The earliest specifics against personal injuries resorted to by mankind, were probably the different parts of vegetables produced in their respective countries; and hence we find, that most savages are acquainted with vulneraries prepared by the hand of nature, or that they seek to improve them from decoctions and infusions of roots, flowers, and leaves. Among the more precious substances obtained from plants, applied as a curative of wounds by the ruder inhabitants of the eastern climates, the balm of Gilead, or balsam of Mecca, has been eminently distinguished during many ages. But although the balm of Gilead is better known from several scriptural allusions, and most esteemed, it is only of secondary quality to the balsam of Mecca, for which it is frequently substituted, and illustrations of its nature and properties must chiefly be derived from the latter. This balsam is a resinous matter, exuding, like ordinary resin, from incisions in the bark of two different vegetables, at least there are apparently two, though the distinction is not well characterized or described by naturalists, which has excited conjectures that there is only one, and that it is subject to certain external modifications from soil and climate. The plant producing the balsam of Mecca, was first ascertained by Forskal to belong to the genus Amyris. He transmitted one or two specimens to Linnaeus, who has characterized it as the "Amyris Opobalsamum, leaves pinnate, with sessile leaflets, a native of Arabia;" while he characterizes the other "Amyris Gileadensis, leaves ternate, very entire peduncles, one flowered lateral, a native of Abyssinia." But, to consider it more in detail: This plant grows to the height of fourteen feet, flourishing in a hot climate, and in a stony barren soil. In general it is lower, and Mr Bruce describes a specimen five feet and a half in height, and five inches across the stem where thickest. The wood is white, light, and of open texture, covered with a smooth bark, reddish or of bluish white, resembling that of a healthy standard cherry-tree, green within, and emitting a very fragrant odour. That of the branches, which are very flexible and resinous, is equally agreeable. The leaves, which are evergreen and scanty, bear some resemblance to those of rue; and the flowers, which are leguminous, and of a purplish colour, resemble those of the acacia. The fruit consists of small pointed ovoidal berries, containing a yellowish fluid similar to honey, of a bitterish taste, and exhaling a pleasing perfume, approaching the odour of balm. This plant is called Balessan in the east; but it would require new botanical researches to ascertain definitely, and beyond dispute, whether it is of different species, as is most probable, and what is its real character,—points which we must consider as remaining to be established.
It has been maintained, that the plants producing the balsam of Mecca are restricted to a plantation, extending little more than 80 acres, at Beder Huacn, a station for pilgrims in Arabia, half way between Mecca and Medina. Yet it cannot be positively affirmed if this be one distinct species; that Abyssinia, the country ascribed to the other, is deprived of it; or that the balm of Gilead grows in Abyssinia exclusively. These are facts which also require elucidation in future botanical research. The plantation belongs to a noble family of Arabs, of the tribe Beni K'oreish, from which Mahomet originated, unless the incursions of the Wahabee, who interrupted the wonted pilgrimages, may have possessed them.
The balsam flows from incisions in the tree, which are made with an axe, in July, August, and the beginning of September, when the circulation of the sap is in the greatest activity; and it is received into a small earthen bottle. Each day's produce is collected, and poured into one of larger dimensions; but the quantity obtained is very small, and its collection tedious and troublesome; for the total exudation is usually but three or four drops in a day; nor does the most productive tree afford above sixty. Its scarcity, therefore, and the difficulty of procuring it, have no inconsiderable effect in enhancing its value. The odour is at first strong and pungent, occasioning a sensation like that of volatile salts rashly inhaled. Its intensity is proportioned to its freshness and the care it receives, for if neglected, and exposed to the influence of the air, the fragrance entirely decays. It is also of a rough, acrid, pungent taste. Originally the balsam is of a light yellow colour, a little turbid, and of a whitish cast, which is supposed to arise from the globules of air absorbed along with it; and it dissolves readily in water. It next acquires greater consistence, resembling honey, and becomes pellucid; and after the lapse of some years, grows of deeper yellow, or gold colour, when it is very tenacious, and may be drawn out in threads. It is difficult, however, to obtain the balsam in a state of purity, for several different substances are employed in its adulteration; to detect which various experiments are resorted to. If dropped into a glass of clean water, it falls to the bottom without rising again to the surface, or if remaining still on the surface, like oil in a drop, it is certainly adulterated. If, on the contrary, it spreads on the surface of the water, diffusing itself in a thin pellicle, scarcely visible to the eye, and may be collected with a thread or a feather, it is the pure and natural product. In this state it will congeal in milk, but not if otherwise. If pure it collects in a globule, when dropped on hot iron; if adulterated it runs and spreads itself all around. The different substances used in the adulteration of this balsam are honey, wax, oil of sesamum, turpentine, and ostrich fat. Sweetness of taste betrays the honey, and its turbid appearance the presence of wax. Adulteration with oil is detected by its yielding a darker and grosser flame than what issues from the genuine balsam, when dropped on burning coals. When the consistency becomes too great, which seems a consequence of age and long preservation, fluidity is restored by the simple application of heat.
Besides the balsam now described, which is the purest and most valuable kind, and is called Opobalsamum, other two of inferior quality are obtained from the balessan; first, Carpobalsamum, which is prepared by expression from the fruit when it has attained maturity, and, if good, should be ponderous, of a pungent taste, and balsamic odour. Secondly, Xylobalsamum, which is elaborated from a decoc-
tion of the twigs. These are collected in small faggots, and sent to Venice, and the quality determining them to be the shoots of the year, is said to consist in their being knotty, the bark red, the wood white, resinous, and also exhaling balsamic odour. Various impostures are likewise practised here, in substituting spurious compounds for the real drug; and the ingenuity of mankind in this species of deception has been carried to such an extent, that detection proves extremely difficult.
Numerous virtues are ascribed to the balm of Gilead, so numerous, that modern empirics, availing themselves of that credulity which characterizes our nature in such matters, do not hesitate to offer specifics of their own invention, under the same name, with bold asseverations, that the human race will there find a palliative for most of the evils with which they are afflicted. Prosper Alpinus, one of the older naturalists, ascribes many properties to the balsam of Mecca, esteemed the most precious of all that bear the appellation of balsam, and which, in ordinary description, we must consider synonymous with the balm of Gilead; and the modern Arabs, Turks, and Egyptians, entertain great confidence in its efficacy. It is a powerful vulnerary; a quality of which Mahomet took advantage, for he affirmed, that a grove of the trees sprung up from the blood of his own tribe killed in battle, the juice of which cured the wounds of the faithful, however deadly, nay, that it recovered some of them from death itself. Hasselquist says, it is useful as a stomachie in doses of three grains. It is also taken for complaints in the breast, in fevers, and is applied for rheumatism. Its repute as an antiseptic is very great; and it is esteemed so effectual an antidote against the plague, that when this distemper makes its appearance, the Egyptians take a certain quantity daily. The balsam of Mecca, however, is principally used as a cosmetic by the eastern females of rank: after being kept in a very warm bath, the face and breast are anointed with it, and the same process is continued every third day during a month. Oil of almonds, and other cosmetics, are then rubbed over the same parts, whereby the skin and complexion are beautifully renovated. Lady Mary Wortley Montague relates, that she was induced to try the experiment; and that, in consequence, her face became swelled and red for three days, during which time, she suffered so much pain as to restrain her from repeating the application. But her complexion was greatly improved, and she adds, that the ladies of Constantinople, by whom it is used, have the finest bloom imaginable.
