with his opponent Akau Mahomed Khan; and for this purpose marched with his army towards Ispahan: the two armies met near Yezdekhast, when a battle ensued, and Akau Mahomed Khan's superior fortune again prevailing, Jaafar Khan was defeated, and retired to Shirauz, which he quitted on the 25th of June 1787, and shortly after marched his army to the northward, but returned in October without having effected anything." Such was the state of Persia in 1788.

Mr Francklin, from whose excellent Observations on a Tour made in the years 1786-7 these particulars are mostly extracted, says that Jaafar Khan is the most likely, in case of success against his opponent, to restore the country to a happy and reputable state; but it will require a long space of time to recover it from the calamities into which the different revolutions have brought it:—a country, if an oriental metaphor may be allowed, once blooming as the garden of Eden, fair and flourishing to the eye;—now, sad reverse! despoiled and leafless by the cruel ravages of war, and desolating contention."

As to the air and climate of this country, considering the great extent thereof, it cannot but be very different, according to the situation of its several parts; some being frozen with cold, whilst others are burnt with heat at the same time of the year. The air, wherever it is cold, is dry; but where it is extremely hot, it is sometimes moist. All along the coast of the Persian gulf, from west to east, to the very mouth of the river Indus, the heat for four months is so excessive, that even those who are born in the country, unable to bear it, are forced to quit their houses, and retire to the mountains; so that such as travel in these parts, at that season, find none in the villages, but wretched poor creatures, left there to watch the effects of the rich, at the expense of their own health. The extreme heat of the air, as it is unsupportable, so it makes it prodigiously unwholesome; strangers frequently falling sick there, and seldom escaping. The eastern provinces of Persia, from the river Indus to the borders of Tartary, are subject to great heats, though not quite so unwholesome as on the coasts of the Indian ocean and the Persian gulf; but in the northern provinces, on the coast of the Caspian sea, the heat is full as great, and, though attended with moisture, as unwholesome as on the coast before mentioned. From October to May, there is no country in the world more pleasant than this; but the people carry indelible marks of the malign influence of their summers, Persia looking all of them of a faint yellow, and having neither strength nor spirits; though, about the end of April, they abandon their houses, and retire to the mountains, which are 25 or 30 leagues from the sea. But this moistness in the air is only in these parts; the rest of Persia enjoys a dry air, the sky being perfectly serene, and hardly so much as a cloud seen to fly therein. Though it seldom rains, it does not follow that the heat admits of no mitigation: for in the night, notwithstanding there is not a cloud to be seen, and the sky is so clear, that the stars alone afford a light sufficient to travel by, a brisk wind springs up, which lasts until within an hour of the morning, and gives such a coolness to the air, that a man can bear a tolerable warm garment. The seasons in general, and particularly in the middle of this kingdom, happen thus: the winter, beginning in November, and lasting until March, is very sharp and rude, attended with frost and snow; which last descends in great flakes on the mountains, but never on the plains. The climate of Shirauz, the capital of Persia Proper, is represented by a traveller who lately visited it, as one of the most agreeable in the world, the extremes of heat and cold being seldom felt.

