a mountainous country, or rather range of mountains, in Asia, reaching northwards, from the great ridge of Hindoo Coosh to the source of the Oxus. It forms thus the western boundary of the territory of Kaushkaur. The whole range is covered with snow during the greater part of the year; but there is only one point of perpetual snow, being that from which the Oxus and Kama take their rise. The territory is watered also by a considerable river, called the Koocha, which falls into the Oxus. The mountains contain many valuable mines of silver, iron, antimony, and lapis lazuli. Budukshaun is celebrated also for mines of rubies, situated on the lower hills, near the Oxus; but they are no longer wrought.

This country, from its inaccessible situation, has generally maintained its independence against any foreign power. The present chief, Sultaun Mahomed, is said to be absolute over his own subjects. He has a revenue of about L. 60,000, and maintains from 7000 to 10,000 men, armed with matchlocks, in the use of which the Budukshees are said to be peculiarly expert. The capital is Tyzabad, a considerable town situated on the river Koocha.

Buenos Ayres, one of the viceroyalties Boundaries, into which the Spanish dominions in South America are divided, and the most extensive of the whole. To the south and north its limits are not exactly defined, as it stretches into extensive deserts inhabited only by savages, and little known. Its southern boundary may be considered to extend from Cape Lobos westward to the Rio Colorado; on the north it is bounded by Amazonia, or the country of those independent Indians who wander about the Amazons and its tributary streams; on the east by Brasil and the Atlantic Ocean; and on the west by the great ridge of the Cordilleras, which separates it from Chili, and further to the north from Peru. From Cape Lobos to the furthest northern settlements on the Paraguay, it extends upwards of 1600 miles; and from Cape St Anthony at the mouth of the Plata, to the ridges that separate it from Chili, 1000 miles. It was erected into a viceroyalty in 1778, and several districts were added to it from Peru and Chili. From the latter those provinces were principally taken which are situated on the eastern declivity of the Andes.

The viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres is divided into five governments or provinces, namely, I. Buenos Ayres, or Rio de La Plata, of which the chief towns are Buenos Ayres the capital, Santa Fe, Monte Video, and Maldonado on the opposite shores of the river. II. Paraguay, of which the chief town is Assumption. III. Tucuman, of which the chief towns are San Jago del Estero, and Cordova. IV. Los Charcos, or Potosi, formerly part of Peru, and comprehending the new district of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The chief towns are La Plata, Potosi, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and La Paz. V. Chiquito, or Cuzco, formerly part of Chili, of which the chief towns are Mendoza, and San Juan de la Frontera.

The viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres forms a compact body of land nearly square, lying between the mountains of Brasil on the east, and the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili on the west. Towards the south, from those great ranges of mountains, a considerable tract of elevated country branches into the interior, in which arise all the numerous streams by which the country is watered; whilst its western and southern parts, descending by gradual slopes, run into extensive, and in some places marshy, plains to the foot of the Cordillera of Chili.

It is chiefly by means of the Rio de la Plata, that those extensive regions are drained of their waters; all the streams which have their rise in the eastern declivity of the Chilian Andes, or that descend from the western ridges of Brasil, being ultimately carried into the channel of this great river. In the upper part of its course, it is known by the name of the Paraguay, and runs nearly in the centre of the American continent, from N. to S., receiving from the mountains of Brasil the two great streams of the Parana and the Uruguay, while from the west it receives the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado, which flow down the eastern declivity of the Andes.

It was called Rio de la Plata, or River of Silver, by Sebastian Cabot, from his having taken a considerable booty, in gold and silver, from a body of Indians whom he defeated on its banks, and this imposing title it has ever since retained. This appellation, however, though no doubt intended by its author to apply to the whole of the river, is now confined to the channel by which the Paraguay, the Panana, and the Uruguay, pour their united waters into the ocean. This vast estuary of fresh water, which is without a parallel for width and magnificence, is 150 miles broad at its mouth, from Cape St Maria, on one side, and Cape St Anthony, on the other. Between Monte Video and the Punta de Piedras, which some have considered its proper limits, it is 80 miles in breadth; and at Buenos Ayres, which is 200 miles from its mouth, its breadth is about 30 miles; and, the shores being low, it is seldom that they can be seen from opposite sides. This immense inland sea is, however, rendered dangerous for the purposes of navigation, not only by rocks and sand-banks, which are the terror of mariners, and which greatly detract from its utility; but by tempests of wind which, bursting forth from the south-west, sweep over the boundless plains of the Pampas, where they meet with no obstacle to oppose them, and rush down the wide opening of the Plata with unequalled fury. A thunder storm is the general prelude to those destructive blasts, which are known by the name of the Pamperos; so that the mariner, being warned of the coming tempest, generally seeks shelter in some of the neighbouring ports.