The balm of Gilead has been celebrated from very remote antiquity. We have the testimony of Moses, that it was an article of commerce in the earlier periods of Jewish history; for at the time Joseph was confined by his brethren in a pit, and during their deliberations on his fate, it is said, "And they sat down to eat bread; and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and behold a company of Ishmaelites came from Gilead, with their camels bearing spice, and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt." Jeremiah particularly alludes to the virtues of the balm in Gilead. Josephus, however, does not carry the knowledge of it so high, for he observes, the queen of Sheba or Saba, "who was inquisitive into philosophy, and on that and other accounts was also to be admired," brought the balm of Gilead as a present to Solomon, on her visit to Jerusalem, about 1000 years before the Christian era. "They say also, that we possess the root of this balsam, which our country still bears, from that woman's gift." This is not inconsistent with the words of Jeremiah, who probably flourished about 400 years later; and to reconcile those of Moses with this account, some critics have supposed that Judea did not possess the real balm of Gilead earlier than the queen of Sheba's gift, but an inferior kind of balsam,—a fact not improbable. Further, that, what was in highest esteem as the balm of Gilead, was in truth the balsam of Mecca. The best testimony of its value, is its having been the subject of royal donation among other rarities brought for the acceptance of so illustrious a prince as Solomon. It appears from the writings of the ancients, not far from contemporary with Josephus, that Judea was generally believed to be possessed of it exclusively. Pliny remarks, "but to all other odours whatsoever, is to be preferred that balsam which is produced in no other part of the world than the land of Judea, and there in two gardens only, both belonging to the king, one not exceeding twenty acres in size, and the second still smaller." Strabo, however, in the opinion of Mr Bruck, ascertained the real place of the origin of the balsam, in ascribing it to that country over or near to which the queen of Sheba reigned. "Near to this," he says, "is the most favoured land of the Sabaeans, and they are a very great people. Frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon, grow among them, and in the coast that is about Saba, the balsam also." Whence Mr Bruce observes, that "among the myrrh-trees behind Asab, all along the coast to the Straits of Babelmandel, is its native country. It grows to a tree above fourteen feet high spontaneously, and without culture, like the myrrh, the coffee, and frankincense-tree; they are all equally the wood of the country, and occasionally cut down for fuel." Diodorus Siculus likewise affirms that this balsam grew in a valley of Arabia Felix. But Mr Bruce, who has investigated the subject with considerable care, supposes that it was towards the era of Pliny that it received its name of Balsamum Judaicum, or balm of Gilead; and thence became an article of commerce and fiscal revenue, which might probably operate as a discouragement to bringing it from Arabia; as also that it might be prohibited as contraband. Some centuries later than the time of those ancient authors, we see that it was known in Arabia, and perhaps in the place now most celebrated for it. A traveller who assumes the name of Ali Bey, in a very recent work, says, that there is no balsam made at Mecca; that, on the contrary, it is very scarce, and is obtained principally in the territory of Medina; as also that it was called balsam. As the repute of the balsam of Mecca rose, the balm of Gilead disappeared, though in the era of Galen, who flourished in the second century, and travelled into Syria and Palestine purposely to obtain a knowledge of this substance, it grew in Jericho, and many other parts of the Holy Land. The cause of its total decay has been ascribed, not without reason, to the royal attention being withdrawn from it by the distractions of the country. In more recent times, its naturalization seems to have been attempted in Egypt; for Prosper Alpinus relates, that forty plants were brought from Arabia by a governor of Cairo, to the garden there: ten remained when Belon travelled in Egypt, nearly 250 years ago; but whether from not agreeing with the African soil or otherwise, only one existed in last century, and now there appears to be none.
The balsam of Mecca has always been deemed a substance of the greatest value. When Selim, Emperor of the Turks, reduced Arabia and Egypt under his dominion in the year 1516, he exacted a tribute of three pounds weight of it yearly, which continues to be sent to Constantinople to this day. Besides this, part of the governor of Cairo's appointments include a right to receive a pound of balsam; the like quantity was due to an officer who conducted the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca; and half a pound to the Pacha of Damascus, who superintends the whole pilgrimage.
Notwithstanding the celebrity of this plant, Mr Bruce denies that it had ever been seen by the ancients, by whom he probably means the Romans, as their descriptions are so various and discordant. Prosper Alpinus, who lived in the sixteenth century, does not seem to know the real class to which it belongs, and even within these few years M. Duplessy, who has paid much attention to the exudations of vegetables, is apparently not aware of its having been figured by Bruce, and also more recently by Dr Woodville. Such uncertainties of old excited a violent dispute between the inhabitants of Rome and Venice—whether the drug used in a medicinal compound was truly the balm of Gilead; and the point being referred to the Pope, his Holiness directed that information should be obtained in Egypt, in consequence of which he decided in favour of the Venetians.
The balsam of Mecca is not the only one possessing exclusive medicinal properties, though it is, perhaps, more eminently distinguished by them. Sixteen balsamic plants of the same genus are enumerated by botanists, each exhibiting some peculiarity; and the balsam of Tolu, obtained from the incisions of a shrub growing in some of the South American provinces, is thought to approach the nearest to the virtues of the former. It is highly aromatic, a powerful antiseptic, and not less efficacious as a vulnerary. It is also very rare and difficult to be procured, which has induced impostors to offer adulterations or counterfeits under its name. That which is particularly substituted is the balsam of Peru, the product of another tree, and can be obtained in abundance either from incisions or decoction of the different parts. The secretions of these plants, however, are neither invariably odoriferous nor salutary; the balsam of Cartagena exhales a penetrating disagreeable smell; and there is a low evergreen shrub, a native of North Carolina and the Bahama Islands, producing a fruit which is deadly poison, and a balsam as black as ink. BALTIc. that the trifling differences which may be occasionally observed, are owing to accidental and temporary causes. Hence we may infer, that the constant current setting out of the Baltic, is solely owing to the abundance of the waters which it receives from its rivers.
It is generally believed that there are no tides in the Baltic. This, however, is not strictly correct. There are sensible tides in the Scagerac; they begin to diminish in the Cattegat; are very trifling in the Sound and Belts; and in the Baltic, properly so called, are scarcely, if at all, perceptible. There are, however, irregular variations in the level of the waters of the Baltic, which bear some resemblance to tides. These elevations generally occur in autumn, when the weather threatens rain; they last sometimes a few days, sometimes several weeks. The maximum rise is three feet and a half, and the low shores are occasionally inundated. They also render the fresh-water lakes, which communicate with the sea, brackish. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the fall of the waters is usually succeeded by north winds; whereas, near Stockholm, these winds usually follow the elevation. M. Kraft, who was Professor of Experimental Philosophy in the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, in his treatise on the inundations of the Neva at the autumnal equinox, observes, that three or four days before or after the full or new moon, a violent north-west wind drives the waters of the Northern Ocean, during the influx of the tide, into the Baltic, and is accompanied, or immediately succeeded, by a south wind in that sea and the Gulf of Finland. By Schultens, a learned Swede, who paid particular attention to the physical geography of the Baltic, the irregular elevations of this sea are attributed to the state of the atmosphere. He observed, that when the waters are about to rise, the barometer falls, and when they are about to fall, it rises. Hence he inferred, that the unequal pressure of the atmosphere on different portions of the water, deranged the level of the waters. The difference between the greatest and the least rise in the barometer in the northern parts of Europe is two and a half inches, which answers to three and a half feet of water, or the difference of the elevation of the waters at their extremes.
In the Sound there are superior and inferior currents. These were first observed by some Englishmen, who, being in a boat in the middle of the channel, found that they drifted towards the Cattegat; but, having let down a loaded bucket to the depth of four or five fathoms, the boat became stationary; and when the bucket was sunk deeper, the boat drifted against the superficial current. The general currents of the Baltic are strong, and are evidently occasioned by the vast number of rivers and streams that pour their waters into it, many of which, especially towards the north, rise thrice in the course of the year. At the north extremity of the island of Bornholm, a violent agitation of the waters, or kind of whirlpool, called by the Swedes Malt-queren, or the grinding-mill, is occasioned by the current rushing over a circular cluster of sunken rocks. The waves of the Baltic are short and broken, in consequence of sudden changes of wind, irregular depths, and strong currents.
The waters of this sea are not nearly so salt as those of the ocean; and when the wind blows strong from the north, they become so fresh as to be fit for drinking or cooking meat. The degree of their saltness varies in different parts, and in the same parts according to the season, or wind. According to Bergman, in his Physical Geography, near the south coast of Norway, at the entrance of the Scagerac, the waters contain from \( \frac{1}{10} \)th to \( \frac{1}{4} \)th part of their weight of salt: in the Cattegat \( \frac{1}{2} \)th; in the Baltic \( \frac{1}{6} \)th; and in the Gulf of Bothnia from \( \frac{1}{6} \)th to \( \frac{3}{5} \)th. The south-west and west winds augment the saltness, by introducing the waters of the ocean; in the summer, it requires 300 tons of the water of the Gulf of Bothnia to produce one ton of salt, but in the winter, only 50 tons; this difference is caused by congelation, and by less fresh water flowing into it.
