or WESTERN ISLANDS. These form a range situate in the Atlantic Ocean, extending in an oblique line from north-west to south-east, between the 37th and 40th degrees of north latitude, and the 25th and 32d degrees of west longitude. It has been a subject of some controversy among geographers, to what quarter of the world they ought to be referred. Originally attached to Africa, they were afterwards, with evident impropriety, transferred to America, and are now more generally viewed as part of Europe; though their connection and general resemblance to the other African groups, rather incline us to adhere to the first arrangement.

It does not appear that the ancients had any knowledge of the Azores, or of any group in this sea, except the Canaries, to which they finally applied the celebrated appellation of the Fortunate Islands. But the Arabian geographers, Edrisi and Ibn al Vardi, describe, after the Canaries, nine other Islands, situate in the Western Ocean. That these were the Azores is rendered highly probable, by considering, that their number is exactly nine; and that mention is made by these writers of the abundance of a species of eagle or hawk, a circumstance which afterwards appeared to the Portuguese so remarkable, that they derived the name of the Islands from it. The climate in which they are placed also makes them north of the Canaries. Some other coincidences might be pointed out, did our limits permit; and, upon the whole, we see no reason to doubt, that the Azores are really the nine Islands enumerated by the Arabs; though two of the number might probably be Madeira and Porto Santo, while the small Islands of Corvo and Flores might remain unnoticed. The Arabian writers represent them to have been populous, and to have contained cities of some magnitude; but state, that the inhabitants had been greatly reduced by intestine warfare.

The first European discovery of this group is claimed by the Flemings. The Portuguese, eagerly bent upon pursuing their career of navigation along the coast of Africa, did not readily turn into any other direction. A Flemish merchant, called Van der Berg, is reported, in sailing from Lisbon, to have been driven upon these shores. The intelligence soon reached the court of Lisbon, where it excited considerable interest. It is even said that Prince Henry went in person to examine the value of this new discovery. The Islands began, in 1459, to be planted and colonized; and in so fertile a soil, the inhabitants rapidly multiplied. In 1466, Alphonzo V. is said to have granted them to his sister the Duchess of Burgundy; though, in that case, they must have soon reverted to the Portuguese crown. In 1580, they fell, with the other Portuguese territories, under the dominion of Spain. The Azores were at this time the grand rendezvous, in the voyage homewards, of the fleets, which came laden with the wealth of both the Indies. Hence they became a theatre of that maritime warfare, which was carried on with such spirit by the English under Queen Elizabeth against the peninsular powers. In 1586, Sir Walter Ralegh equipped two pinnaces of 35 and 40 tons, the command of which he gave to Captain Whiddon. Having taken two or three prizes, they fell in, off St Michael's, with the great fleet of Spanish galleons, consisting of twenty-four sail, two of them caraks of 1000 or 1200 tons. They attacked them, however, without hesitation, hoping to cut off some straggling member of this great body. It will not surprise our readers, that they were unable to make any impression upon it; but they retired without loss. In 1587, Sir Francis Drake, after having swept the harbour of Cadiz, sailed for the Azores, where he took an East India carak, richly laden, and the first that had ever fallen into the hands of the English. In 1589, the Earl of Cumberland fitted out a squadron, sailed for the Azores, and made numerous prizes.

Under the active administration of Pombal, considerable exertions were made for the improvement of the Azores; but the stupid and bigoted government which followed, rather tended to destroy these benefits, and to make the Islands take a retrograde course.

In giving a description of these Islands, we shall begin with St Michael, the largest and most populous, and the one in which the peculiar physical structure of the Azores is exhibited on the greatest scale. St Michael consists generally of a fertile plain, but diversified by an infinite variety of hills and mountains, all bearing evident marks of volcanic action. The centre of the Island contains chiefly small conic hills; but the east and west quarters rise into lofty mountains, with deep valleys and lakes intervening. The face of the country is almost everywhere smiling; the plains are covered with luxuriant crops; vines and oranges grow on the hills; and even the mountains are adorned with myrtles, laurels, and other evergreen shrubs. All appears a paradise; nor could the observer, at first, suspect that this was a spot chosen, as it were, by nature for the display of all her most terrible phenomena. The form of the mountains, however, soon indicates their history. There are few, which, after being moulded by the volcano, have not been rent by the earthquake. In some cases, the chasm is so complete, that a level path has been formed between the severed members. One of the most remarkable appearance of this kind occurs in the Porto do Ilheu, a small Island about a quarter of a mile from the harbour of Villa Franca. Here a volcanic rock, 2000 feet high, has been completely split, exhibiting a chasm 39 feet wide, from the top to seven feet below the surface of the water. It forms thus, for a few small vessels, a harbour, perfectly safe from every vicissitude of the weather.