The greater part of the country included within the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, forms, according to Azara, a vast plain, of which the uniform level is hardly ever interrupted by hills of a greater elevation than of 90 toises above their base; and it has been calculated, by barometrical observations, that the great river Paraguay, in its progress southward, does not fall above one foot in perpendicular height between the 18th and 22d parallels of south latitude. In like manner it is asserted, by persons well acquainted with the country, that when the easterly winds occasion, the rivers of Buenos Ayres to rise to the height of seven feet above its ordinary level, this rise is perceived in the river Panana at the distance of 60 leagues.

In consequence of this flatness of the country, the rains which fall upon the Cordilleras are stopped when they descend into the plain, and are insensibly evaporated; so that a number of small rivulets which, under a different configuration of the ground, would be collected into rivers, are here checked in their course, and gradually evaporated. Nor can any art or skill ever remedy this physical defect of the country; for the same cause which prevents its superfluous moisture from forcing its way to the ocean, would equally prevent the conveyance of water by means of any artificial canal. In Buenos Ayres, accordingly, and in other places situate on the banks of rivers, it is always found necessary to make use of a pump in order to raise the water to the level of the town.

But this peculiarity is, on the other hand, favourable to the formation of lakes. There being no outlet to the superfluous waters which the soil cannot absorb, they are necessarily collected in the flat parts of the country, where they spread to a great extent, covering an immense space, but of no great depth in any part. Most of the lakes which are to be found in this extensive country are of this description. Of these, the celebrated lake of Los Xarayes is formed by the collected waters which fall during four months from the beginning of November to the end of February in the northern provinces, and in the mountainous districts in which the Paraguay has its sources. This great river, swelled by the tropical rains, soon overflows its banks, and its redundant waters spread to a great extent over the flat country through which it flows. As the quantity of rain which falls in different years varies considerably, the dimensions of Lake Xarayes, which is formed by the overflowing of the river, are liable to great uncertainty. In general, however, it is found to extend beyond the 17th degree of south latitude, and about this point its breadth on the east of the river Paraguay is about 66 miles. It preserves the same breadth for about 300 miles to the north, surrounding with its waters several islands which are covered with lofty trees. On the west side of the river, the breadth of the lake is not so considerable. Its whole length, according to the nearest estimate, may be 330 miles, and its breadth on an average 120 miles. But although it spreads over so large a space, it is not navigable in any part except for canoes and small craft. When the rainy season abates, the waters of this lake subside into the channel of the Paraguay, leaving the whole plain perfectly dry, and covered with weeds and other plants. The number of crocodiles in this lake is immense, and in the vicinity are found tigers, leopards, stags, and monkeys of various kinds; the country also swarms with ants, mosquitoes, and innumerable noxious insects. During the inundation, the Portuguese, from their settlements on the Cuyaha, cross the lake in canoes and small barks. There are various other lakes of the same description in Paraguay, such as that of Aguaraçaty in the 25th degree of latitude; those which are found to the south and north of the lake of Ypoa, situated in the 26th degree; that of Neembucu at the 27th; all those which lie on the eastern banks of the Paraguay, besides an infinite number of others of more or less extent, on the banks of all the streams and rivulets which run through the vast plains of this level country.

All those more permanent collections of water, which depend not for their existence on the supply from the periodical rains, are in like manner spread over extensive flats, and they have in consequence little depth. Of this sort, there is a great number, both large and small, scattered throughout different parts of the country. The most considerable are the lakes of Mandilha, situated in 25° 20' of south latitude, that of Ypacaray, situated in 25° 23', and the Iberi, to the south of the Paraná, between the 20th and 29th parallels. This lake is of an irregular figure, nearly 200 miles in length, but little more than 46 in breadth. It gives rise to three rivers which, issuing from its south-west extremity, fall into the Paraná, namely, the St Lucia, Batela, and Corrientes, and also to the river Mirinay, which, taking a south-east course, falls into the river Uruguay. It is shallow, and filled with aquatic plants, which greatly obstruct the access into the interior. The immense expanse of its waters is diversified by several islands, which are covered with wood, and abound in deer and other game. It produces a continual supply of fish, which are remarkably sweet and fresh, and abundance of wild fowl are found on its surface. This lake overflows twice a-year; its environs are fertile and beautiful, and they are enlivened by the flourishing settlements, now called Presidencies, which have been established on its shores.