The analysis of three pounds of water taken up Analysis from the British Sea, on the coast of East Frizeland, of its Waters. and the same quantity from near Rostock in the Baltic, gave
<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>British Sea.</th> <th>Baltic.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Muriat of soda</td> <td>522</td> <td>263</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Muriat of magnesia</td> <td>198\( \frac{1}{2} \)</td> <td>111</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sulphat of lime</td> <td>23</td> <td>12</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sulphat of soda</td> <td>1\( \frac{1}{2} \)</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Residue</td> <td>1\( \frac{1}{2} \)</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">746\( \frac{1}{2} \)</td> <td>388</td> </tr> </table>
The following are the results of some experiments made by Dr Thomson on the specific gravity of the water in the Firth of Forth, the Baltic off Tunaberg, the Sound, and off the Scaw Point; and also on the comparative weight of salt, obtained from 1000 grains of each of the waters evaporated.
<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Specific gravity.</th> <th>Weight of Salt.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Water of the Firth of Forth</td> <td>1.02900</td> <td>36.6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Baltic off Tunaberg</td> <td>1.00476</td> <td>7.4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sound</td> <td>1.00701</td> <td>11.2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Scaw</td> <td>1.02037</td> <td>32.0</td> </tr> </table>
In the salt obtained from the water off the Scaw, he found
<table> <tr> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> </tr> <tr> <td>Muriat of soda</td> <td>-</td> <td>55.7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sulphat of magnesia</td> <td>-</td> <td>25.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Muriat of magnesia</td> <td>-</td> <td>19.3</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> <td>100</td> </tr> </table>
Wilcke ascertained that the specific gravity of the water of the Baltic was much influenced by the wind. When the wind was at East, it was 1.0039 — West - 1.0067 — N. W. - 1.0098 Storm at West - 1.0118
There is great difference in the temperature in Temperature different parts of the Baltic. The general temperature of the Gulf of Bothnia in July is from 48 to 56, but it is sometimes heated to 70; the medium of the thermometer throughout the year at Uleborgh, is 29; at Stockholm, the medium is 42\( \frac{3}{4} \). Near the land in the Gulf of Bothnia, in the month of July, the temperature of the atmosphere was observed to be 68, while the temperature of the surface of the water was 65; and in October, the temperatures were respectively 39 and 46. In the Sound, in the month of August, the temperature of the atmosphere was 70; on the surface of the water 68; and at three fathoms 66. On the 10th of October 1813, Dr Thomson found the temperature of the Sound to be 54. The Scagerac and Gulf of Norway are open to navigation all the winter, whereas several portions of the Baltic are covered with ice in a very moderate degree of cold; generally the bays and channels are encumbered with ice at the latter end of December. The waters towards the heads of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland are first frozen, and the ice being conveyed by the currents to the south, the masses of it are by the increasing cold united into vast fields, which become stationary on the west towards Stockholm, and in the east towards the Islands of Dagoe and Oesel. In the southern parts of the sea, the ice begins to break up in April, but the Gulf of Bothnia and Finland often continue closed till May. The rigour of the climate in the Baltic is supposed to be considerably diminished by the clearing of the forests and the progress of cultivation; at least more intense and longer continued colds, as well as greater extent and solidity of ice, are recorded during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, than what have happened latterly.
The winds are extremely variable in the Baltic, but they blow most commonly from the east in the spring, and from the west in autumn; calms are seldom experienced, except in the middle of summer.
II. There is historical evidence, that the herring fishery was a branch of national industry in the Sound, as early as the year 1168;* and in 1389, Philip de Mezieres says, that such vast shoals of herrings crowded into the Sound, that 40,000 boats, with six to ten men each, were employed in the fishery, besides 900 large vessels, in which the herrings were salted. In the Gulfs of Flensborgh and Slie, besides what are consumed fresh, 1000 tons salted are at present annually exported to Copenhagen and Germany; and, according to the registers of the custom-house at Dalborgh, on the south shore of the Gulf of Limford, this city exported yearly, from 1720 to 1730, above 23,000 tons, but from 1754 to 1765, the exportation had fallen to about 8000 tons. In the year 1748, the herring first appeared in shoals in the Gulf of Gottenburgh; at first they arrived in August and September, but gradually later, and at present not till November or December. In 1752, there were 1000 tons taken; in 1753, 2000 tons; in 1761, 100,000 tons; from 1790 to 1796, nearly 2,000,000 tons were salted, and it was estimated that from 50,000 to 100,000 tons were consumed fresh.
Pilchards abound in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, into the bays of which they arrive in shoals in spring and autumn. The pilchard fishery is one of the most important branches of industry to the inhabitants on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia. As soon as the ice breaks up, upwards of 200 families, with their children and servants, transport themselves to the rocks and islets that line the coast, where they remain fishing to the end of autumn. The annual produce of all the pilchard fisheries is estimated at 300,000 tons at least, which are entirely consumed in the Baltic.
Salmon ascend the rivers from April to June, according as they are free from ice. On the south, they abound most in the Oder, Vistula, Duna, and Narrawa; on the north, in the Motala, Dalecarlia, Uleo, Kemi, Torneo, and Keymen. Salmon trout is taken in some bays of the Baltic. In the middle of the river Kemi is a small Island, where an annual salmon fair is held. The salmon fisheries of Sweden are very considerable both in the Cattegat and the Gulf of Bothnia: from 20,000 to 25,000 tons are salted annually.
Whales very rarely enter the Baltic. The common porpoise is the only one of the lesser species of cetaceous animals that lives habitually in this sea; and at Middlefart, in Funen, is a company, which enjoy the exclusive privilege of taking it. There are two varieties of the common seal, both of which are hunted, in March and April, for their oil, by the peasants of the isle of Gothland, and of the islands in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.
III. The coast of the Baltic, including under that appellation the Scagerac, the Cattegat, the Sound, of the Baltics, and the Belts, as well as Baltic Proper, may be regarded as commencing on the north side at the Naze of Norway. This is the extremity of a rocky peninsula joined to the main by a narrow isthmus; it is surrounded by rocks, of which those named the Bishop and Clerks, five miles to the south of the Naze, are most dangerous to navigators. From the Naze to the East, the shore is formed of elevated barren and dreary rocks. The principal rivers of Norway, which fall into the Scagerac and Cattegat, are the Glommen, the Laugen, the Louen, the Drammen, the Mandal, and the Nid. At the distance of five miles from the Naze is the town of Mandal, situate on the river of that name; from this place is exported a considerable quantity of smoked and salted salmon, esteemed the best in Norway. About 15 miles to the east of this is Christiansand, which has a good roadstead, besides the advantage of the little river Torvedal, to the east of the town; it exports timber, salt, fish, and iron. Arendal, the most secure and capacious harbour in Norway, formed by the Sound between the Island of Fleckere and the Main, succeeds. On the river Louen, is the town of Laurwig, which exports a great deal of iron from the founderies in its neighbourhood. The Gulf of Christiana lies
* "In the year 1238, the inhabitants of Gothia (Sweden) and Frise were prevented, by their fear of the Tartars, from sending, as usual, their ships to the herring fishing on the coast of England; and as there was no exportation, 40 or 50 of these fish were sold for a shilling. (Matthew Paris, page 396.) It is whimsical enough, that the orders of a Mogul Khan, who reigned on the borders of China, should have lowered the price of herrings in the English market."—Gibbon's Roman Empire, Vol. XI. p. 422. Note. some leagues to the east of it. This Gulf runs up into the land 20 leagues, and divides into several branches; the entrance to it is pointed out by the island of Færðar, on which there is a light. The town of Christiana stands at the top of the Gulf; its port will admit the largest vessels, there being from 30 to 40 feet water close to the quay; its exports are fir planks and rafters, pitch, tar, soap, iron, copper, and alum; they generally amount to L. 100,000 annually; the timber constituting four-fifths. There are several little villages on the Gulf, where vessels load with timber. To the east of it is a deep inlet, called Swinesund, which separates Norway and Sweden; it consists of two basins, the outer of which communicates with the inner by a very narrow strait. On the inner basin, and at the mouth of a small river, is Fredericshall, the commerce of which consists principally in the export of planks, sawed by 86 mills on the river.