In the year 1591, there appears to have been a most tremendous earthquake felt all over the Azores, but which shook St Michael for twelve days without intermission. Since that period, there is no record of any such great convulsion, except one in 1757, of which we have no particulars, and it was probably much less formidable; nor are any of its volcanoes at present in a state of action. Hot springs abound in every part of the Island; and from almost every crevice, vapour is seen issuing. But the most remarkable phenomena are the Caldeiras, or boiling fountains, which rise chiefly from a valley called the Furnas, near the western extremity of the Island. The water ascends in columns, to the height of about twelve feet, after which it dissolves in vapour, forming clouds of various shapes and colours. The heat is such as to boil an egg in two minutes; though the sulphureous impregnation unfit it for being employed in such purposes. The ground in the immediate vicinity is entirely covered with native sulphur, like hoar frost. At a small distance is a remarkable phenomenon, called the Muddy Crater, whose vertex, of forty-five feet diameter, is on a level with the plain. Its contents are in a state of violent and continual ebullition, accompanied with a sound resembling the waves of a tempestuous ocean. Yet it never rises above its level, unless occasionally to throw to a small distance a spray of the consistence of melted lead. The Furnas abound also in hot springs; some of which it is impossible to touch without being scalded. There is almost always, however, a cold spring near to the hot one, so that they can be brought to any temperature that may be desired. These springs, after being long neglected, have, within the last half century, been greatly resorted to, and the cures performed in cases of palsy, rheumatism, and similar maladies, are said to be very wonderful.

St Michael is about 50 miles in length, and varies in breadth from 5 to 12 miles. The plains are fertile in wheat, barley, and Indian corn; while vines and oranges grow luxuriantly on the sides of the mountains. They are made to spring even from the interstices of the volcanic rocks, which are sometimes blasted in order that they may receive the plants. Raised in this manner, they are said to be of superior quality; but the great expense originally required in such a mode of cultivation, confines it to persons of some capital. The western part of the Island yields hemp, which might be raised to a considerable extent. There is also a mountain called Pico de fer, which appears to be rich in iron, though no means are at present employed for extracting the ore from it. The exports consist of wine, fruit, and provisions. Foreign intercourse used to be confined rigorously to Lisbon; but since the emigration of the court, the inhabitants have assumed the privilege of trafficking directly with England, America, and other countries. After defraying the expense of its local government, it yields L.28,000 of revenue to the mother country.

The principal town in the Island is Ponta del Gada, which contains about 12,000 inhabitants. It is built with tolerable regularity, the streets being straight and broad; the religious edifices are numerous and elegant. They consist of two large convents of the orders of St Francis and St Augustin, four convents for professed nuns, and three recolhimentos for such as are not professed. The harbour receives only small vessels. Those of any magnitude must anchor in an open road, which, though not dangerous, cannot be kept during the prevalence of southerly gales. It is, however, the best roadstead in the Island. Ribeira Grande is also a large town on the south coast, containing nearly as many inhabitants as Ponta del Gada. It has two large convents, and there are several warm springs situate in its neighbourhood. Villa Franca, also, though nearly destroyed by the earthquake of 1591, is now a considerable city. Alagoa, Agoa de Pao, Porto Fermoza, and a few others, are also of some magnitude. The whole number of inhabitants in the Island is estimated at 80,000 or 90,000. The character of the people appears to be hospitable, but indolent and luxurious, and they are entirely under the dominion of the priesthood.

St Mary is a small Island immediately adjacent to St Mary. St Michael's, through the medium of which its trade is conducted, as it has no good harbours of its own. It produces wheat in abundance, and exports a considerable quantity. The soil is composed of clay, which is partly manufactured into pottery.