"During the spring of the year the face of the country appears uncommonly beautiful. The flowers, of which they have a great variety, and of the brightest hues, the fragrant herbs, shrubs, and plants, the rose, the sweet basil, and the myrtle, all here contribute to refresh and perfume the natural mildness of the air. The nightingale of the garden (called by the Persians boolbad hazzan), the goldfinch, and the linnet, by their melodious warblings at this delightful season of the year, serve to add to the satisfaction of the mind, and to inspire it with the most pleasing ideas. The beauties of nature are here depicted in their fullest extent; the natural historian and the botanist would here meet with ample scope for pursuing their favourite investigations. With such advantages, added to the salubrity of the air, how can it be wondered at that the inhabitants of Shirauz should so confidently assert the pre-eminence of their own city to any other in the world?—or that such beauties should fail of calling forth the poetical exertions of a Hahiz, a Sadi, or a Jami? The mornings and evenings are cool, but the middle of the day is very pleasant. In summer the thermometer seldom rises above 73 in the daytime, and at night it generally sinks as low as 62. The autumn is the worst season of the year, that being the time when the rains begin to fall, and during the autumnal mouths it is considered by the natives as the most unhealthy; colds, fluxes, and fevers being very general. In winter a vast deal of snow falls, and very thick, but ice is rarely to be found, except on the summits of the mountains, or towards Ispahan, and the more northern parts of Persia. One thing which is most to be esteemed in this country, and renders it preferable to any other part of the world, is their nights, which are always clear and bright: and the dew, that in most places is of so pernicious and dangerous a nature, is not of the least ill consequence here: there is none at all in summer, and in the other seasons it is of such a nature, that if the brightest scimitar should be exposed to it all the night, it would not receive the least rust; a circumstance I have myself experienced. This dryness in the air causes their buildings to last a great while, and is undoubtedly undoubtedly one of the principal reasons that the celebrated ruins of Persepolis have endured for so many ages, and, comparatively speaking, in so perfect a state. The great dryness of the air exempts Persia from thunder and earthquakes. In the spring, indeed, there sometimes falls hail; and, as the harvest is then pretty far advanced, it does a great deal of mischief. The rainbow is seldom seen in this country, because there rise not vapours sufficient to form it; but in the night there are seen rays of light shooting through the firmament, and followed as it were by a train of smoke. The winds, however brisk, seldom swell into storms or tempests; but, on the other hand, they are sometimes poisonous and infectious on the shore of the Gulf, as all travellers agree. M. Tavernier says, that at Gombroon people often find themselves struck by a south wind, in such a manner, that they cry, "I burn!" and immediately fall down dead. M. le Brun tells us, that he was assured while he was there, that the weather was sometimes so excessively sultry as to melt the seals of letters. At this time the people go into their shirts, and are continually sprinkled with cold water; and some even lie several hours naked in the water. Among the inconveniences consequent from this malign disposition of the air, one of the most terrible is the engendering, in the arms and legs, a kind of long small worms, which cannot be extracted without great danger of breaking them; upon which a mortification ensues.

The soil of Persia is in general stony, sandy, barren, and everywhere so dry, that, if it be not watered, it produces nothing, not even grass; but, where they can turn the water into their plains or valleys, it is not unfruitful. There is a great difference in point of fertility in the different provinces of the empire; and those of Media, Iberia, Hyrcania, and Bactria, are now in a great measure what they were formerly, and surpass most of the others in their productions. All along the Persian gulf, the soil is still more barren, cattle less plenty, and every thing in a worse condition than anywhere else.

Though there is scarcely a province in Persia which does not produce wine, yet the wine of some provinces is much more esteemed than that of others; but Schiras, or, as it is written by Mr Franklin, Shiraz, wine is universally allowed to be the very best in Persia; insomuch, that it is a common proverb there, That to live happily, one must eat the bread of Yezd, and drink the wine of Schiras.

The grain most common in Persia is wheat; which is wonderfully fair and clean. As for barley, rice, and millet, they only make bread of them in some places, as in Courdestan, when their wheat bread is exhausted before the return of harvest. They do not cultivate in this country either oats or rye; except where the Armenians are settled, who make great use of the latter in Lent. Rice is the universal aliment of all sorts of people in Persia; for this reason they are extremely careful in its cultivation; for, after they have sown it in the same manner as other grain, they in three months time transplant it, root by root, into fields, which are well watered, otherwise it would never attain that perfection in which we find it there; since it is softer, sooner boiled, and more delicious, than the same grain in any other part of the world. Perhaps its taste is, in some measure, heightened by a practice which they follow to give it a glossy whiteness, viz. by cleansing it, after it is beaten out of the husks, with a mixture of flour and salt. Corn ripens exceedingly in this country; so that in some parts they have a threefold crop in the year. The Persian bread is generally very thin, white, and good; and commonly cheap enough.

