crime of self-murder, or the person who commits it.

We have often wished to see a history of crimes drawn up by a man of ability and research. In this history we would propose that the author should describe the crimes peculiar to different nations in the different stages of society, and the changes which they undergo in the progress of civilization. After having arranged the historical facts, he might, by comparing them with the religion and the knowledge of the people, deduce some important general conclusions, which would lead to a discovery of the cause of crimes, and of the remedy most proper to be applied. Some crimes are peculiar to certain stages of society, some to certain nations, &c.

Suicide is one of those crimes which we are led to believe not common among savage nations. The first instances recorded of it in the Jewish history are those of Saul and Ahitophel; for we do not think the death of Samson a proper example. We have not reason to suppose that it became common among the Jews till their wars with the Romans, when multitudes slaughtered themselves that they might not fall alive into the hands of their enemies. But at this period the Jews were a most desperate and abandoned race of men, had corrupted the religion of their fathers, and rejected that pure system which their promised Messiah came to Jerusalem to announce.

When it became remarkable among the Greeks, we have not been able to discover; but it was forbidden by Pythagoras, as we learn from Athenæus, by Socrates and Aristotle, and by the Theban and Athenian laws. In the earliest ages of the Roman republic it was seldom committed; but when luxury and the Epicurean and Stoical philosophy had corrupted the simplicity and virtue of the Roman character; then they began to seek shelter in suicide from their misfortunes or the effects of their own vices.

The religious principles of the bramins of India led them to admire suicide on particular occasions as honourable. Accustomed to abstinence, mortification, and the contempt of death, they considered it as a mark of weakness of mind to submit to the infirmities of old age. We are informed that the modern Gentooos, who still in most things conform to the customs of their ancestors, when old and infirm, are frequently brought to the banks of rivers, particularly to those of the Ganges, that they may die in its sacred streams, which they believe can wash away the guilt of their sins. But the maxims of the bramins, which have encouraged this practice, we are assured by Mr Holwell, are a corruption of the Sutism's doctrines of the Shastah, which positively forbid suicide under the severest punishment. The practice which Holwell's religion or affection has established among the Gentooos, Interesting for women at the death of their husbands to burn themselves alive on the funeral pile, we do not think ought to be considered as suicide, as we are not anxious to extend the meaning of the word; for were we to extend it thus far, it would be as proper to apply it to those who choose rather to die in battle than make their escape at the expense of their honour. Thus we should condemn as suicides the brave Spartans who died at Thermopylae in defence of their country; we should also be obliged to apply the same disgraceful epithet to all those well-meaning but weak-minded Christians in this island, who in the last century chose rather to die as martyrs than comply with commands which were not morally wrong. According to the Gentoo laws, "it is proper for a woman after her husband's death to burn herself in the fire with his corpse. Every woman who thus burns shall remain in paradise with her husband three crore and fifty lacks of years. If she cannot, she must in that case preserve an inviolable chastity. If she remain chaste, she goes to paradise; and if she do not preserve her chastity, she goes to hell."

A custom similar to this prevailed among many nations on the continent of America. When a chief died, Americans a certain number of his wives, of his favourites, and of his slaves, were put to death, and interred together with him, that he might appear with the same dignity in his future station, and be waited upon by the same attendants. This persuasion is so deeply rooted, that many of their retainers offer themselves as victims; and the same custom prevails in many of the negro nations in Africa.

If we can believe the historians of Japan, voluntary death is common in that empire. The devotees of the nese, and idol Amida drown themselves in his presence, attended by their relations and friends, and several of the priests, who all consider the devoted person as a saint who is Hist of the gone to everlasting happiness. Such being the supposed East and honours appropriated to a voluntary death, it is not surprising that the Japanese anxiously cherish a contempt of life. Accordingly it is a part of the education of their children "to repeat poems in which the virtues of their ancestors..." ancestors are celebrated, an utter contempt of life is inculcated, and suicide is set up as the most heroic of actions."