Tercera, though smaller than St Michael, being Tercera. placed in a more central position with respect to the other Islands, has been chosen as the seat of Government. The port of Angra is also superior to any of those in St Michael. This Island does not exhibit nearly the same extensive traces of volcanic action: the summits of its mountains are generally level. It is represented by Adanson, however, as entirely composed of volcanic products. Its lava, he says, is of a thicker grain than that of Teneriffe. It abounds in grain and cattle; but its wines are inferior, and its fruits raised merely for internal consumption. The residence of the Government renders the society somewhat superior to that which is found in the other Islands. The number of inhabitants is estimated at 50,000.

Fayal is the most frequented of all the Islands, as Fayal. its harbour is the best in the Azores, and it lies directly in the track of vessels that are crossing the Atlantic in any direction. The principal town is called Villa de Horta. Captain Cook observes, that all sorts of fresh provisions may be got here; the bullocks and hogs good, but the sheep small and wretchedly poor. The town is defended by two castles and a wall, both in decay, and serving rather for show than strength. The city contains two convents for monks, and three for nuns, with eight churches. These are the only good buildings in it; no other having glass windows. The bay is two miles in length, and three quarters of a mile in breadth, the depth of water from six to twenty fathoms. Though a good road, it is not altogether free from danger in SSW. and SE. winds.

A considerable quantity of wine is exported from Pico. this place, under the appellation of Fayal wine; but it is really the produce of Pico, one of the most remarkable of the Azores. This Island is composed of an immense conical mountain, rising to the height of 7000 feet, and bearing every trace of volcanic formation. The soil consists entirely of pulverized lava, and the ground has even been said to sound hollow when struck. All the lower parts of the mountain are in the highest state of cultivation, and covered with vine and orange plantations. The wine annually exported amounts to about 5000 pipes. It forms a sort of inferior Madeira, which, selling 50 per cent. cheaper, is in considerable demand. Pico produces also a valuable species of wood, resembling, and equal in quality to, mahogany.

Graciosa and St George are two small Islands, si- Graciosa and St George. tuated between Fayal and Tercera. Graciosa is chiefly noted for the extreme beauty of its aspect and scenery. St George has recently been exposed to one of those awful visitations to which the Azores are subject. In 1808 a caldeira, situate in the centre of the Island, was observed to be in a state of violent fermentation. It continued, during several days, to emit subterraneous noises, and to cause violent convulsions through every part of the Island. At length the great crisis came; vast streams of fire issued forth in every direction, with clouds of smoke, which, but for the volcanic light, would have involved every thing in midnight darkness. The principal stream took its direction towards the beautiful town of Ursula, which it seemed on the point of swallowing up; but suddenly changing its direction, rushed into the sea by a different channel,—a happy event, which superstition ascribed to the prayers of the Ursuline nuns. Many hundred acres of fertile land, however, were covered with scoriae and ashes; some lives were lost, and a general gloom and consternation diffused throughout the Island. The inhabitants, however, showed no disposition to emigrate, and soon applied themselves to repair the damages which their Island had sustained.

The two small and most westerly Islands of Corvo and Flores, seem but imperfectly to belong to the group. They lie also out of the usual tract of navigators; but to those who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is said to be the finest in the world; the cattle are numerous, but small. The surplus produce of these Islands is not of much importance.

It would be improper to close this notice without mentioning one of the most striking occurrences in nature, sometimes exhibited in this quarter—the sudden emersion of new Islands from the bosom of the ocean. The first relation of such an event is given by Kircher in his Mundus Subterraneus. He describes it as announced by violent earthquakes, which lasted for eight days; then a fire broke from the surface of the sea, and rose to the clouds; while vast quantities of stones, earth, sand, and minerals, were at the same time vomited out. At length a group of rocks burst forth, which gradually increased till they covered several miles in circumference, and, after being shattered by a new earthquake, settled at length into a solid consistence.