Metals of all sorts have been found in Persia. Since the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, iron, copper, and lead, have been very common; but there are no gold or silver mines open at present; though, as Persia is a very mountainous country, such might very probably be found, if pains were taken to search them out. There are silver mines in Kerman and Mazanderan, and one not far from Spaubawn; but they cannot be worked for want of wood. Minerals are also found in Persia in abundance; especially sulphur, saltpetre, salt, and alum. Nothing is more common in this country than to meet with plants, sometimes 10 leagues in length, covered entirely with salt, and others with sulphur or alum. In some places salt is dug out of mines, and even used in building houses. Marble, freestone, and slate are found in great plenty about Hamadan. The marble is of four colours, viz. white, black, red and black, and white and black. Persia yields two sorts of petroleum or naphtha; namely, black and white. In the neighbourhood of Tauris they find azure; but it is not so good as that brought from Tartary. Among the most valuable productions of Persia are the precious stones called turquoises, of which there are several rocks or mines.

The horses of Persia are the most beautiful of the East, though they are not so much esteemed as those of Arabia; so great, however, is the demand for them, that the finest ones will fetch from 90l. to 450l. sterling. They are higher than the English saddle horses; straight before, with a small head, legs wonderfully slender, and finely proportioned; they are mighty gentle, good travellers, very light and sprightly, and do good service till they are 18 or 20 years old. The great numbers of them sold into Turkey and the Indies, though none can be carried out of the kingdom without special license from the king, is what makes them so dear. Next to horses we may reckon mules, which are much esteemed here, and are very fine; and next to these we may justly place asses, of which they have in this country two sorts; the first bred in Persia, heavy and dolish, as asses in other countries are; the other originally of an Arabian breed, the most docile and useful creature of its kind in the world. They are used wholly for the saddle; being remarkable for their easy manner of going, and are very sure-footed, carrying their heads lofty, and moving gracefully. Some of them are valued at 20l. sterling. The mules here are also very fine; they pace well, never fall, and are seldom tired. The highest price of a mule is about 45l. sterling. Camels are also numerous in Persia, and very serviceable; they call them kechty-kroecht-konion, i.e. "the ships of the land;" because the inland trade is carried on by them as the foreign is by ships. Of these camels there are two sorts, the northern and southern; the latter, which is much the smaller, but swifter, will carry a load of about 700 weight, and trot as fast as a horse will gallop; the other will travel with a load of 1200 or 1300 weight; both are profitable to their masters, as costing little or nothing to keep. They travel without halter or reins; grazing on the road from time to time, notwithstanding their load. They are managed entirely by the voice; those who direct them making use of a kind of song, and the camel moving brisker, or at its ordinary pace, as they keep a quicker or slower time. The camels shed their hair so clean in the spring, that they look like scalded swine; but then they are pitched over, to keep the flies from stinging them. The camel's hair is the most profitable fleece of all the tame beasts: fine stuffs are made of it; and in Europe, hats, with a mixture of a little beaver.

As beef is little eaten in Persia, their oxen are generally employed in ploughing, and other sorts of labour. Hogs are nowhere bred in Persia, if we except a province or two on the borders of the Caspian sea. Sheep and deer are very common throughout all Persia.

Of wild beasts, the number is not great in that country, because there are few forests; but where there are any, as in Hyrcania, now called Tabristan, abundance of lions, bears, tygers, leopards, porcupines, wild boars, and wolves are to be found; but the last are not so numerous as any of the other species.