A notion seems also to have prevailed among the ancient Scythian tribes, that it was pusillanimous and ignoble for a man whose strength was wasted with disease or infirmity, so as to be useless to the community, to continue to live. It was reckoned an heroic action voluntarily to seek that death which he had not the good fortune to meet in the field of battle. Perversion of moral feeling does not spring up, we hope, spontaneously in any nation, but is produced by some peculiarities of situation. A wandering people like the Scythians, who roamed about from place to place, might often find it impossible to attend the sick, or to supply from their precarious store the wants of the aged and infirm. The aged and infirm themselves, no longer able to support the character of warriors, would find themselves unhappy. In this way the practice of putting to death such persons as were useless to the community might originate, and afterwards be inculcated as honourable; but he who put an end to his infirmities by his own hand, obtained a character still more illustrious.

The tribes of Scandinavia, which worshipped Odin the "father of slaughter," were taught, that dying in the field of battle was the most glorious event that could befall them. This was a maxim suited to a warlike nation. In order to establish it more firmly in the mind, all were excluded from Odin's feast of heroes who died a natural death. In Asgardia stood the hall of Odin; where, seated on a throne, he received the souls of his departed heroes. This place was called Valhalla, signifying "the hall of those who died by violence." Natural death being thus deemed inglorious, and punished with exclusion from Valhalla the paradise of Odin, he who could not enjoy death in the field of battle was led to seek it by his own hands when sickness or old age began to assail him. In such a nation suicide must have been very common.

As suicide prevailed much in the decline of the Roman empire, when luxury, licentiousness, profligacy, and false philosophy, pervaded the world, so it continued to prevail even after Christianity was established. The Romans, when they became converts to Christianity, did not renounce their ancient prejudices and false opinions, but blended them with the new religion which they embraced. The Gothic nations also, who subverted the Roman empire, while they received the Christian religion, adhered to many of their former opinions and manners. Among other criminal practices which were retained by the Romans and their conquerors, that of suicide was one; but the principles from which it proceeded were explained, so as to appear more agreeable to the new system which they had espoused. It was committed, either to secure from the danger of apostasy, to procure the honour of martyrdom, or to preserve the crown of virginity.

When we descend to modern times, we lament to find so many instances of suicide among the most polished nations, who have the best opportunities of knowing the atrocity of that unnatural crime. The English have long been reproached by foreigners for the frequent commission of it; and the "gloomy month of November" has been stigmatized as the season when it is most common. But this disgraceful imputation, we think, may be justly attributed, not to the greater frequency of the crime in England than in other places, but to the custom of publishing in the newspapers every instance of suicide which is known. Mr Moore, who lately published a full inquiry into this subject, was at great pains to obtain accurate information concerning the perpetration of this crime in different countries. Mercier, who wrote in 1782, says, that the annual number of suicides in Paris was then about 150. He does not tell us how he came by the information; but we have the authority of the Abbé Fontana for asserting, that more persons put an end to their lives in Paris than in London. The Abbé had this information from the lieutenant of the police. Mr Moore was informed by one of the principal magistrates of Geneva, that in that city, which contains about 25,000 inhabitants, the average number of suicides is about eight. The average number of suicides, from what cause soever, for the last 28 years, has been 32 each year for London, Southwark, and Westminster. In Edinburgh, which contains 80,000 inhabitants, we are convinced the average number of suicides does not exceed four. Mr Moore found, from the accounts with which he was favoured by the several coroners of the county of Kent, that for the last 18 years the number has been upwards of 32 each year. Kent is supposed to contain 200,000 inhabitants, and London 800,000. It is easy therefore to see, that in the metropolis many instances of suicide must occur which are never the subject of legal inquiry, and consequently never made known to the world. Whereas in the country towns and villages of Kent it is scarcely possible to conceal such an action as self-murder from the knowledge of the whole neighbourhood. The calculation therefore respecting Kent we may receive as true, while we must increase the average number in London very considerably. Mr Moore computes the average number of suicides in England every year at a thousand; but the principles on which he founds this opinion are so imperfect and vague, that we do not think it can be depended on as coming near the truth.