In the late additions which have been made to the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, from the kingdom of Peru, the lake Titicaca, or Chucuito, appears to be included. It is situated between the two Cordilleras of Peru, in the north-western part of the province of Los Charcos, and, being formed by the accumulated waters of the surrounding mountains, which have no outlet, it differs entirely from the lakes which are to be found in the flat parts of the country, being in some parts from 70 to 80 fathoms in depth. It is about 240 miles in circumference, and is navigable for the largest vessels, but is subject to storms, owing to the winds which descend in tremendous gusts from the neighbouring mountains. It is frequented by immense flocks of water-fowl; and its shores are covered with flags and rushes, which serve for many purposes of domestic manufacture. It contains several islands, of which the largest is Titicaca, from which this lake derives its name. The banks are crowded with towns and villages, which are considered the most pleasant residences in the country. Helms, who travelled by this route from Buenos Ayres to Lima, mentions, that, after quitting the banks of the Plata, he did not meet with any country, in the whole course of his journey, so pleasant and picturesque, as that which bordered on this lake. The hills and dales appeared agreeably intermixed with the richest meadows, on which were feeding numerous herds of cattle, mules, horses, and sheep.

The vast plains of which so great a proportion of this viceroyalty consists are many of them fruitful; and, in the vicinity of the Spanish settlements, where they have been cultivated, they yield abundant crops of excellent corn, and other productions, while others afford pasture for numerous flocks of sheep. From the banks of the Paraguay, immense plains extend westward to the limits of the province of Los Charcos, and to the mountains that rise far to the north. These are in general elevated and dry, though traversed by numerous rivers. They are skirted by extensive and ancient forests, which afford shelter to the wild animals of the country, and they are inhabited by scattered tribes of Indians, who roam over their trackless deserts in a state of savage independence. One continued plain, in like manner, extends from the banks of the Plata to Chili, and to the large rivers of Patagonia. These plains are called the Pampas, and they present one uniform expanse of waving grass, uninterrupted either by wood or eminence for about 900 miles. The luxuriant herbage of those fertile districts affords pasture to innumerable herds of cattle, which rove about over a great portion of South America, and which are principally sought after by the Spanish hunters for their hides and tallow. The same circumstance has also favoured the multiplication of wild horses, which are so numerous in the plains, that travellers are often surrounded with them for the space of several weeks; and while they are passing them in troops, at full speed, which frequently happens for hours together, the party are in the greatest danger of being run over and trampled down. Here are also found deer, as well as great abundance of ostriches, armadillos, wild geese, ducks, partridges, and other game, and towards the frontiers, guanacos and vicunas are met with in considerable numbers. These regions are not well watered; for, though the rivers Saladillo, Hueque-Leuvu, and the first Desaguadero, otherwise called Río Colorado, run through them, the country is traversed by no smaller streams running into those main rivers; so that they hold their solitary course through the arid plains; and no water is to be found, except what is collected in the pools when the rain falls.

This country, though neither inhabited by Indians nor Spaniards, is occasionally traversed by both; by travelling the former in hunting or in predatory excursions, and by the latter in journeying from Mendoza across the Pampas, Buenos Ayres, or in hunting expeditions. There is a route across the Pampas to Chili; but no stations have been established for the accommodation or protection of travellers, who are exposed, in consequence, to the attacks of the savage Indians. As there is frequently no beaten track for hundreds of miles, nor any traces by which the road can be discovered, the journey across the level country is often pursued by the compass. In travelling, covered carts are made use of, which are constructed with all the accommodations of a house, having doors to shut, windows on each side, and mattresses laid on the floor, on which the travellers sleep for the greater part of the journey. In general, they begin travelling about two hours before sunset, and continue all night, until an hour after sun-rise in the morning. In the course of this journey, the party are exposed to many dangers and inconveniencies. Of these the want of water is the most serious evil. It is always necessary to carry a supply with them, both for themselves and their cattle; but when this fails, they suffer the greatest distress, unless fortunately a shower of rain comes to their relief. The excessive heats during the day are also greatly complained of. Against these the caravan affords no adequate shelter, nor does it protect its inmates against the rains, which often fall in excessive quantities. The inconceivable fury of the westerly winds, which sweep across the Pampas without any interruption, presents another obstacle to the progress of the traveller. There is a road established across the country from Buenos Ayres to Lima, which is more frequented than the route to Chili. On this road regular stages were established in the year 1748, post-houses were erected, and relays of horses and carriages were provided, for the accommodation of travellers. It is likewise free from all danger of attacks from the Indian tribes, who, in their predatory incursions, seldom advance so far within the precincts of the Spanish territories; and it is only in the first stages that it is thought necessary to place troops at the different stations for the security of travellers. This was the route pursued by Helms, the German Mineralogist, who has published an account of his journey. In traversing the mountainous districts of the Andes, the party were exposed to the most sudden and dangerous vicissitudes of heat and cold, sometimes oppressed by the scorching heat of the deep valleys through which the road winded, and within the space of a few hours shivering in the regions of everlasting ice and snow.