There are but few insects in this country; which may be ascribed to the dryness of the climate. In some provinces, however, there is an infinite number of locusts or grasshoppers, which fly about in such clouds as to darken the air. In certain parts of the Persian dominions they have large black scorpions, so venomous, that such as are stung by them die in a few hours. In others they have lizards frightfully ugly, which are an ell long, and as thick as a large toad, their skins being as hard and tough as that of the sea-dog; they are said to attack and kill men sometimes; but that may be doubted. The southern provinces are infested with gnats; some with long legs, like those we call midges; and some white, and as small as fleas, which make no buzzing, but sting suddenly, and so smartly that the sting is like the prick of a needle. Among the reptiles is a long square worm, called by the inhabitants kozar-pcy, i.e., "thousand feet," because its whole body is covered with feet; it runs prodigiously fast; and its bite is dangerous, and even mortal if it gets into the ear.

There are in Persia all the several sorts of fowls which we have in Europe, but not in such great plenty; excepting, however, wild and tame pigeons, of which vast numbers are kept all over the kingdom, chiefly on account of their dung; which is the best manure for melons. It is a great diversion among the lower sort of people in town or country to catch pigeons, though it be forbidden; for this purpose they have pigeons so taught, that flying in one flock, they surround such wild ones as they find in the field, and bring them back with them to their masters. The partridges of this country are the largest and finest in the world, being generally of the size of our fowls. Geese, ducks, cranes, herons, and many other sorts of water fowl, are common here; as are likewise nightingales, which are heard all the year, but chiefly in the spring; martlets, which learn whatever words are taught them; and a bird called soura, which chatters incessantly, and repeats whatever it hears. Of birds of a larger size, the most remarkable is the pelican, by the Persians called tacab, i.e., "water-carrier;" and also misc, i.e., "sheep," because it is as large as one of these animals. In Persia various birds of prey. Some of their falcons are the largest and finest in the world; the people take great pains to teach them to fly at game; the Persian lords being great lovers of falconry, and the king having generally 800 of this sort of birds, each of which has a person to attend it.

There is perhaps no country in the world which, generally speaking, is more mountainous than Persia; rivers, and but many of them yield neither springs nor metals, and but few of them are shaded with trees. It is true some of the chief of them are situated on the frontiers, and serve as a kind of natural ramparts, or bulwarks, to this vast empire. Among the latter are the mountains of Caucasus and Ararat, sometimes called the mountains of Daghestan, which fill all the space between the Euxine and Caspian seas: those called Taurus, and the several branches thereof, run through Persia from Natolia to India, and fill all the middle of the country.

As to rivers, except the Araxes, which rises in the mountains of Armenia, and falls into the Kur or Cyrus before it reaches the Caspian sea, there is not one navigable stream in this country. The Oxus divides Persia on the north-east from Usbeck Tartary. The Indus also may now be reckoned among the rivers of Persia, as the provinces lying to the west of that river are now in possession of that crown: this river is said to run a course of more than 1000 miles, and overflows all the low grounds in April, May, and June.

The seas on the south of Persia are, the gulf of Persia or Bassora, the gulf of Ormus, and the Indian ocean. The only sea on the north is the Caspian or Hyrcanian sea, which is more properly a lake, having no communication with any other sea. These seas, together with the lakes and rivers, supply Persia with plenty of fish. The Caspian sea contains very fine fish on one side; and the Persian gulf on the other is believed to have more fish than any other sea in the world. On the coasts of this gulf is taken a sort of fish, for which they have no particular name; its flesh is of a red colour, very delicious, and some of them weigh 200 or 300 pounds. The river fish are chiefly barbels; but far from being good. Those of the lakes are carps and shads. In the river at Spaahawn are a great number of crabs, which crawl up the trees, and live night and day under the leaves, whence they are taken; and are esteemed very delicious food.