It might lead to some interesting conclusions to compare together, not only the number of suicides in different countries, but also the rank and principles, the sex and age, of those unhappy persons by whom it has been committed. Mercier says, that at Paris it was the lower ranks who were most commonly guilty of it; that it was mostly committed in garrets or hired lodgings; and that it proceeded from poverty and oppression. A great many, he says, wrote letters to the magistrates before their death. Mr Moore's correspondent from Geneva informed him, that from the year 1777 to 1787 more than 100 suicides were committed in Geneva; that two-thirds of these unfortunate persons were men; that few of the clerical order have been known to commit it; and that it is not so much the end of an immoral, irreligious, dissipated life, as the effect of melancholy and poverty. By the information obtained from the coroners of Kent, it appears, that of the 32, three-fourths have destroyed themselves by hanging; that the proportion of males to females has been about two-thirds of the former; that no one season of the year is more distinguished for this crime than another; and that suicide is upon the increase. Our accounts respecting the city of London are very imperfect; but we think ourselves intitled to conclude, that suicide is more common among the great and wealthy. wealthy than among the lower ranks, and that it is usually the effect of gaming and dissipation.

Those who have inquired into the causes of suicide in Britain have enumerated many physical as well as moral causes. They have ascribed it to the variability of our climate, to the great use of animal food, to strong spirituous liquors, to tea, and to the sulphurous exhalations of the pit coal used as fuel, which are said to produce a depression of spirits and nervous affections. Of our climate, we have no cause to complain, nor have we any reason to impute any of our vices to its influence. There are many climates much more unfavourable where suicide is scarcely known. That an excessive quantity of gross animal food, or of strong liquors, or of tea, will powerfully affect the human constitution, we will not deny; but before we consider these as causes, it must first be determined, whether those who are guilty of self-murder be much addicted to them; and if they are, whether there be not other causes much more violent in their nature which have operated on their minds; for we ought not rashly to attribute vicious effects to any of those things which seem to have been created on purpose for the comfort or convenience of man. We are rather surprised to find that coal is mentioned even as a distant cause of suicide; for it is one of the blessings of our island; and a good coal fire we have always found rather conducive to good spirits than injurious to them.

Among the moral causes which are supposed to cooperate in producing suicide in Britain, the freedom of our constitution and laws is reckoned one. That rational liberty should have any tendency to encourage crimes of any kind, a Christian philosopher can never allow; for such an opinion is totally discountenanced by enlightened views of nature. Mercier has ascribed the frequency of suicide in Paris to the oppression of the late government. Now it appears somewhat extraordinary, that suicide in one country should be occasioned by liberty, and in another by the want of it. One of these opinions must be false, and it is surely not difficult to distinguish which.

Humanity would in most cases dispose us to conclude, that suicide is the effect of insanity; were there not so many instances of cool deliberate self-murder. That suicide is an unnatural crime, which none but a madman would commit, compassion indeed may suppose; but the murder of a wife, a father, or a child, are also unnatural; yet compassion does not teach us in all cases to ascribe such a crime to madness. Passion may often arise to such a height of outrage as to be scarcely distinguishable from madness in its symptoms and its effects; yet we always make a distinction between that madness which arises from disease and that which is owing to a violent perturbation of mind. If a person be capable of managing his worldly affairs, of making a will, and of disposing of his property, immediately before his death, or after he formed the resolution of dying by his own hands, such a man is not to be considered as insane.

But though a regard for truth prevents us from ascribing suicide in all cases to insanity, we must ascribe it either to insanity or to vicious passion. These two divisions, we imagine, will comprehend every species of it, whether arising from melancholy, sedition vita or ennui, disappointment in schemes of ambition or love, pride, gaming, or a desire to avoid the shame of a public execution; passions which are often increased by false views of God, of man, and of a future state, arising from desism and infidelity. If these be the causes of suicide in modern time, what a disgraceful contrast do they form to those principles which actuated many of the ancient philosophers, the Gentoes, the Japanese, and the worshippers of Odin? When they committed suicide, they committed it from principle, from a belief of its lawfulness, and the hope of being rewarded for what they judged an honourable sacrifice. But in modern times, we are sorry to say, when it is not the effect of madness, it is the effect of vice; and when it is the effect of vice, it proves that the vicious passions are then indulged to the highest degree; for there is no crime which a man can commit that is so strong a symptom of the violence of particular passions. It is from not attending to this circumstance, that it has been found so difficult to refute the arguments in favour of suicide. If the criminality of suicide be confined merely to the violent action, many apologies may be made for it; but if it be considered solely as the effect of vice, as the strongest symptom of ungoverned passion, he who undertakes its defence must undertake the defence of what all men will loudly condemn (A).