There is a very large tract of country in the extensive plains of South and North America, of which the soil is saturated with fossil salt. In this viceroyalty the saline plains extend about 600 or 700 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. It has been generally observed, that, in all the country westward of the Paraguay, in all that tract which is comprehended under the denomination of the Chaco, and in the country also to the south of the Plata, from Cape St Anthony on the south to the Rio Vermelho on the north, there is not a single rivulet, lake, or well, which is not of a brackish taste during the heats of summer, when a quick evaporation takes place, or during a long course of dry weather, when no rain falls to correct, by its freshness, the natural saltness of the rivers and springs. All the rivers that flow from the western Andes yield excellent water, until they reach the salt territory, after which their waters are not fit to be drunk until they reach the Parana. Even the great rivers the Pilcomayo and the Vcrmejo have a brackish taste during the dry season, when their waters are low. The rivers and springs are, however, more impregnated with salt in some parts than in others. The fort of Melincue, which is situated about 33° 44' S. lat. and about 150 miles to the north-west of Buenos Ayres, is almost entirely surrounded with salt lakes, which are frequently dry when there is a scarcity of rain. Azara mentions that, arriving in this quarter in the month of March, he found the surface of the ground, for about a league across, covered to the depth of four inches with Epsom salt. To the south-west of Buenos Ayres, about 130 Salt Lakes. leagues, there is a salt lake always filled with excellent common salt, which is preferred to that of Europe on account of its being entirely free from a slight tincture of bitterness, always supposed, in these countries, to adhere to European salt. In the neighbourhood, at the distance of from 400 to 450 miles, there is an abundance of salt lakes, which produce very fine crystalline-grained salt. These lakes are large and broad. Some of them are surrounded by woods to a considerable distance; and their banks are white with salt, which needs no other preparation than an exposure for some time to the heat of the sun. Journeys are undertaken from Buenos Ayres to this part of the country, for the purpose of procuring salt, and from 200 to 300 carts are annually loaded with it for the supply of this city. Numerous salt-lakes of the same description occur in the neighbourhood of the river Vermejo, and in the Chaco to the west of the Paraguay. At the city of Assumption, situated on the Paraguay, in latitude 21° 47' south, and longitude 59° 35' west, a considerable quantity of salt is refined from the earth. Between Santa Fe and Cordova, a still greater quantity is produced, and this quality of the soil reaches to St Jago del Estero, where the whole ground is covered with a white incrustation of salt, and even quite across the barren and desert plain which extends westward to the foot of the Cordillera. Natural saltpetre is also produced in this coun- Saltpetre. try in great abundance. After a shower of rain the ground appears white with it, so as to chill the feet excessively. A small quantity, however, is only collected, no more than is sufficient to manufacture fire works for the amusement of the converted Indians, at the religious festivals of the Romish church.

In this country, as in Brasil, and other parts of America, the cattle are accustomed to receive salt as part of their nourishment. In the province of Paraguay, they eat a sort of salted clay which they find in the ditches, and when this fails, which sometimes happens in the eastern cantons of this province, and in the missions on the banks of the Uruguay, numbers of cattle perish in the space of a few months. It is incredible with what avidity they feed upon this singular nutriment, and when they have wanted it for some time, no inducement, not even blows, will tempt them to quit the place where they have found it.