In his voyage from Gombroon up the Persian gulf, Mr Ives makes mention of several islands, named Kisme, in the Persian gulf; these were quite barren; on others there were a few trees and bushes, with little fishing towns, and a few small vessels lying along shore. The date trees were thinly scattered among the hills; but though a small portion of green might here and there be discovered, yet such was the barrenness of these islands in general, that it was for some time a matter of surprise how sheep and goats could possibly subsist upon them. On closer examination, however, it was found, that the soil produced a kind of small leaved juicy mallows, on which these animals principally feed. The Persian coast, as they sailed along, afforded a most romantic prospect, appearing at first to be one continued rock, rent and torn asunder. Narban Point terminates in a long and low piece of land, which runs off into the gulf from the foot of the Persian hills. Between this point and the main land is a channel, in which a ship of 900 tons burden might easily ride. The Portuguese had formerly a settlement here, the remains of which are still to be seen. A large river empties itself into the sea at this place; and Mr Ives observes, that "Providence seems here to have allotted a spot of ground amidst inhospitable rocks and deserts, capable of affording the kind production of vegetables for man and beast." The adjacent country is subject to the Arabs.

Through all the Persian gulf, Mr Ives remarks that the spring water on the islands is much better than that on the continent; and the water nearest the sea on the islands has greatly the advantage over that which is found in the middle parts. This holds good, however, only in those parts which are near the sea; for about 12 miles up the country, both on the Persian and Arabian side of the gulf, the water is very good. At the island called Barcen or Balaren, divers go down to the bottom of the sea, at certain known depths, and come up again with their vessels filled with fresh water. This fresh water is found in holes or little natural wells, some fathoms below the surface of the sea. The Arabs have certain marks on the island to teach them where to dive for the fresh water. Mr Ives was assured by an Arabian merchant, that he himself had discovered a spring upon the shore, by which one of these wells is served. He put into this spring a bit of heavy stick; and in two or three days an Arabian diver brought it to him again from the bottom of one of these holes.

The English and other nations, trade with the Persians several ways, particularly by the gulf of Ormus at Gombroon, and by the way of Turkey. A trade also was not many years since opened by the English with Persia through Russia and the Caspian sea; but that is now discontinued, having been prohibited by the court of Russia, who were apprehensive that the English would teach the Persians to build ships, and dispute the navigation of the Caspian sea with them. The principal commodities and manufactures of Persia are raw and wrought silks, mohair camblets, carpets, leather; for which, and some others, the European merchants exchange chiefly woollen manufactures; but the trade is carried on altogether in European shipping, the Persians have scarce any ships of their own, and the Russians the sole navigation of the Caspian sea. There is not a richer or more profitable trade in the world, than that which is carried on between Gombroon and Surat in the East Indies; and the English East India Company frequently let out their ships to transport the merchandise of the Banians and Armenians from Persia to India. The shah or sovereign of Persia, is the chief merchant; and he usually employs his Armenian subjects to traffic for him in every part of the world. The king's agents must have the refusal of all merchandise, before his subjects are permitted to trade. It is computed that Persia produces yearly upwards of 22,000 bales of silk, chiefly in the provinces of Ghilan and Mazandaran, each bale weighing 263 pounds. Vast quantities of Persian silk used to be imported into Europe, especially by the Dutch, English, and Russians, before the civil wars began. The goods exported from Persia to India are tobacco, all sorts of fruits, pickled and preserved, especially dates, marmalade, wines, distilled waters, horses, Persian feathers, and Turkey leather of all sorts and colours, a great quantity whereof is also exported to Muscovy and other European countries. The exports to Turkey are, tobacco, galls, thread, goats hair, stuffs, mats, box-work, and many other things. As there are no posts in the east, and trading by commission with the use of bills of exchange, is little known, traffic most proceed in a very awkward heavy manner, in comparison of that of Europe.

The most current money of Persia are the abassées, worth about 1s. 4d. sterling; they are of the finest silver. An abassée is worth two malmoudes; a malmoude, two shabees; and a shabee, ten single or five double casbeghes; these last pieces are of brass, the others of silver; for gold is not current in trade. The shabees are not very common; but malmoudes and casbeghes are current everywhere. Horses, camels, houses, &c. are generally sold by the toman, which is an imaginary coin, worth 200 shabees, or 50 abassées; and they usually reckon their estates that way. Such a one, they say, is worth so many tomans, as we say pounds in England.