The Swedish shores of the Scagerac and Cattegat are high, with a most rugged and dreary appearance, particularly near Marstrand, where the shore is lined with steep rocks projecting into the sea. The coast of Schonen forms a striking contrast to the shores of the Scagerac and Cattegat, being nearly level and free from rocks. The Swedish coast from Bleshinghar to the Gulf of Bothnia is lined with Islands and rocks, and broken into a great number of gulf's and bays. Both shores of the Gulf of Bothnia are rugged and broken; that of Sweden, in particular, forms an alpine ridge. The first river in Sweden, towards its western limit, is the Gotha, which empties itself into the Cattegat by two branches surrounding the island of Hysingen. This river, and the Motala, which falls into the Bay of Browick at Nordkceping, are the only rivers of consequence in the southern provinces of Sweden. Between the provinces of Scedermanland and Upland is the lake Maelar, which communicates with the Baltic at Stockholm by two currents called the north and south; its elevation is six feet above the Baltic. The river Dahl, or great river of Dalecarlia, the Umeo, Torneo, and several others, which rise in the mountains of Lapland and Norway, fall into the Gulf of Bothnia; the northernmost are subject to three inundations annually, the first in March or April, when the snow on the low ground melts; the second towards the end of May, when the snow melts on the more elevated grounds; and the last towards the end of summer, when the thaw has reached the high lands, and dissolved the glaciers. The first commercial port of Sweden of any note is Uddevalla, a staple town; its exports are iron, planks, and herrings. The town of Marstrand, on an island of the same name, succeeds; it is also a staple, and its inhabitants are engaged in the herring-fishery, and in supplying provisions to the vessels that run in for shelter; these exceed 300 annually. The Paternosters are dangerous rocks, some miles north of Marstrand. On the southern branch of the Gotha, some leagues from the sea, is the city of Gottenburgh; the port is seldom closed by the ice, and is capable of receiving the largest ships; the harbour is about one-fourth of a mile in breadth, and is formed by two chains of rocks.
Before the entrance of the Gotha is the island of Wingoe, with a very high light-house. The south point of the bay of Skeldar is formed of a mass of rocks, lying at the entrance of the Sound, named Kullen; this mass projects far into the sea, and on the highest point, 200 feet above the sca, is a fire tower. On the Swedish shore of the Sound are several villages of little consequence. Helsingburgh, Helsing-which is the usual crossing-place to Elsinour, is the burgh, only one deserving of notice. Four leagues to the southward is Landscorna, a small and ill-sheltered port, with 20 feet water; it is a staple town. The next port is Malmoe, which has a considerable trade, though its harbour is not capable of receiving vessels of any considerable burden. To the south are Skanor and Falsterbo, on the peninsular point, which forms the entrance of the Sound from the Baltic. Close to the latter is a fire tower, to direct vessels clear of a large reef, which runs off from the point. The first Swedish ports on the Baltic of any consequence are Christianstad and Carlshamn; the first is situated on the Helge, which empties itself into a gulf that separates the provinces of Schonen and Blekingen; the latter has 40 trading vessels engaged in foreign voyages; its principal export is potash, which is esteemed of superior quality. They are both staple towns. The principal part of the town of Carlscrona Carlscrona, is built on the Island of Trosce; the rest of it on several rocky islets joined to the main by bridges. It is a staple town, and has about 40 vessels employed in foreign trade; the port is capable of holding 100 sail of the line; on one of the islands is a dock for four sail of the line. Carlscrona is the principal station of the Swedish navy. The Strait of Calmar, which is from two to three leagues broad, separates the mainland from the Island of Oeland. Near the middle of the strait stands the town of Calmar, which, though not a staple, has a considerable trade, and vessels from 100 to 300 tons belonging to it. North of Calmar are several small towns on the coast, one of which, Westerwic, has some shipbuilding. In East Gothland, the province which lies to the north of Smaland on the Baltic are two considerable gulfs, Slotbacken and Browick. On the river Motala, which falls into the latter, stands the staple town of Nordkceping, from which are exported considerable quantities of iron, iron-cannon, and copper, though its port can receive vessels only of light burden. From 300 to 400 enter it annually; 80 or 40 trading vessels belong to it. North of the entrance of a Sound, which communicates with lake Maelar by a canal, is Landsort Island, where is a light, and from whence ships take pilots for Stockholm.
Stockholm is built on seven or eight islands and Stockholm peninsulas, at the entrance of Lake Maelar; the channel is 12 leagues long, very winding, and terminates in a basin capable of holding 1000 ships. The largest island, on which the city stands, forms two channels, through which the waters of the lake rush out with great impetuosity.
The only ports of any consequence in the province of Upland, are Grislehamn, opposite the islands of Aland, where travellers embark or take sledge for Abo, and Eregrund, on an island in the channel of Aland, from which the iron from the founderies of Danemora is exported: formerly it went chiefly to England, where it was converted into steel. From Gefle, a staple town on both sides of a river of the same name, are exported considerable quantities of iron, planks, tar, and potash; its imports are corn and salt. The smaller islands in the Baltic, belonging to Sweden, have already been noticed; besides them there are Huen, Oeland, and Gotland. Huen lies in the Sound, four miles from Landskrona, three from the nearest point of Sweden, and four from the nearest point of Zealand; it is about six miles in circumference. Oeland is separated from the coast of East Gothland by the Strait of Calmar; the east coast of the island is bold and clear, but the west is dangerous for mariners. Between Oeland and a group of rocks, is the southern channel into the Strait of Calmar. Nearly in the middle of the strait is a rock, almost perpendicular, 240 feet high, surrounded by reefs. Gotland, which is 18 leagues from the nearest point of Sweden, and about the same distance from Courland, is 20 leagues long, and seven at its greatest breadth. The shore of it, in some places, is nearly perpendicular, in other places, it ascends gradually. Wisby, the capital, is built on the west coast; at present its port can receive only a few small vessels. Slitehamn, on the cast of the island, is one of the best ports in the Baltic, and is defended by the fort of Carlsbelt.
The coasts, rivers, gulfs, and principal commercial ports of the south and east of the Baltic, are next to be described; and, beginning at the entrance from the German Ocean, those of Denmark first present themselves. The north point of Jutland, in the Scaw, is surrounded by a reef several leagues in extent, and on its extremity is a light-house, 64 feet above the level of the sea. The north and east coasts of this peninsula are generally low; the northern extremity is composed of sands, which are often conveyed by whirlwinds to a great distance, and do considerable damage. In order to fix them, a variety of plants, particularly the Elymus arenarius, sea lyme-grass, are sown. The east coasts of Sleswick and Holstein descend gently to the sea. On all these coasts there are numerous gulfs and bays; the first towards the north, is the Limfjord, which nearly divides the peninsula of Jutland, being separated from the German Ocean only by a sandy isthmus, three or four miles broad; another arm of it advances southward to the town of Wybourg, a length of about 80 or 90 miles; its entrance is two miles wide, but afterwards it becomes greatly wider; sands that very sensibly increase, and masses of granite, obstruct its entrance. In Jutland, there are also the Gulfs of Mariager, and Randers, and several bays. In Sleswick, on the Baltic side, are the Gulfs of Colding, Flensborgh, and Slie, which resembles a great river, and Ekerneford; in Holstein are the Gulfs of Kiel, which separates this province from Sleswick, and of Lubeck, and the bay of Colbergh. The Guden is the chief river in Jutland, which falls into the Baltic, at the Gulf of Randers, after a course of 40 miles; its navigation has been recently improved.
From the Scaw to the entrance of the Gulf of Limfjord, there are only small towns, chiefly inhabited by fishermen and pilots. On the north shore of the entrance of Limfjord is the fort of Hals, where vessels, of too great depth to ascend higher, discharge their cargoes; on the south shore, four leagues and a half from the sea, is Aalborg, the chief town of Jutland. It possesses considerable commerce, its exports being corn, cattle, and fish, and 60 or 70 trading vessels belonging to it. Frederica, which stands on a promontory at the entrance of the Little Belt, has an inconvenient and badly sheltered port; the merchant-vessels passing through the Little Belt pay toll here. Colding, at the head of the gulf of the same name, which separates Jutland and Sleswick, is a commercial town, and has a port of two miles in circuit, and of depth for the largest vessels. The trade of Sleswick, which stands at the head of the gulf of Slie, has much declined: the entrance to its port being filled up with sand, a canal has been cut into it.
Of the Danish islands, Zealand is the principal; its length is 24 leagues, its breadth varies from 20 to 14; the Gulf of Isefjord, divided into two branches, penetrates the north side of it; at the entrance to which there is nine feet water, but it deepens within to seven fathoms. The most remarkable river in Zealand is the Nesaa, which nearly traverses it, and enters the Baltic. Elsineur, on the narrowest part of the Sound, has only a roadstead; here the duties of the Sound are paid. The origin of these duties may be traced to the middle-ages, when they were established by the sovereigns of Denmark for the support of light-houses, and the protection of the navigation of the Baltic from pirates. These duties vary from 450,000 to 600,000 rix-dollars annually. The mails and passage-boats cross the Sound from Elsineur to Helsingburgh.