A narrative of a similar phenomenon is given in the 32d Volume of the Philosophical Transactions. John Robison, master of a small vessel, is stated to have arrived on the 10th December 1720, at Terceira, "near which Island he saw a fire break out of the sea." On his arrival at Angra, the governor hired his vessel, for the purpose of going to view it. "On the 19th," says he, "at two afternoon, we made an Island all fire and smoke. The ashes fell on our deck like hail and snow. The fire and smoke roared like thunder or great guns." He adds, that quantities of pumice stone (probably common lava), and of half-broiled fish, were found floating on the sea in its vicinity.

A similar phenomenon took place in February 1811, about half a league from the western extremity of the Island of St Michael. It seems to have been attended with nearly the usual symptoms; fire bursting from the sea, and ascending into the air like a host of sky-rockets, accompanied with vast volumes of smoke, and showers of scoriae and lava. The rocks, however, did not rise above the surface of the water, but appeared immediately under it, with the waves dashing furiously round them. The previous soundings are said to have been eighty fathoms.

On taking a general view of these phenomena, and of the other peculiarities of the Azores, it is impossible not to lament that they should not yet have been surveyed by any scientific observer; and we would fain entertain the hope, that some traveller, properly qualified, may at length be induced to turn his attention to a group of Islands, which, more than any other, seems to offer a rich field of observation and discovery to geologists and naturalists in general.

See Hartmann's Edrisi.—Voyages des Hollandais, T.I.—Astley's Collection, Vol. I.—Masson's Account of St Miguel (in Phil. Trans. 1778).—Cook's Second Voyage.—Adanson's Voyage to Senegal.—History of the Azores, London, 1813.

BABYLON.—Under this head, in the body of the work, will be found a full account of the extent of ancient Babylon, and of the stupendous edifices, which rendered it the wonder of mankind. Our present object will be, to collect, from recent information, the vestiges which, after so long a succession of ages, still remain, of this celebrated capital of the East.

Among all the remains of ancient grandeur, there are none perhaps which possess equal interest with the ruins of Babylon: none which present so many striking images to the imagination, or carry back the mind into such a depth of antiquity. It happens fortunately that their site, through the learned investigations of Major Rennell, may be considered as completely fixed to the small district, situate immediately to the north of the village called Hellah.* Its po

* Hellah is nine miles from Mohawil, and nearly forty-eight from Bagdad. Rich's Memoir on Babylon. sition on the Euphrates, the fountains of bitumen at Hit or Illeet, the distance from the ascertained position of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and the character of the surrounding country, combine in establishing this point beyond a doubt. The appellation ruins, in its proper sense, cannot, however, be applied to the present remains of Babylon, which consist almost wholly of bricks, fragments, and rubbish, piled, as it were, in masses, and serving as quarries for the construction of new cities. In this condition, nevertheless, they have deservedly attracted the attention of modern travellers; and interesting notices have been given by Della Valle, Niebuhr, Ives, Otter, and Beauchamp. But the recent observations of Mr Rich, enlightened by the previous inquiries of Major Rennell, have been so much more careful and complete, that they nearly supersede all prior information. We shall first give a view of the objects that presented themselves to Mr Rich, in traversing this celebrated ground, and shall then offer some remarks as to those ancient edifices, of which these objects are to be considered the remains.

Mr Rich commenced his observations at Hellah, and proceeded to the north, along the eastern bank of the Euphrates. After passing some smaller mounds, he came to a vast mass, 1100 yards in length, and 800 in its greatest breadth; while its most elevated part rose 50 or 60 feet above the level of the plain. It consists almost wholly of earth formed from decomposed brick, and strewed with various species of fragments. The name of Amran is given to it from a tradition, seemingly unfounded, of a son of Ali having been buried in it.—Then, after traversing a valley 550 yards long, and crossed by some smaller ruins, he came to the second grand mass, forming nearly a square of 700 yards in length and breadth. This part of the ruins is extremely interesting, containing several walls, in a pretty entire state; they are eight feet thick, in some places ornamented with niches, in others strengthened by pilasters and buttresses. Some remains of painting and sculpture are to be seen on them. The bricks are of the finest kind, and cemented with lime. We may here observe that the city, as Major Rennell suspected, appears to have been built, partly of burnt and partly of unburnt bricks. Three kinds of cement have also been used. The unburnt bricks are in general merely bound together with reeds or chopped straw, which are still found in great quantities. The burnt bricks are cemented, partly with bitumen, but more frequently with lime; a material, the use of which had escaped the notice of observers previous to Mr Rich. He states it to be much the most efficacious of any. Bricks cemented with bitumen could be easily separated; but where good mortar had been used, no power or art could detach them from the wall, without breaking them in pieces. Some parts of the edifice in question have been deeply excavated, with a view to the removal of the bricks; but the workmen have been intimidated, in consequence of the rubbish having fallen in, and buried some of their number; and they have given up the walls, on account of the extreme tenacity with which they are cemented. This edifice is called by the natives the Kasr or palace.