Persia is an absolute monarchy, the lives and estates of the people being entirely at the disposal of their prince. The king has no council established, but is advised by such ministers as are most in favour; and the resolutions taken among the women of the haram frequently defeat the best laid designs. The crown is hereditary, excluding only the females. The sons of a daughter are allowed to inherit. The laws of Persia exclude the blind from the throne; which is the reason that the reigning prince usually orders the eyes of all the males of the royal family, of whom he has any jealousy, to be put out. The king has generally a great many wives, which it would be death for any one besides the eunuchs, who have the superintendance of them, to look at, or even see by accident; wherefore, when he travels, notice is given to all men to quit the road, nay their very houses, and to retire to a great distance.

The prime minister is called attarnact doulét, which signifies the director of the empire, and also visir azem, or the great supporter of the empire; as he alone almost sustains the whole weight of the administration. This minister's chief study is to please his master, to secure to himself an ascendant over his mind, and to avoid whatever may give him any uneasiness or umbrage. With this view, he never fails to flatter him, to extol him above all the princes upon earth, and to throw a thick veil over every thing that might help to open his eyes, or discover to him the weakness of the state. He even takes particular care to keep the king in utter ignorance; to hide from him, or at least to soften, all unwelcome news; and, above all, to exalt immediately every the least advantage he obtains over his enemies. As he takes these methods, which indeed are and must be taken, more or less, by the ministers of every despotic prince, to secure the favour and confidence of his master; so the inferior officers and governors of provinces are obliged to employ all the means in their power to secure the prime minister's, they depending no less upon him than he does upon the king. There is a gradation of despotism and slavery, down from the prime minister to the lowest retainer to the court, or dependent on the government. Children are sometimes in Persia required by the king to cut off the ears and nose, and even to cut the throats of their parents; and these orders cannot be objected to, without endangering their own lives. Indeed their baseness and mercenariness are such, that they will perpetrate such atrocious deeds without the least scruple or difficulty, when they have a promise or expectation of possessing their posts. The prime ministers, notwithstanding the precarious footing on which they stand, in effect of their abilities or good fortune, sometimes continue in their employments during life, or, if removed are only banished to some city, where they are allowed to spend the remainder of their days in a private station.

Next to the prime minister are the nadir, or grand-master of the household; the mehter, or groom of the chambers, who is always a white eunuch; the mirakbor bashe, or master of the horse; the mir-shikar bashe, or great huntsman and falconer; the divanbegi, or chief justice, to whom there lies an appeal from the degora, or lieutenant of police, in every town; the vacka noviez, or recorder of events, or first secretary of state; the muslan-she-elmeneleck, or master of the accounts and finances of the kingdom; the numes humberhashe, or the king's chief physician; the shickada-fibashe, or inspector of the palace, and regulator of rank at court; and the khans, or governors of provinces, under whom are other governors, called sultans, appointed also by the king.

Civil matters are all determined by the cazi, and ecclesiastical ones (particularly divorces) by the sheick-el-selleum, or head of the faith; an officer answering to the muti among the Turks; under him are the sheick-el-selom, and cadis, who decide in all matters of religion, and make all contracts, testaments, and other public deeds, being appointed by the king in all the principal towns; and next to these are the pichnams, or directors of the prayers; and the moullahs, or doctors of the law.

Justice is carried on in Persia in a very summary manner; the sentence, whatever it may be, being always put into execution on the spot. Theft is generally punished with the loss of nose and ears; robbing on the road, by ripping up the belly of the criminal, in which situation he is exposed upon a gibbet in one of the most public parts of the city, and there left until he expires in torment.

There is no nobility in Persia, or any respect shown to a man on account of his family, except to those who are of the blood of their great prophet or patriarchs; but every man is esteemed according to the post he possesses; and when he is dismissed, he loses his honour, and he is no longer distinguished from the vulgar.