(A) Several of the heathens entertained a very just sense of the atrocity of suicide. Quintus Curtius introduces Darius with the following speech, when he had lost his empire: "I wait (says the unfortunate monarch) the issue of my fate: you wonder, perhaps, that I do not terminate my own life; but I choose rather to die by the crime of another by my own.

We cannot refuse ourselves the pleasure of presenting to our readers the following beautiful passage upon this subject from Fitzosborne's letters*: "I am persuaded (says this elegant writer) this disgust of life is frequently indulged out of a principle of mere vanity. It is esteemed as a mark of uncommon refinement, and as placing a man above the ordinary level of his species, to seem superior to the vulgar feelings of happiness. True good sense, however, most certainly consists not in despising, but in managing our stock of life to the best advantage, as a cheerful acquiescence in the measures of Providence is one of the strongest symptoms of a well-constituted mind. Self-weariness is a circumstance that ever attends folly; and to condemn our being is the greatest, and indeed the peculiar infirmity of human nature. It is a noble sentiment which Tully puts into the mouth of Cato, in his Treatise upon old Age; Non lubet mihi (says that venerable Roman) deplare vitam, quod multi, et ii docti, sepe fecerunt; neque me vixisse poenitet: quoniam ita visi, ut non frustra me natum existimem.

"It is in the power, indeed, of but a very small portion of mankind to act the same glorious part that afforded such high satisfaction to this distinguished patriot; but the number is yet far more inconsiderable of those who cannot, in any station, secure themselves a sufficient fund of complacency to render life justly valuable. Who is it that is placed out of the reach of the highest of all gratifications, those of the generous affections, and that cannot provide It is unnecessary then to enter particularly into the arguments of those casuists who have undertaken the despicable office of advocates for the crime of suicide. Their talents might surely have been employed more usefully to the world, and more honourably to themselves, than in pleading for a crime, which, if it were committed by every man to whom their principles would make it lawful, would totally destroy some of the noblest virtues, fortitude, patience, and resignation; nay, would destroy society itself, and teach us to despise the opinion that this world is a state of preparation for another. "I came into life without my own consent, and may I not quit it at pleasure?" (say the advocates for suicide). If, because we came into life without our own consent, we might quit it at pleasure, why may we not spend our life also as we please? Why may we not rob and murder, and commit every kind of crime, if mere inclination is to be the rule of action! Thus upon the principles of suicide the highwayman and murderer may reason, and every man may find a sufficient apology for any crime which he is tempted to commit. Or this absurdity may be otherwise answered: As we came into life without our own consent, we must have come with the consent of some other being; and logic says, that with the consent of that Being only can we lawfully quit it.

It is sufficient shortly to say, that suicide is contrary to the strongest principle of the human constitution, self-preservation; that it is rebellion against God; that it is cruelty to the feelings and reputation, and often takes away the subsistence of a wife, a child, or a father; that it proves a want of fortitude to brave misfortunes; that it delivers only from imagined to plunge into real evils. We may add, that almost every instance of suicide of which we have heard was rash, imprudent, and premature, interrupted a useful life, or prevented a more honourable death. Had Cato's pride permitted him to yield himself to the generosity of Caesar, his character and his influence might have contributed to retard the slavery of his country, which his death tended to hasten. Had Brutus and Cassius not executed the fatal resolution which they had formed, of dying by their own hands in case of misfortune, the battle of Philippi might have had a very different issue. Had Hannibal surrendered himself to the Romans, instead of swallowing poison, he would have gained more glory in braving their tortures than he won in the battle of Cannae; for to die innocently and heroically is the greatest exertion of human fortitude.

As suicide was deemed a crime by the most illustrious and virtuous of the Greek and Roman philosophers, it was considered as a crime by the laws, and treated with ignominy. By the law of Thebes suicides were to have no honours paid to their memory. The Athenian law ordained the hand which committed the deed to be cut off, and burnt apart from the rest of the body. The body was not buried with the usual solemnities but was ignominiously thrown into some pit. In Cænus and Massilia (the ancient Marseille), it was considered as a crime against the state; and it was therefore necessary for those who wished to destroy themselves to obtain permission from the magistrates. Plutarch acquaints us, that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized the on the Vir Miletian virgins; from indulging which they could not be prevented by the tears and entreaties of parents and friends: but what persuasion and entreaty could not effect was accomplished by very different means. A decree was issued, "that the body of every young woman who hanged herself should be dragged naked through the streets by the same rope with which she had committed the deed." This wise edict put a complete stop to the extraordinary frenzy, and suicide was no longer committed by the virgins of Miletus.