Copenhagen is built partly on the mainland, and partly on the island of Amak, which is separated from it by a narrow channel, crossed by two bridges. The port between Amak and the main, is one of the best in the Baltic, both by nature and art. Within are basins capable of holding 500 sail, but the entrance admits but one ship at a time. There are two royal dock-yards constructed on islands, where every ship has her particular magazine; the dry-dock is constructed of wood, and requires 20 hours to pump it out, which is done by horses. Copenhagen is a free port, and for a long time was the only one in Denmark which enjoyed the privilege of importing the produce of Iceland, Greenland, India, China, and America; and, even yet, the principal returns from these countries are made to it.
Maen island is separated from the south-east end of Zealand by Ulsund, a narrow strait; it is about five leagues long, and from one to three broad. It exports 15,000 tons of corn. Samsse, midway between Zealand and Jutland, is near five leagues long, and is formed of two peninsulas, the largest of which is five miles broad. The other islands belonging to the government of Zealand are of little consequence. Saltholm, in the Sound, may, however, be particularized; it is four miles long, and two broad; almost covered by the sea in winter, but in summer affords good pasturage; from it are exported to the capital, marble, freestone, and lime.
Funen, the second of the Danish islands in extent, Baltic. is 16 leagues long, and 11 broad. The Gulf of Odenzee runs considerably into it on the north-east. At the head of it stands the town of Odenzee, the capital. From twenty to thirty trading vessels belong to it. At Nyborg, on the Great Belt, a duty is paid by all merchant vessels passing through; it is also the usual crossing-place to Zealand, and has a good port, and about as many vessels belonging to it as Odenzee. The island of Funen exports corn, and, in the year 1799, there belonged to it fifty-seven vessels above 20 tons; containing 2522 tons, with 109 men. From Rudkebing, the only town on Langland, an island between Funen and Zealand, corn, salted meat, hides, honey, and wax are exported.
Laaland. Laaland, the third of the Danish islands in size, is 11 leagues long, and from six to eight broad. Considerable portions of its coast are so low as to be inundated during the irregular elevations of the sea. The feathers of aquatic birds and corn are its principal exports. From this island Falster is separated by Guldborg Sound, and from Meen by Grensund. It is eight leagues long, and from one to four broad. It exports corn and fruit. In the year 1799, there were in the bailiwick of Laaland and Falster fourteen vessels, of 460 tons and 40 men. In the government of Jutland, are the Islands of Læsøe and Anholt, in the Cattegat; the latter is surrounded by dangerous banks.
Bornholm. Bornholm is an island about seven leagues and a half from the coast of Sweden, and upwards of 17 from the island of Rugen; it is eight leagues long, and five and a half broad. Its shores are composed of steep rocks, surrounded by dangerous reefs. The principal imports are coffee, sugar, and tobacco; the principal exports are salted cod, corn, poultry, and clay for the porcelain manufactory of Copenhagen, and freestone for its public buildings. The centre of commerce is at Ronne, near the middle of the west side of the Island. In 1800, this place employed 60 vessels and 130 boats, chiefly in the fisheries.
Coasts, &c., of Holstein and Lubec. The first shore on the south of the Baltic is that of Holstein, the principal port-town of which is Kiel, a place of considerable commerce. The territory of Lubec succeeds. The city of Lubec is situate on the Trave, five leagues from its mouth. Its commerce is chiefly transit, and on commission, drawing from Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, their raw commodities, and supplying them with wines, silks, cloth, hardware, and colonial goods. It admits vessels of from 150 to 200 tons. In 1802 it had from 70 to 80 merchant vessels, and the same year 1368 entered, and 1234 cleared out. Travemunde, on the mouth of the Trave, about nine miles from Lubec, is the port where vessels destined to and from Lubec take their station. The Trave, near Lubec, is joined by the Wakenitz, which, issuing from the Lake of Ratzeburgh, thus facilitates the water communication between Lubec and the interior.
On passing the Trave, the duchy of Mecklenburgh is entered. Wismar, a bay within the isle of Poel, and Rostock, on the left bank of the Warnaw, three leagues from its mouth, are the principal commercial places in Mecklenburgh. The exports from the latter are corn, hemp, flax, hops, wax, butter, honey, Baltic, cattle, apples, and feathers.
The coast of Pomerania exhibits the effects of the Coast of constant action of the waters of the Baltic. On the Pomerania west, the peninsula of Dars, and the Island of Zingst, form the basin called des Dars, which has six feet depth. The Strait of Gellen, farther east, separates the Island of Rugen from the main. This strait varies in breadth from fourteen miles to one and a quarter; the eastern entrance, called the Bodden, is navigable for the largest vessels; but in the narrows there is but three or four fathoms; and the sand accumulates so fast here, as to require a toll on all vessels passing through it, to defray the expence of clearing it.
The Gulf of Dantzic lies beyond the eastern limits Prussian Coasts. of Pomerania, the western extremity of which, called the Gulf of Putzic, is formed by a curved tongue of land. On the coast of Prussia are the two remarkable basins called the Fresch-Haff and Curish-Haff. The waters of both are fresh, being supplied from the rivers of Poland, and each communicates with the Baltic by a single strait. The Fresch Haff, which, besides three branches of the Vistula, receives the rivers of Elbing, the Passarge, and the Pregel, is 16 or 17 leagues long, and from one to five broad. The communication of this basin with the Baltic has changed several times, and the present passage, near Pillau, was formed by a great storm in 1500; its depth is from 13 to 16 feet. The tongue of land called the Fresch-Nehrung, which separates it from the Baltic, commences near Dantzic, and runs east about 19 leagues; its breadth varies from one to three leagues. The Curish-Haff, or Sea of the Cures, a people of Courland, is 19 leagues long, and from one to three broad. Its depth is very irregular, and there are many sandbanks in it. Near the upper end there is no current, but in the other parts the currents are very rapid. It communicates with the Baltic by a channel near Memel 3200 feet wide, and from 11 to 13 feet deep. The spit of land which separates it from the Baltic, called the Curish-Nehrung, is about 80 miles long; in some places three miles broad, but in other places is so very narrow, that the waves of the Baltic wash over it into the basin. Its surface, which is principally sand, continually changes, by the fury of the winds. From its ancient name Mendenioni, or promontory of Pines, it was probably covered with those trees. It is inhabited only by fishermen and pilots, whose dwellings are not unfrequently overwhelmed by the sand. It is frequented by immense numbers of crows and hawks, the former of which supply food to the inhabitants, and the tithe of them forms part of the revenue of the pastor.
The whole coast of Prussia and Courland is low, sandy, and covered with pebbles; the latter, however, has calcareous cliffs, which seem to run under water to the Island of Gotland. The Gulf of Livonia, or Riga, has Domes-ness for its southern limit; between which and the Swavorort is the entrance, eight leagues wide; but from Domes-ness a sandbank runs off, and a reef from Swavorort. The coast of Livonia, and the islands off it, are in general higher than those of Courland, and are composed of sand, gravel, and calcareous strata. Entering the Gulf of Finland, on the south side, is the bay of Roggerswic, inclosed by islands. The whole of the coast of Finland is naked, stony, lined with rocks and islets, and nearly bare of vegetation.
The principal rivers of Prussia that flow into the Baltic are the Oder and the Vistula. The Oder, after dividing into four principal branches, near the frontiers of Pomerania, again flows in one stream near Stettin, and falls into the Gros-Haff. Between the Oder and the Vistula several lesser rivers empty themselves; they are generally navigable, and form ports at their mouths. Three of the branches of the Vistula empty themselves into the Fresch Haff, and the fourth, which alone retains its original name, falls into the Gulf of Dantzic at Weixelmunde. The Pregel, which is deeper than the Fresch Haff, into which it falls, is navigated by vessels of considerable burden. The Elbing issues from Lake Dramsen, and, as has been already noticed, falls into the Fresch Haff. The Niemen, below Tilsit, separates into two branches, one running to the south-west, and the other to the north-west; thus both subdivide, and fall into the Curish-Haff near Memel; the Dange, which gives a port to Memel, has a short course, but is wide and deep.