With respect to the forces of Persia, their two bodies, called the Kortshies and Goulans, that serve on horseback, are well kept and paid, and may amount, the former to about 22,000, and the latter to about 18,000. The Kortshies are descended from an ancient but foreign race; and the Goulans are either Georgian renegadoes or slaves, or the children of slaves of all nations. The infantry, called Tangtchies, are picked out from among the most robust and vigorous of the peasants, and compose a body of 40,000 or 50,000. The Persians have few fortified towns, and had no ships of war, till Kouli Khan built a royal navy, and among them had a man of war of 80 guns; but since the death of that usurper, we hear no more of their fleet.

The arms of the king of Persia are a lion couchant, looking at the sun as he rises over his back. His usual title is Shau or Pashau, the "disposer of kingdoms." They add also to the king's titles those of sultan, and chan or chom, which is the title of the Tartar sovereigns. To acts of state the Persian monarch does not subscribe his name; but the grant runs in this manner, viz. This act, or edict, is given by him whom the universe obeys.

The ancient Persians are known to have been exceedingly voluptuous and effeminate. After the conquest of &c., the empire by Alexander, the Greek discipline and martial spirit being in part communicated to them, they became much more formidable; and hence the Parthians were found to be a match not only for the Syro-Macedonian princes, but even for the Romans. Of their manners we know little or nothing, but that to their valour and military skill they joined in a surprising degree all the luxury and dissipation of the ancient Persians.

The modern Persians, like the Turks, plundering all the adjacent nations for beauties to breed by, are men of a good stature, shape, and complexion; but the Gaures, or ancient Persians, are homely, ill-shaped, and clumsy, with a rough skin, and olive complexions. In some provinces, not only the complexions but the constitutions of the inhabitants, suffer greatly by the extreme heat and unwholesomeness of the air. The Persian women, too, are generally handsome and well-shaped, but much inferior to those of Georgia and Circassia. The men wear large turbans on their heads, some of them very rich, interwoven with gold and silver; a vest, girt with a sash; and over it a loose garment, something shorter; with sandals, or slippers, on their feet. When they ride, which they do every day, if it be but to a house in the same town, they wear plant boots of yellow leather; the furniture of their horses is extremely rich, and the stirrups generally of silver: whether on horseback or on foot, they wear a broadsword and a dagger in their sash. The dress of the women does not differ much from that of the men; only their vests are longer, and they wear stiffened caps on their heads, and their hair down.

With respect to outward behaviour, says an intelligent traveller, "The Persians are certainly the Parisians of the East. Whilst a rude and insolent demeanour peculiarly marks the character of the Turkish nation towards foreigners and Christians, the behaviour of the Persians would, on the contrary, do honour to the most civilized nations: they are kind, courteous, civil, and obliging, to all strangers, without being guided by those religious prejudices so very prevalent in every other Mahometan nation; they are fond of inquiring after the manners and customs of Europe, and in return very readily afford any information in respect to their own country. The practice of hospitality is with them so grand a point, that a man thinks himself highly honoured if you will enter his house and partake of what the family affords; whereas, going out of a house without smoking a calecan, or taking any other refreshment, is deemed in Persia a high affront."

Their usual drink is water and sherbet, as in other Mahometan countries, wine being prohibited; but of all Mahometan nations they pay the least regard to this prohibition. Many of them drink wine publicly, and almost most all of them in private (excepting those who have performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, and ecclesiastics): they also are very liable to be quarrelsome when intoxicated, which is often attended with fatal consequences. They eat opium, but in much less quantities than the Turks; and indeed in every thing they say or do, eat or drink, they make a point to be as different from this nation as possible, whom they detest to a man, beyond measure; esteeming Jews and Christians superior to them, and much nearer to salvation.

Every one knows, that the religion of the Persians is Mahometan; and that they are of the sect of Ali, for whom they entertain the most extravagant veneration. Mr Franklin heard one of his guides on the road reprove another for the expression O God! O Ali! "No, no" (said his zealous companion), Ali first, God second!" This attachment is the source of their hatred to the Turks, and of many strange customs among themselves, which we have not room to enumerate; a few, however, must be mentioned.