In the early part of the Roman history there seems to have been seldom occasion for framing any laws against suicide. The only instance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. The soldiers who were appointed to make drains and common sewers, thinking themselves disgraced by such servile offices, put themselves to death in great numbers. The king ordered the bodies of all the self-murderers to be exposed on crosses, and this put an effectual stop to the practice. It is doubtful whether there was any standing law against suicide during the existence of the republic; but during the reign of the emperors it was thought proper to lay it under certain regulations, though not absolutely to condemn it as a crime. In Justinian's Digests there is a law, by which it was enacted, "that if persons accused, or who had been found guilty, of any crime, should make away with themselves, their effects should be confiscated." But this punishment only took place when confiscation of goods happened to be the penalty appointed by the law for the crime of which the self-murderer was accused or found guilty, and was not inflicted for suicide committed in any other circumstances.

When the Christian church had extended its jurisdiction in the Roman empire, it was decreed in the sixth century, that no commemoration should be made in the eucharist for such as destroyed themselves: neither should their

for his own happiness, by contributing something to the welfare of others? As this disease of the mind generally breaks out with the most violence in those who are supposed to be endowed with a greater delicacy of taste and reason than is the usual allotment of their fellow creatures, one may ask them, whether there is any satiety in the pursuits of useful knowledge? or, if one can ever be weary of benefiting mankind? Will not the fine arts supply a lasting feast to the mind? or, can there be wanting a pleasurable enjoyment, so long as there remains even one advantageous truth to be discovered or confirmed? To complain that life has no joys, while there is a single creature whom we can relieve by our bounty, assist by our counsels, or enliven by our presence, is to lament the loss of that which we possess, and is just as rational as to die for thirst with the cup in our hands. But the misfortune is, when a man is settled into a habit of receiving all his pleasures from the mere selfish indulgences, he wears out of his mind the relish of every nobler enjoyment, at the same time that his powers of the sensual kind are growing more languid by each repetition. It is no wonder, therefore, he should fill up the measure of his gratifications long before he has completed the circle of his duration; and either wretchedly sit down the remainder of his days in discontent, or rashly throw them up in despair." their bodies be carried out to burial with psalms, nor have the usual service said over them. This ecclesiastical law continued till the reformation, when it was admitted into the statute code of England by the authority of parliament. As an additional punishment, however, confiscation of land and goods seems to have been adopted from the Danes, as we learn from Bracton. At present the punishment consists in confiscating all the personal property of a felo de se for the use of the crown, and in excluding his body from interment in consecrated ground. The warrant of the coroner requires that the body should be buried in some public highway, and a stake driven through it to increase the ignominy.

To inquire into the prevalence and causes of crimes, in order to discover the most judicious methods of preventing them, is the duty of the Patriot and the Christian. Suicide, we find, is a common and an increasing evil; but it is a difficult matter to find an effectual remedy; for what motives can be held out sufficient to influence that man's mind who is deaf to the voice of nature speaking within him, and to the voice of nature's God declaring that he is stationed at a post which it is his duty to maintain? His reputation and property are indeed within the reach of the laws, his body may be treated with ignominy, and his property confiscated; but this punishment will not be a preventive, even if it could be always inflicted; and that it is seldom inflicted, though the laws have decreed it, is well known. The humanity of the present age disposes us to sympathise with the relations of the deceased, instead of demanding that the sentence of the law should be executed. It is a generally received opinion, and a just one, that punishments decreed by human laws should be directed only against such crimes as are injurious to society; but when it is hence inferred, that suicide ought not to be subject to the cognizance of human laws, every rule of logic is violated. There is no man, however mean in station and in talents, whose life may not, on some occasions, be useful to the community at large; and to conclude, that a person who fancies himself useless may therefore lawfully put a period to his life, is as false reasoning as it would be to conclude, that by killing a poor man, who lives on the public, we should perform an action not only innocent but meritorious, as we should thereby free society from one of its burdens.