The western parts of this viceroyalty, more espe- Mountains, cially the provinces which were added from Peru, are generally mountainous, comprehending within their limits some of the highest ridges of the Andes. The province of Los Charcos includes a considerable proportion of the two principal chains that run from north to south along the eastern part of Peru, and between which lie the elevated plains of Cuzco, with the districts of Los Charcos, rugged and barren, but rich in mineral treasures. From the great chain of the Andes, branches diverge in different parts, and extend far into the interior. Of these, the mountains of Cordova and Achala, in the province of Tucuman, and those of the more westerly province of Cuyo, form secondary ridges; and another ridge of this nature branches off in the latitude of the great river Colorado, which, under the Indian appellation of Casabati, runs nearly across to the Atlantic. These southern mountains are covered with thick impenetrable woods, and are little known. The eastern mountains, which form the Brazilian ridge, are also of secondary elevation. They are generally covered with thick forests, interspersed with extensive tracts wholly devoid of vegetation. They form a cluster of mountains towards the interior provinces of Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso, by which the tributary streams of the great river of the Amazonas are divided from those which run south into the Plata. Different ridges diverge from them to the north and south, and the main chain extends quite across the Continent, taking a north-westerly direction towards Santa Cruz, de la Sierra, and Potosi, and thus uniting with the great ridges of the western Cordillera. In this mountainous district, the summits of the Andes rise above the regions of the clouds, and are covered with eternal snows. In the lower parts of the mountain, where the snow is only occasional, sterile tracts of sandy deserts appear, which are bordered with various kinds of lichen that grow in crevices. To this imperfect vegetation succeeds a wiry kind of grass or rush, the natural food of the guanacos and the vicunas which haunt those upland deserts. The mountains of secondary elevation are covered with stately forests, and the embosomed vales which are interspersed amongst them, though frequently of a higher elevation than the summits of the Pyrenees, enjoy from their sheltered situation a temperate and favourable climate, which adapts them to the production, in great abundance, of all sorts of European fruits and grain. In many of those valleys, apples, peaches, cherries, plumbs, grow to great perfection. Wheat is cultivated with success, and there are extensive natural pastures, which afford herbage for large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep.

In the lower districts of the country, and in the plains, wheat, maize, cocoa, grapes, oranges, citrons, figs, olives, and sugar-canes, are among the most common productions; and the herb paraguay, or matté, which furnishes the favourite beverage of all ranks, with the exception of the European Spaniards, is yielded in great abundance. This herb, which is called the tea of Paraguay, is drunk as an infusion, and the Creoles are so passionately fond of it, that they never travel without a supply of this favourite refreshment. About 100,000 arrobas of this plant, of 25 lbs. each, are annually exported from Paraguay to Peru. The value of each arroba is estimated at L. 1, 3s. 4d. Sterling, which makes the annual value of this merchandise sent to Peru equal to L.116,666. There are, besides, great quantities sent to Buenos Ayres from the city of Assumption, of which this herb constitutes one of the principal articles of export.

The route from Buenos Ayres to Potosi, which is 1617 geographical miles, and from Potosi to Lima, which is an additional 1215 miles, passes over the highest ridge of the Andes, and, according to the account of Helms, who crossed the continent by it to Lima, the traveller who undertakes so arduous a journey must expect to meet with every sort of privation and hardship; not only from being exposed to the utmost extremes both of heat and cold, but from the rugged and impracticable nature of the country through which he has to pass. It is only during the summer that the passage across the Andes can be attempted, and as this is the season when the mountain snows begin to melt, the streams which rush down the declivities of the Cordilleras are swelled to impetuous torrents. And this often happens so suddenly, that the unfortunate traveller has no time to escape from the fury of the stream, but is swept down with his mule, and perishes miserably amid the precipices and dark abysses through which the foaming waters take their rapid course. To facilitate the passage across these rivers, wooden bridges are frequently constructed, of sufficient breadth to admit the passage of a traveller on horseback; but where the river is too broad for the construction of those bridges, other bridges are thrown over of a slighter construction. These are formed of a thin elastic cane, called bijuco, and from thence they have received the name of bijuco bridges. Several of these canes are twisted together so as to form a large cable of the length required. Six of these being stretched from one side of the river to the other, two of which are considerably higher than the other four, sticks are laid in a transverse direction over the lower four, and over these branches of trees. The two uppermost ropes are fastened to the others that are lower, so as to serve as rails for the security of the passengers, who would otherwise be in no small danger from the continual oscillation. These bridges are only for men, the mules being taught to swim across the rivers. But where the rapidity of the torrent, and the large stones which it continually rolls down, render it impracticable for mules, a contrivance is adopted for passing them safely across, named a tarabita. This consists of two ropes made of bijuco, or of thongs of an ox-hide twisted together to a proper thickness. These ropes, being extended across the river, are fastened on each bank to strong posts, and the animal being slung in a sort of leathern hammock which depends from the ropes, and properly secured by girths round the belly, neck, and legs, is drawn to the opposite shore by means of ropes fastened to the hammock and extending to both sides of the river. For the carrying over men or baggage only one rope is required, and on one side is a winch or wheel by which it may be either tightened or slackened as circumstances may require.