Stralsund is the first commercial port on the Pomeranian shore of the Baltic. Its harbour is inclosed by jetties, but its access is dangerous and difficult, on account of sand-banks. It has a considerable export trade in brandy, starch, and linens. Stettin, on the Oder, succeeds. Vessels of moderate burden go up to it, but large ones discharge at Swinemund, on the channel into the Gros-Haff, which separates the Islands of Usedom and Wollin. Between the years 1787 and 1796, the annual or whole exports were 3714 tons. The imports are manufactured goods from England, salt, wines, and fruits from France, &c. and linseed from Russia. About 160 vessels, manned by 1000 seamen, belong to it. From Politz, near the mouth of the Oder, are exported several thousand bushels of hops, chiefly to Sweden.
The principal islands off the coast of Pomerania are Rugen, Usedom, Ruden, and Wollin. Rugen is separated from the mainland by the Strait of Gellen. It is of a very irregular shape, and consists of the Island Proper, and three peninsulas. It is supposed to contain 142,000 acres. Two of the peninsulas terminate in promontories, composed of chalky cliffs, one of which is 430 feet high. There is no port on the island, but from the roads are exported herrings, cattle, corn, and salted geese. The coasts are very dangerous, scarcely a year passing in which several vessels are not stranded, and several ancient regulations are still in force respecting the assistance which the inhabitants are bound to give in case of shipwrecks. The islands of Usedom, Ruden, and Wollin, are formed by the alluvium of the Peene and the Oder; they are very low, and in general sandy.
Dantzic is the principal commercial place in Prussian Poland. It is situate on the western branch of the Vistula, five miles from its mouth, and at the confluence of the rivulets Motlau and Radaune. These form its port, to which there is an entrance by a canal giving a new channel to the Vistula, the old one being choked up. Dantzic has long justly been considered as one of the principal granaries of Europe. Its annual exports of corn average about 700,000 tons. Its other exports are timber, beer, brandy, horse-hair, hogs'-bristles, feathers, wool, amber, honey, wax, linens, masts of ships, corkwood, hemp and flax, potash, salt, tar, skins, fruits, &c. Its imports are English manufactures, and London porter, herrings, fruits, lead, coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, wines, &c.
Pillau, whence there is a considerable export of timber, stands on a peninsula washed by the Fresch-Haff on one side, and the Baltic on the other. From Koningsbergh, on an island at the mouth of the Pregel, Koningsberg, are exported nearly the same articles as from Dant-bergh, in between 600 and 700 vessels annually. From Elbing, at the mouth of the river of the same name, Elbing-corn, starch, linseed-oil, soap, cordage, sail-cloth, saltpetre, potash, and timber, are exported in between 300 and 400 vessels annually. The port of Memel, formerly the mouth of the river Dange, is Memel-liable to be encumbered with mud; its chief exports are, ship-timber, masts, linseed of a superior quality, hemp, flax, hides and tallow.
The first Russian river of consequence that falls into the Baltic is the Western Dwina. It is navigable from its source to within a few miles of Riga, where Courland ridges of rocks form fourteen falls. These, however, do not prevent the floating down of immense quantities of timber. It is frozen from the end of November to the beginning of April. It separates Courland from Livonia, and, after a course of 180 leagues, falls into the gulf of Livonia before Riga. The Narrova, which is the only outlet of Lakes Peipus and Plaskoff, falls into the Gulf of Finland at Narva, but its navigation is obstructed half a-league above that town by a fall. The Neva, which issues from Lake Ladoga, empties itself by several branches at Petersburgh, above which it is from 150 to 200 fathoms broad. It is shallow, and is frozen from the end of October to the end of April. The principal rivers in Finland are the Wuoxen, which falls into Lake Ladoga; the Kymene, into the Gulf of Finland; and the Kumo, Uleo, Kemi, and Torneo, which fall into the Gulf of Bothnia, at the towns of their respective names. In Courland, Russia has only two ports of any commercial consequence, Liebau and Windau, Courland, From the former, on a river of the same name, in the year 1800, 111 vessels cleared out, and 113 entered it; and the value of its export was 1,065,700 rubles, and of its imports 620,000. Riga and Pernau are the principal ports in Livonia. Riga is one of the most commercial cities of the Baltic, and the second in Livonia, of Russia in this respect. Its port can only receive small vessels, large ones being obliged to lie in the roads. The exports consist of corn, hemp, flax, ship-timber, pitch, potash, hides, tallow, iron, &c. The imports are woollen and cotton goods, hardware, wines, oils, and spirits, and colonial produce.
Though the entrance to Revel is through dangerous shoals, and it stands on a river which affords little or no intercourse with the interior, yet its commerce is considerable. Its exports and imports are nearly the same as Riga.
Petersburgh is built on both sides of the Neva, Peters- and on several islands. The mouth of the river being burgh choked by sand, there are only from seven to eleven feet water over it, according as the wind blows from the east or west. With easterly winds, the river often falls three or four feet below its general level; whereas westerly winds sometimes raise it from ten to fifteen feet. Loaded ships, of any considerable burden, cannot, therefore, approach the city within four miles. The principal exports are, iron, hemp, flax, cordage, tallow, hides, linseed-oil, hemp and flax-seed, planks and rafters, leather, soap, candles, wax and honey, fish, caviar, tobacco, rhubarb, tea, isinglass, feathers, linen, and furs. The principal imports are English cotton manufactures, French wines, colours, coffee, sugar, drugs, &c.
Cronstadt, the principal station of the Russian fleet, is built on a little island on the Gulf of Petersburgh, four leagues below the city, the same distance from Ingria, and nine leagues from Finland. The channel to the capital is between this place and the coast of Ingria. Its navigable breadth is three quarters of a mile, its depth four fathoms. The channel between Cronstadt and the coast of Finland has only five feet water. Cronstadt has three havens, two for ships of war, and one for merchant vessels. The dry-docks, which communicate with the sea by a canal, require nine days to empty them. The principal man of war's port has space for 30 sail of the line.
The first commercial port in Finland is Wyborg, built on a peninsula in a gulf of the same name. It exports corn, butter, tallow, fish, fish-oil, salted provisions, timber, tar, and hops. In 1793, the value of the exports was 124,832 rubles, and of the imports 120,000. Helsingfors, the best port in Finland for large ships, is on a bay, and opposite to it is Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the north. It occupies seven Islands, and has two basins for repairing ships of the line and smaller vessels. At the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, on a peninsula, stands Abo. Vessels drawing nine or ten feet go up to the town. While it belonged to Sweden, it was a staple town, with some trade to the Mediterranean, France, and Holland, whither it exported iron, nails, copper, deals, rafters, pitch and tar, salted provisions, hides, furs, coarse linens, and firewood to Stockholm and Copenhagen. From Abo there is no commercial place of consequence till we come to Gamla Carlby, which, in 1794, had 14 ships, of 1530 tons, thirteen of which were employed in foreign trade. Its exports that year were 1800 barrels of tar, 1500 of pitch, between 3000 and 4000 deals, 2000 lbs. of butter, 273 cwt. of tallow, and 900 barrels of corn. Brahestad, a staple town, while Finland belonged to Sweden, possesses commerce nearly of the same kind and to the same amount as Gamla Carlby. It lies in a bay between two peninsulas. Uleoborg, the chief town of East Bothnia, on the Uleo, exports annually a considerable quantity of pitch and tar, butter, tallow, salmon, pike, herrings, and deals. On the Islands at the mouth of the river are two building places, from which five or six ships are launched annually. Torneo is situate on a peninsula, and had formerly a good harbour, but the accumulation of sand has almost spoilt it. The exports, besides the general articles from the other ports of Finland, are salted and smoked rein-deer flesh, and the furs of the rein-deer, fox, wolf, and ermine, procured from the Laplanders who visit the town once a year.
The Russian islands at the north extremity of the Russian Gulf of Livonia, Œsel and Dage, and the numerous Islands, Islands and rocks in the Gulf of Finland require no particular notice. The Archipelago of Aland, which was ceded to Russia along with Swedish Finland in 1809, is composed of one considerable, and above 80 lesser islands and rocks. They are in general elevated, rising in rocky peaks, with numerous caverns. The principal island is nearly round, and 20 leagues in circumference. There is no town on any of them. Besides firewood, 12,000 loads of which are sent annually to Finland and Sweden, the inhabitants export salted beef, seal-skins and oil, tallow, hides, pilchards, and butter, chiefly to Stockholm.
IV. The commerce of the Baltic is considerably facilitated and increased by means of different canals, that the Baltic form a communication with different parts of it, with it and other seas, and with the interior of the countries, the shores of which it washes.