A mile to the north of the Kasr, and about half a mile from the river, is a mass equally remarkable. It is an irregular oblong, the sides being respectively 200, 219, 182, and 196 yards in length; the greatest elevation 141 feet. Near the summit of the western side appears a low wall, built of unburnt bricks, cemented with reeds and straw. The summit is covered with heaps of rubbish, and with innumerable fragments of pottery, brick, bitumen, pebbles, vitrified brick, and even shells, bits of glass, and mother of pearl. There are many dens of wild beasts in this part of the ruins, and most of the cavities are filled with bats and owls. As there appeared a niche or recess near the summit of the northern face, Mr Rich caused it to be dug into. The workmen successively extracted two wooden coffins, containing skeletons in high preservation. He was of opinion that the whole passage, whatever might be its extent, would have proved to be occupied in the same manner.

This mass, denominated the Mujelibe, being the most elevated part of these remains, has been considered by most travellers as the Tower of Belus, which formed one of the two grand features in the wonders of ancient Babylon. The other was the Palace, with its hanging gardens; and this was clearly pointed out, by ancient authorities, to be on the side opposite to the tower of Belus. The tower then being on the eastern, the palace was to be sought on the western bank of the river. With the exception, however, of a slight notice collected by D'Anville, modern travellers had given no information of any ruins situate in that quarter. Major Rennell very properly pointed out this as a grand object of investigation for future inquirers. Mr Rich, on reaching the summit of the Mujelibe, whence he commanded an extensive view across the river, was much surprised at discovering no trace of any ruins whatever. Not satisfied with this distant view, he crossed and carefully surveyed the ground, but could discern only some mounds of small dimensions, which conveyed no idea of the immense structures of which he was in search. Before leaving this neighbourhood, however, he went to visit a tower, which had been imperfectly observed by Niebuhr, about six miles south-west of Hellah, and beyond the site assigned to ancient Babylon. Our traveller, who had formed no high expectations from this object, was struck with the utmost amazement at its magnitude and grandeur, which decidedly surpassed any thing he had yet witnessed among these interesting remains. It consists of a mound of an oblong figure, 762 yards in circumference. It rises in a conical form to the height of 198 feet, and has on its summit a solid pile of brick 37 feet high, diminishing in thickness to the top. The bricks are of the finest description, with inscriptions on them, and so well cemented with lime, that it is nearly impossible to extract one of them entire. This ruin is called by the Arabs the Birs Nimrod. Every thing remarkable is by them ascribed to Nimrod; but the meaning of the term Birs seems unknown even to themselves. By the Jews it is called Nebuchadnezzar's Prison. At a trifling distance to the east is a mound equal in elevation to the Kasr; and all around are traces of ruins to a considerable extent.

Mr Rich having thus described these ruins, begins very cautiously to form conjectures respecting their origin and nature. At the first sight of the Birs Nimrod, he had involuntarily exclaimed that, if the situation rendered it possible, this certainly must be the tower of Belus. Besides its extraordinary magnitude, there is some appearance of its being built in stages, as described by ancient authors; and the mound on the east may correspond to the temple, which occupied part of the quadrangular inclosure that surrounded the tower. After considering these circumstances, Mr Rich is led on to inquire, whether it be so certain as is generally supposed, that the tower of Belus must be found on the eastern side of the river, and the palace and hanging gardens on the western. But after some acute remarks, his path becomes entangled, and he is obliged to stop, without arriving at any satisfactory appropriation of the objects which had fallen under his observation. The subject is certainly involved in much darkness and uncertainty; but as it is of considerable interest, we shall present our readers with such observations as its consideration has suggested to us.