In those upper regions heat and cold depend, it Climate is well known, not so much on the geographical position of any particular place, as on its height above the level of the sea. In South America, accordingly, which is distinguished above all other countries by the prodigious elevation of its soil, we find everlasting ice and snow under the rays of a tropical sun; and throughout the whole tract of this elevated country the climate is uniformly modified by the height of the land. In the low country, on the other hand, the distance from the equator fixes the climate; and the extensive and unsheltered plains are ex- posed to the most scorching heats, more especially those towards the south. At Assumption, the capital of Paraguay, which is situated in 25° 16' 46" of south latitude, it is stated by Azara that, in ordinary summer weather, Fahrenheit's thermometer rose, within doors, to 85 degrees; and that, during the greatest heat of the season, it rose so high as 100. During the winter, in weather which would have been called cold, it fell to 45; but in seasons when the cold was unusually severe, such as in the years 1786 and 1789, the water was found frozen in a court adjoining his house. The nature of the weather depends, in a great measure, on the prevailing winds. It is generally remarked, that a south or south-east wind brings cold weather, and that the weather is hot when the wind blows from the north. This last is the most prevailing wind, the southerly wind not blowing, at the most, for more than a twelfth part of the year. The west wind is scarcely ever known, and, if it is sometimes felt, it scarcely continues for two hours together.

At Buenos Ayres, which is situated in south latitude 34° 35', the weather is, of course, colder than at Assumption; and it is considered as an ordinary winter in which there are only three or four days when water is slightly frozen. Here, and on the coast, the winds are greatly more violent than in the interior. The west winds, which have been already noticed, are more frequent; and those from the south-east, while they always bring rain in winter, are accompanied with clear weather in summer. The violent winds, which prevail both in summer and spring, raise clouds of dust which penetrate into all the apartments of the houses, and greatly inconvenience the inhabitants. Hurricanes are rare; but they sometimes occur. In the year 1799, the settlement of Atira in Paraguay was thrown down by one of them; thirty-six persons were killed, many cargoes were blown away, and various other destructive consequences were experienced. The atmosphere is everywhere filled with moisture, by which the furniture of the houses is injured. At Buenos Ayres, all the apartments which have a southern exposure have the floors continually damp; the walls are also covered with moss, and the roofs with a sort of bushy grass, three feet in height, which must be cleared away every two or three years, to prevent the moisture from sinking down into the house. This moisture of the atmosphere does not appear to be in the least degree prejudicial to the health of the inhabitants. In no country is thunder and lightning more violent. The peals of thunder succeed each other with such rapidity, that there seems hardly an instant between them, and the whole heavens appear as if they were illuminated with one flame. These thunder-storms are frequently fatal to individuals; and in one of them, which happened in January 1793, the lightning struck the town of Buenos Ayres in thirty-seven places, and killed nineteen persons.

The precious metals, which form such an important article of commerce in this viceroyalty, are entirely derived from the western provinces, which lie on the eastern declivity of the Cordillera, and which, in 1778, were separated from Peru. The following enumeration of the mines presently worked was extracted by Helms from the records of the chancery.

<table> <tr> <th>Districts.</th> <th>Gold.</th> <th>Silver.</th> <th>Copper.</th> <th>Tin.</th> <th>Lead.</th> </tr> <tr><td>Tucuman</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>2</td></tr> <tr><td>Mendoza</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Atacama</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>1</td></tr> <tr><td>Carangas</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Lipes</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>1</td></tr> <tr><td>Porco</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Potosi</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Pacages or Benenguela</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Chucuito</td><td></td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Puno</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Lampa</td><td></td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Chicusy</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Tanija</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr> <tr><td>Cochabamba</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Sicasica</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Lavicaja</td><td>4</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Omasuyo</td><td>4</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Avanguro</td><td>3</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Carabaya</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Chayanza</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr> <tr><td>Misque</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td>Paria</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr> <tr><td>Monte Video</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> </table>

An account of the accidental discovery of the rich Silver Mines of Potosi will be found in the Encyclopædia under the article Peru. In 1545, the first mine was formally registered. Another was discovered some days afterwards. A third, surpassing the two others in wealth, was distinguished by the name of Rica, which, with a fourth, were soon worked with great activity. The mountain, which at the base is 18 miles in circumference, is pierced everywhere by the operations of the miners. According to Helms, who visited Potosi in 1789, above three hundred pits were at that time worked; but those who directed these works seemed totally ignorant of the first principles of mining. Few of them penetrated to a greater depth than 70 yards, and they were all of them worked as irregularly, as if it had been merely for plunder. Many of the pits were inundated with water; to free them from which, a main conduit had been begun in 1778, which, in the course of nine years, had, at an incredible expence, been carried two miles in length. But so unskilfully had this important work been planned, that even at its mouth the conduit was above the level of the water in many of the mines, after which it rose about one yard in every thirty-two, which rendered it still more inefficacious. Eight new veins were intersected by this conduit, some of them containing very rich silver ores. Another conduit was inspected by Helms and the other German Mineralogists who accompanied him, which was begun about 100 years before, and which led to many rich veins of red and grey silver ore. For want of proper machinery, however, all the pits were filled with water; though, under better management, they might have been made to yield a considerable revenue to their proprietors.