Their mode of living is as follows: They always rise at daybreak, in order to perform their devotions. Their first prayer is denominated namaz saubh, or the morning prayer; it is said before sunrise, after which they eat a slight meal called makhta, or breakfast; this consists of grapes, or any other fruits of the season, with a little bread and cheese made of goats milk; they afterwards drink a cup of very strong coffee without milk or sugar; then the calean or pipe is introduced. The Persians, from the highest to the lowest ranks, all smoke tobacco.

Their second hour of prayer is called namaz zohur, or mid-day prayer, and is always repeated when the sun declines from the meridian. Their dinner, or chasht, which is soon after this prayer, consists of curds, bread, and fruits of various kinds; animal food not being usual at this meal.

The third hour of prayer is called namaz asur, or the afternoon prayer, said about four o'clock.

The fourth hour of prayer is namaz sham, or evening prayer, which is said after sunset; when this is finished, the Persians eat their principal meal, called shami or supper. This generally consists of a pilau, dressed with rich meat sauces, and highly seasoned with various spices; sometimes they eat kibab or roast meat. When the meal is ready, a servant brings notice thereof, and at the same time presents a ewer and water; they then wash their hands, which is an invariable custom with the Persians both before and after eating. They eat very quickly, conveying their food to their mouths with their fingers; the use of knives and forks being unknown in Persia. Sherbets of different sorts are introduced, and the meal concludes with a desert of delicious fruits. The supper being finished, the family sit in a circle, and entertain each other by relating pleasant stories (of which they are excessively fond), and also by repeating passages from the works of their most favourite poets, and amusing themselves at various kinds of games. The fifth and last prayer is styled namaz akhir, the last prayer; or sometimes namaz shebd, or the night prayer, repeated about an hour after supper."

The most remarkable law among the Persians respects remarriage. A man may divorce his wife when he chooses, without assigning any other reason for the divorce than that it is his pleasure. If he should change his mind, he may again marry her, divorce her a second time, and a third time marry her; but here this privilege stops. No man is allowed to marry the woman whom he has thrice divorced. A widow is obliged to mourn four months for her deceased husband before she can be married to another; but a concubine may form a new connection the instant that her keeper expires.

At the naming of children in Persia, Mr Franklin informs us that the following ceremony is observed: Naming

"The third or fourth day after the child is born, the friends and relations of the woman who has lain-in assemble at her house, attended by music and dancing girls hired for the occasion; after playing and dancing some time, a mullah or priest is introduced, who, taking the child in his arms, demands of the mother what name she chooses the infant should be called by; being told, he begins praying, and after a short time applies his mouth close to the child's ear, and tells him distinctly three times (calling him by name) to remember and be obedient to his father and mother, to venerate his Koran and his prophet, to abstain from those things which are unlawful, and to practise those things which are good and virtuous. Having repeated the Mahometan profession of faith, he then redelivers the child to his mother; after which the company are entertained with sweetmeats and other refreshments, a part of which the females present always take care to carry away in their pockets, believing it to be the infallible means of their having offspring themselves."

The Persians excel more in poetry than any other sort of literature; and astrologers are now in as great reputation in Persia as the magi were formerly. Their books are all manuscripts, the art of printing having not yet been introduced among them: they excel indeed in writing, and have eight different hands. They write from the right hand to the left, as the Arabs do. In their short-hand, they use the letters of the alphabet; and the same letters differently pointed, will have 20 different significations. In short, the Persians are born with as good natural parts as any people in the East, but make a bad use of them; being great dissemblers, cheats, liars, and flatterers, and having a strong propensity to voluptuousness, luxury, idleness, and indolence; vices indeed to which the Asiatics in general are much addicted. See PERSIA, SUPPLEMENT.