It is stated by ancient writers, in the most positive and circumstantial manner, that the palace, with its grand appendage of hanging gardens, was situate upon, or very near to the river; whence, indeed, the gardens were artificially watered. Now, modern Babylon presents, near to the river, no ruins of any magnitude, except those on its eastern bank; the Amran, Kasr, and Mujelibé. It seems unquestionable, therefore, that these, if any, must be the remnant of those immense structures. Then, following Herodotus, we must look for the tower of Belus on the western side of the river. But here we are crossed by the statement of Diodorus, to which Mr Rich does not seem to have fully adverted. That author reports, that there were two palaces built on opposite sides of the Euphrates; of which by far the most extensive and magnificent was that on the western bank. This Major Rennell naturally infers to be the one which other writers call the palace. But it deserves notice, that Diodorus is the only authority for there being two palaces. Herodotus and Curtius, the former an eye witness, mention only one, and evidently entertain no idea that any more existed. It seems also quite unaccountable, that, while inferior structures exhibit vast piles of ruins, this western palace, which must have been the grandest and most extensive of all, should not have left the slightest trace of its existence. It may therefore deserve consideration, whether Diodorus, who wrote only from hearsay, might not have been deceived by varying accounts of one palace, into the idea that there were two. The striking similarity in his two descriptions, as to situation, plan, and ornament, somewhat favours the conjecture. We are sensible that it is a bold one; but can only say, that, without it, the aspect of modern Babylon is wholly inexplicable; for it seems quite ascertained, that there are no ruins of any magnitude, close to the river, unless on one side, which is the eastern.

It may not be amiss, therefore, to follow out the supposition, and to inquire how far, by its aid, the ancient and the recent descriptions can be brought to accord.

Ancient Babylon consisted of an immense square, divided by the Euphrates into two nearly equal parts. It is distinctly stated by Herodotus, that the palace and tower were in opposite divisions to each other. If, then, the ruins on the eastern side be the palace, we must look to the western for the tower. There we find the Birs Nimrod, a stupendous pile, the dimensions and character of which are precisely such as the tower, in a state of total dilapidation, might have been expected to exhibit. Yet, to its really being the remains of that edifice, the objections are formidable. First, its distance of nearly ten miles from the Mujelibé would, to include it within the city, require an extension even of the vast limits assigned by Major Rennell. But it is certain, that the extent of Babylon was immense; that it rather resembled an inclosed district than a city. A great part of its area was under cultivation; and it has even been asserted, that the produce raised within the walls could, in case of siege, support its immense population. Without resting on the authority of Herodotus, though it be confirmed by Pliny, even the dimensions of Strabo, reckoned according to his own estimate of the stadium, would give upwards of eleven miles to each side of the square. But it is supposed that the palace and tower must each be in the centre of their respective divisions; an arrangement certainly incompatible with the actual situation of the ruins. The expression of Herodotus, no doubt, is ἐν μέσῳ, in the middle; which Major Rennell has translated centre. We doubt much, however, if this expression can be understood in so precise and mathematical a sense. It is familiarly said, that a building is in the middle or heart of a city, when it is completely inclosed within it, and surrounded by its buildings, even though it may approach to one of its extremities. Such, it appears to us, might be the present meaning, especially since the palace, being upon the river, could not, geometrically speaking, be in the middle of its division. The Kasr above described seems pretty exactly what we should expect in the ornamented and inhabited part of the palace. The Mujelibé, Mr Rich conceives, might be the hanging gardens. We would suggest the mound of Amran as a more probable situation, from its vicinity both to the river and to the palace, while the Mujelibé is at an inconvenient distance from both. This last structure, from Mr Rich's observations, seems decidedly to suggest the idea of a royal sepulchre. Of such structures, several are mentioned in Babylonish history, particularly that of Ninus, said to have been built within the palace, and of extraordinary elevation. (Diod. i. ii. 7.)

Mr Rich mentions his intention of making repeated visits to this spot, and of examining the different objects with greater care and minuteness. Additional light may thus certainly be thrown upon the subject, though it seems improbable, after the surveys already made, that any grand feature should remain to be discovered. See Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon, by Claudius James Rich, Esq. 8vo. Lond. 1815. (B.)