The ancient Scandinavian chronicles mention a Holstein natural water communication between the Baltic Canal, and the German Ocean, through the Danish peninsula, by means of the Gulf of Kiel, the river Lewensaw, the Lake Flemhud, and the river Eyder. When the communication ceased to be practicable, an attempt to renew it was made in the middle of the seventeenth century by the Duke of Holstein Gottorp. It did not however succeed, in consequence of the opposition of the King of Denmark. The union of Holstein and Denmark taking place in 1773, the proposed canal was begun in 1777, and finished in 1784. It enters from the Baltic by the Gulf of Kiel, near the mouth of the Lewensau, the waters of which serve to supply it. It then joins the northern extremity of Lake Flemhud, joins the Upper Eyder, passes by Rendsburgh, and falls into the German Ocean at Tonningen. The perpendicular fall towards the Baltic is 25 feet 6 inches; and that towards the ocean 23. To Lake Flemhud, which is the highest point, the vessels are drawn by horses, and elevated by three locks of nearly 10 feet each : three other locks lower them to the Eyder; from Rendsburgh to Tonningen the vessels use their sails. The whole length of the navigation, from sea to sea, is about 105 miles, of which the canal is about 20½; the breadth is 100 feet at top, and 54 at bottom; the least depth is 10 feet, so that it can admit vessels of about 140 tons burden. Upwards of 2000 pass it annually. The Baltic and the German Ocean are also united by means of the canal of Stecknitz. This canal unites the rivulet of that name, which falls into the Trave with the Devenau, a rivulet emptying itself into the Elbe at Lauenborg. This navigation is fit only for flat-bottom boats, and is very tedious.
The Baltic has communication with the interior of Germany, by the canals of Muhlrose and Finow. The rose and first unites the Oder above Frankfort, with the Spree, Finow. One of the tributary streams of the Elbe. The canal of Finow joins the river of this name, which falls into the Oder, with the Havel, another branch of the Elbe. By means of these and some lesser canals, a long navigation through Silesia, Brandenburgh, Lower Saxony, and Pomerania, is maintained. There is also an artificial navigation which unites the Vistula and the Oder; this is the canal of Bromberg, which joins the Brahë, a tributary of the Vistula, with the Netze, which falls into the Warthe, and the latter into the Oder. The Niemen, in conjunction with the Dnieper, affords a communication between the Baltic and the Black Sea; the canal of Pinsk uniting the former river near its head, with the Priapetz, which empties itself into the Dnieper. These seas are also united by means of the Dwina and Dnieper. The boats employed in this navigation ascend the Dwina to the Ulla, which they also ascend as far as the Lake Beloie, out of which it flows. By crossing this lake, they reach the river Essena, which they ascend to Lake Beresina. Here they enter a canal four leagues long, which conveys them into Lake Plawia. From this lake the river Sargutsch flows, which joins the river Beresina, and this latter falls into the Dnieper; but the cataracts in this river, about 250 miles above its estuary, greatly impede the intercourse that might otherwise be established by these two navigations, between the Baltic and the Black Sea.
The Baltic and Caspian Sea are united by the canals of Ladoga and Vyschnei Volotschok. The canal of Ladoga, so called, not because it enters that Lake, but as winding along its margin, extends from the river Volchof to the Neva. In the original navigation, the boats passed from the canal of Ladoga up the Volchof to Lake Imen, and from this lake entered the river Masta; but in consequence of the fatal accidents that happened on the rapids of this river, one of which is six or seven leagues long, a canal was cut directly from the Volchof to the Masta above the rapids. The old route is here only followed at a certain season, and by boats of a peculiar construction. Ascending the Masta, the boats enter the Lake Mstinskoja, and thence the river Shlina, from which, by means of a canal with a lock, they enter the Sna, and by another lock the canal of Vyschnei Volotschok. This is a league in length, and from it a lock lowers the boats into the Twerza, which they descend to the Volga. In order to facilitate the ascending navigation from Petersburgh, which is rendered tedious by the rapidity of the Volchof and the Masta, a canal has been cut combining the Tichwin, which falls into the Lake Ladoga and the Somina, which falls into the Molaga, a tributary of the Volga. In spring the vessels may draw two and a-half feet water; but in summer only 26 inches. In autumn, the navigation from Vyschnei Volotschok to Petersburgh is performed in rather more than a month; in summer, in three weeks; and in spring in a fortnight.
By these canals a navigation is established nearly the whole way from Petersburgh to the frontiers of China, there being an interruption only in two places, both not more than 60 miles. The distance from Petersburgh is between 1600 and 1700 leagues; but the rivers being navigable only in the fine season, it requires three years to complete the passage. The extent of the commerce is about one and a-half million of rubles annually.
The Baltic and the Caspian are also connected by the canal of Maria. The boats ascend the Neva, cross the Lake Ladoga, and enter the Swir, which they ascend to Lake Onega. From this Lake they ascend the Wytegra, which is united by the canal of Maria to the Kowska. By ascending this, they arrive at Lake Bieloe, crossing which they enter the river Tehesna, which they descend to the Wolga. A canal has long been projected to form a communication between the Baltic and White Sea; but though it was begun nearly forty years ago, there is only a short cut of about seven miles executed.
Ever since the time of Gustavas Vasa, the Swedes Canals have been anxious to form an inland navigation between Stockholm and the Cattegat, principally in order to avoid the payment of the duties of the Sound, and Danish privateers in case of war. This navigation presented no very formidable difficulties. The Gotha flows out of Lake Venar; this is at no great distance from Lake Hielmar; and this is still nearer Lake Maelar, which communicates with the Baltic at Stockholm. Hence, it appears, that the plan of forming an internal water communication between Gottenburgh and the capital, may be divided into three principal parts: the junction of the Hielmar and the Maelar; of the Hielmar and the Venar; and the rendering the Gotha navigable from the Venar to Gottenburgh. The Hielmar is 73 feet higher than the Maelar, which is six feet above the Baltic. These two lakes were united in the reigns of Christina, Charles XI. and Charles XII., by the small river Ulvizon, and the canal of Arboga. Nine locks are necessary to establish this communication. The junction of the Hielmar and Venar has been attempted, only very lately, with any hopes of a successful and speedy termination. The obstacles that opposed the navigation of the Gotha from Lake Venar, were principally just at its first issuing from that lake, at the four cataracts, 20 leagues above Gottenburgh, called by the general name of Trollheta; the fall of Akerstream, about a mile below these cataracts, and a bed of rocks at Edit, considerably nearer Gottenburgh. The first impediment was removed in the reign of Charles IX. and XII. by the Carlsgraf Canal. Attempts were made to remove the second by carrying a canal along the channel of the river; but these not succeeding, it was resolved to cut the canal through the solid rock that forms its banks. This work was begun in 1798, and in seven years it was completed. The canal commences below the first fall of Trollheta (for this fall, by the former plan, had been nearly turned into still water), and is carried nearly a league before it again joins the river; its breadth is 22 feet, and its depth six and a-half; it has eight locks, and a large reservoir. A communication between Lake Maelar and the lake Sodra Barken on the borders of Dalecarlia, is effected by means of the canal of Strahmsholm, some small lakes, a river, and several locks, some of which have a fall of 38 feet. A communication between Lake Maelar and the Baltic, considerably to the south of the exit of that lake, and much shorter than by it, is afforded by means of a canal that joins Lake Maelar with the Sound, at the head of which stands the town of Söder Telje.
It is also proposed to form a communication be- between the Cattegat and the Baltic, by means of the Gotha, the lakes Vener and Vetter, the river Motala, and a canal. Between these lakes are several intermediate waters, which will facilitate the communication; the Vetter empties itself by the river Motala, which enters the Bay of Browick at Nordkæping; but, in consequence of the falls and other obstructions of this river, it will be employed only part of its course, in the intended navigation, which will be completed by a canal to the Gulf of Sletbacken, at Söderkæping.
V. In proportion as the maritime nations of Europe increased their navy, the commerce of the Baltic, which supplied them with flax, hemp, iron, pitch, tar, timber, and masts, flourished and extended. England and France filled their arsenals with marine stores from the Baltic; and the Dutch formed immense depots of them, not only for their own use, but to supply the nations of the south of Europe. The stimulus to the commerce of this sea was reciprocal; for the nations on its shores began to acquire a taste for the luxuries of life, wines, spices, fine woollens, cottons, silks, sweet oil, fruits, tobacco, coffee, sugar, and expensive furniture. Towards the middle of the seventeenth century, 2000 vessels passed the Sound annually. Light-houses and beacons were multiplied, companies of pilots were formed, and tribunals of commerce, banks, and exchanges, were established in the principal cities. Christian IV. was particularly distinguished for accelerating the commercial progress of Denmark at this period, though, by his war with Sweden, he weakened and diminished his territories. From the reign of Eni XIV. Sweden had gradually extended her influence and her commerce on the Baltic. Charles IX. subdued a great part of Esthonia and Livonia, built towns in Finland, and founded Gottenburgh. Gustavus Adolphus built several towns on the Gulf of Bothnia. Charles XI. encouraged the building of merchant vessels, and paid great attention to the improvement of roads and the formation of canals.