The one from which silver is extracted is various in its nature, consistency, and colour. The mountain of Potosi consists chiefly of a yellow, very firm argillaceous slate, full of veins of ferruginous quartz, in which silver ore, and sometimes brittle vitreous ore, are found interspersed. There is also a greyish brown one, in which appear some small grains, and thin branches or veins of silver, running along the layers of stone. This ore is extremely rich, yielding for each caxon, or 50 hundred weight, 20 marcs of silver or about 13 lbs. Some of the ores which are found in other provinces of this viceroyalty appear black, frequently from the admixture of lead. The silver is seen when the ore is scratched. These ores are called negrillos, from their colour, and are esteemed very rich, yielding 50 or 60 marcs of silver per caxon. They are more valued also on another account, namely, that the silver is extracted from them at a small charge. In place of the usual process of amalgamation with quicksilver, they are merely melted in furnaces, where the lead, being evaporated by the fire, the silver is left pure and clean. There is another sort of rich ore, containing a large proportion of the finest silver, which turns red if it is wetted and rubbed against iron. Some of the ores glitter like talc. These yield but little silver; but, being soft, the metal is easily extracted from them. Some are green, from the admixture of copper, which it is found troublesome to separate from the silver. But the most scarce and valuable ore is that which appears in entangled threads of pure silver, so fine that it is called arana, from its resemblance to a spider's web.

The veins of silver frequently run through hard rocks, which have to be reduced to a very fine powder before the ore can be fit for the process of amalgamation. In order to render the ore more friable, it is frequently roasted or calcined in an oven. It is afterwards broke to pieces with iron mallets, after which it is carried to the mills, where, being ground to a very fine powder, it is passed through several wire sieves successively, the last being the finest. The rude ores are also frequently broke to pieces by hammers lifted up and down by means of a wheel. These hammers weigh about 200 pounds, and fall with sufficient violence to reduce the hardest stones to powder. This powder is laid in wooden troughs, and is kneaded with quicksilver and water, until the two metals are completely amalgamated, after which the quicksilver is evaporated by distillation, and the metal which remains is cast into ingots.

In some of the smaller rivers, mills with grindstones are used. The ore is ground with water, which makes a liquid mud, that runs into a receiver. The mud is disposed on the floor in square parcels about a foot thick, each of them containing 25 hundred weight of ore. On each of these about 200 weight of sea-salt is thrown, which is moulded and incorporated with the earth for two or three days. After this the quantity of quicksilver which they judge necessary is added to the mass, which is moulded eight times a day, and lime is frequently mixed with it, to accelerate the process of amalgamation. In the elevated and cold regions of Potosi and Lipes, this operation requires a month or six weeks before it is completed. But, in warmer districts, it is finished in eight or ten days.

The manner in which these and all the other operations are performed, by which the precious metals of the Art are extracted from the earth, and afterwards separated from their ores, is censured, in the most unqualified terms, by Helms. After pointing out the ignorance which prevailed in the previous management of the mines, "still greater, if possible (he observes), was the ignorance of the Directors of smelting-houses and refining works at Potosi. By their method of amalgamation they were scarcely able to gain two-thirds of the silver contained in the rude ores; and for every marc of pure silver gained, they destroyed one, and frequently two marcs of quicksilver. Indeed, all the operations at the mines of Potosi, the stamping, sifting, washing, quickening, and roasting the ore, are conducted in so slovenly, wasteful, and unscientific a manner, that, to compare the excellent method of amalgamation invented by Baron Born, and practised in Europe, with the barbarous process used by these Indians and Spaniards, would be an insult to the understanding of my readers."

"The tools of the Indian miner (he continues) are very badly contrived and unwieldy. The hammer, which is a square piece of lead of 20 pounds weight, exhausts his strength,—the iron, a foot and a half long, is a great deal too inconvenient, and, in some narrow places, cannot be made use of. The thick tallow candles, wound round with wool, vitiate the air."