Soon after this, another maritime power appeared on the shores of the Baltic. Frederick William, the Great Elector, having acquired a part of Pomerania, and formed Prussia into an independent state, turned his attention to commerce. He attacked Sweden, annoyed her commerce, organized the ports of Prussia, and deepened and provided with pilots those of Memel, Elbing, Koningsbergh, and Pillau.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Russia, under Peter the Great, began to participate in the commerce of this sea. Esthonia and Livonia were united to his dominions, and Petersburgh was founded. The first foreign vessel that entered the Neva was a large Dutch ship, richly laden; and her arrival gave Peter so much pleasure, that he granted her an exemption from all duties so long as she should continue to trade to Petersburgh; and, by frequent repairs, she was kept in existence for more than half a century. So early as 1718, 100 Dutch ships loaded at Petersburgh, and other nations soon followed their example. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the exports of Russia from the Baltic amounted to twelve or thirteen millions of rubles, and her imports to about eight or ten.
During the wars which arose out of the French revolution, the commercial relations and resources of the Baltic nations have undergone a considerable change by the transference of Swedish Pomerania to Prussia; of Swedish Finland to Russia; and of Norway to Sweden. The effects which these transfers will produce, cannot yet be ascertained.
The following statements and tables, will exhibit a view of the commerce of the Baltic nations at the close of the last, and the commencement of the present century.
The Danish vessels visit the ports of Mecklenburgh Danish and Pomerania, with horses, bullocks, butter, cheese, fish, fish-oil, colonial produce, &c.; and receive in return, thread, linen, brandy, wool, hardware, paper, &c. To Petersburgh, Riga, and Memel, the Danes send herrings and dried fish, woollen manufactures, salt of France, Spain and Portugal, India and China goods, oysters, and dog-skin gloves; for which they receive potash, planks, fire-wood, flax, and hemp, cordage, iron, copper, linens, and corn. To Holland, Denmark exports rape-seed, salted and dried fish, and timber; and receives spices, drugs, corn, pipes, and paper. To England, hides, bar-iron, kelp, furs, tar, timber, &c. The returns are, hardware goods, woollens, cottons, hats, and colonial produce. From the official account of the real value of the imports into Denmark from Great Britain, from the 5th January 1798, to the 5th January 1808, laid before Parliament, in consequence of the attack on Copenhagen, it appears, that from 1798 to 1803, they are rated about half a million; and that from 1803 to 1808, they varied from two to six millions. France receives from Denmark, horses, butter, cheese, fish, &c.; and returns salt, wines, brandy, fruits, silks, &c. The exports to Spain and Portugal are nearly the same as to France; the imports also are the same, with the addition of wool and American produce. To the Mediterranean, Denmark sends fish, salted provisions, butter, iron, &c.; and receives wines, brandy, oils, fruit, and salt. The Danes derive great profit from hiring their vessels to the ports of Italy, as their flag is generally respected by the Barbary States. The exports to the Faroe Islands are wheat, flour, brandy, tea, coffee, sugar, linens, &c.; the imports are dried and salted fish, fish-oil, feathers, hides, tallow, and worsted stockings. The exports to, and imports from Iceland, are nearly the same; the imports from Greenland are whale-oil and bone, seal-oil and skins, eider down; the exports nearly the same as to the Faroe and Iceland Islands. Denmark has also a trifling trade to the East and West Indies.
State of the Danish merchant marine at different periods.
<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>No. of Vessels.</th> <th>Tonnage.</th> <th>Seamen.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1746</td> <td>1200 to 1500</td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1792</td> <td>3113</td> <td>185,336</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1799</td> <td>2183</td> <td>124,129</td> <td>18,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1806</td> <td>2529</td> <td>136,166</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1810</td> <td>1972</td> <td>100,938</td> <td></td> </tr> </table> In 1807, the Danish fleet consisted of 26 sail of the line; 16 frigates; 9 sloops, and 30 gun-vessels.
The foreign commerce of Sweden is confined to a certain number of ports, which have custom-houses; these are called staple towns; they are Stockholm, Gottenburgh, Warberg, Halmstad, Nordkeeping, Landscrona, Carlscrona, Christianstad, Carlshamn, Calmar, Westervic, Uddervalla, Marstrand, Gefle, and Abo and Wasa in Finland, now given up to Russia. The foreign commerce is supposed to be divided among these cities, as follows:
Stockholm \( \frac{7}{15} \)ths of exports, and \( \frac{1}{3} \) of imports. Gothinburgh \( \frac{2}{15} \)ths The other ports \( \frac{4}{15} \)ths
Sweden exports to the foreign parts of the Baltic, iron, steel, copper, lime, alum, and herrings, and receives corn, hemp, tallow, and hides. To Holland, she exports iron; and receives spices, tobacco, prepared colours and papers. To England, she exports iron, timber, pitch, tar, potash, and herrings; her imports are lead, tin, leather, bear, butter and cheese; and every kind of manufacture and colonial produce. In France, Spain, and Portugal, the exports are iron, steel, copper and brass, and wines, brandy, fruits; oil and silks are the returns. To Italy and the Levant she exports all her territorial productions; and receives salts, spices, fruits and cotton. There are from four to six ships of 600 to 1000 tons burden in the East India trade. In 1800, she had above 2000 merchant vessels of 20 tons and upwards; but the rupture with England and cession of Finland reduced them, in 1810, to 1500. In 1809, her navy was reduced, in consequence of her wars with Russia, to 13 sail of the line, 9 or 10 frigates, and about 150 vessels of the flotilla.
The Prussian ports, including Dantzic, export almost the whole of the commercial productions of Poland, consisting of corn, fir planks and rafters, masts, hemp, tar, pitch, potash, hides and tallow, leather, honey and wax; besides Pomeranian oak, brandy, woollens, linens, caviar, and amber. The imports are wines, coffee, sugar, tobacco, spices, salt, iron, copper, Spanish wool, herrings, and flax seed from Livonia and Courland. Towards the close of the last century, the merchant marine of the Prussian ports on the Baltic, consisted of between 900 and 1000 ships. Salted and smoked meat, hides, wool, butter, cheese, corn and fruits, are the exports of that part of Pomerania which belonged to Sweden and Mecklenburgh; the corn of the latter is principally taken off by England; that of Pomerania, as well as the fruits, used to go to Sweden.
The following table exhibits the exports and imports of Russia, so far as her commerce in the Baltic is concerned, in the beginning of this century:
<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Exports.<br>Rubls.</th> <th>Imports.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1802</td> <td>47,000,000</td> <td>33,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1804</td> <td>45,000,000</td> <td>27,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1805</td> <td>52,000,000</td> <td>29,000,000</td> </tr> </table>
The commercial marine of Russia is very small; the total number of her merchant-vessels that navigate the Baltic and the Ocean, not exceeding 50; 100 smaller vessels carry on the coasting-trade of the Baltic; and about 100 craft of 20 or 80 tons are employed in loading and discharging the vessels at Cronstadt, that cannot enter the Neva. At the close of the year 1807, the Russian Baltic fleet consisted of 20 sail of the line, 14 frigates, six brigs and cutters, and 19 small craft; and the Baltic flotilla, of 20 gallies, 25 floating-batteries, 81 gun-boats, and 16 yauls.
During the year 1815, there passed the Sound, inwards and outwards, in January, 45 ships; in February, 17; in March, 147; in April, 692; in May, 1243; in June, 1104; in July, 1476; in August, 1171; in September, 1251; in October, 783; in November, 542; and in December, 274; making a total, in the course of the year 1815, of 8745.—In the height of the season, not fewer than 100 vessels pass every four-and-twenty hours, for many weeks in succession.
See Thomson's Travels in Sweden; Tableau de la Mer Baltique, par Catteau; Tableau des Etats Danois, par Catteau; Macpherson's edition of Anderson's History of Commerce; Oddy's European Commerce; Maritime Geography and Statistics, by Tuckey, Vol. I.