The same mismanagement prevailed in the Royal Mint, where every hundred weight of refined copper used for alloy in the gold and silver coin cost the King L. 85 through the ignorance of the overseers, who spent a whole month in roasting and calcining it, and in the course of these tedious operations frequently made it unfit for the purpose to which it was intended. Mr Helms was ordered by the Governor to introduce a more improved process for the refining of the copper, and he accordingly showed, by actual experiment, that copper could be brought to a greater degree of fineness in four hours and a half, and at less than \( \frac{1}{2} \)th of the expense. The other evils in the management of the mines, he also attempted to reform, in conjunction with another person of skill in the mining art, who accompanied him to South America for the same purpose. In order to free the mines from water, two deep conduits were dug in the mountains; proper machines were erected; amalgamation works were set on foot, and the necessary instructions in metallurgy were given to six pupils, for the purpose of enabling them to reduce this improved system to practice. If the water in the pits can be drained, the mines of Potosi would be in as flourishing a condition as ever. The total want of timber, however, on the naked ridge of mountains in which those mines are situated, tends greatly to retard the progress of the work.

Respecting the quantity of silver which has been extracted from the mines of Potosi, various accounts of the Silver Mines. have been published. But these have generally been founded on imperfect materials, and their accuracy is therefore liable to doubt. On this point, Humboldt's invaluable work on the kingdom of New Spain, contains the most complete and satisfactory information. This celebrated traveller was enabled to procure, from official papers, an account of the value of the royal duties paid into the provincial treasury of Potosi, on all the silver brought to the mint between the years 1556 and 1789; and the proportion of those duties to the whole produce being known, the annual amount of the silver extracted from the mines, during this period, with the exception of what was carried away by the contraband traders, can be easily ascertained from these accounts. From the year 1545 to 1556, there are no records of the royal duty, and Humboldt has supplied this defect from such imperfect and accidental information as he could collect in the works of the earlier writers on South America. Ulloa, who proceeds upon the authority of a writer in the 17th century, estimates the silver produced, during those eleven years, when the official records are wanting, to 72,000,000 of marcs, equal to about L. 144,000,000 Sterling. But, according to the more accurate reckonings of Humboldt, this estimate must be greatly above the truth; and he conjectures that the whole produce during this period, cannot have exceeded 15,000,000 of marcs or 127,500,000 piastres, equal, valuing the piastre at 4s. 2½d. to L. 26,328,125 Sterling. He states, however, that little reliance can be placed on the correctness of this estimate.

From the year 1556 to the year 1578, a duty of one-fifth was paid on all the silver brought to the mint of Potosi. These duties amounted, during this period of twenty-three years, to 9,801,906 piastres, which gives a total produce for these twenty-three years, of 49,009,530 piastres, or 5,765,827 marcs of silver, equal to L. 10,312,431.

From the year 1579 to the year 1736, including a period of 158 years, a duty of 1 ½ per cent. was paid, and afterwards the fifth of the remaining 98½ piastres, which amounted to nearly 6½ per cent. The produce of this duty for 158 years amounted to 129,417,273 piastres, which gives a total produce of about 610,458,835 piastres, or 71,818,686 marcs, and an annual average produce of 3,888,272 piastres, or of 455,991 marcs, in value equal to something more than L. 8,000,000 Sterling.

From the year 1736 to 1789, 1 ½ per cent. of duty, and the half of the fifth were paid, and, during this period of fifty-three years, the duties amounted to 14,542,684 piastres. The whole produce amounted consequently to 128,129,374 piastres, or 15,074,044 marcs of silver, and the annual average produce to about 281,758 marcs, equal to about L. 490,000.

From 1789 to 1803, there is no account of the royal duties. But, according to the records of the mint, the produce amounted to 46,000,000 of piastres, or to 3,285,710 piastres per annum. Helms, who visited Potosi in 1789, states that there were annually coined in the royal mint from 550,000 to 600,000 marcs of silver, and about 2000 marcs ingold.

According to these calculations, the quantity of silver yielded by the mines of Potosi, amounts

<table> <tr> <th>Piastres.</th> <th>L.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>For 11 years, from 1545 to 1556, to -</td> <td>127,500,000</td> <td>26,828,125</td> </tr> <tr> <td>For 23 years, from 1556 to 1578, to -</td> <td>49,009,530</td> <td>10,312,431</td> </tr> <tr> <td>For 158 years, from 1579 to 1736, to -</td> <td>610,458,835</td> <td>128,450,713</td> </tr> <tr> <td>For 53 years, from 1736 to 1789, to -</td> <td>128,129,374</td> <td>26,960,554</td> </tr> <tr> <td>From 1789 to 1803, to -</td> <td>46,000,000</td> <td>9,679,166</td> </tr> <tr> <td>In this account the piastre is estimated at eight reals, or 4s. 2½d.</td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Previous to the year 1600, it contained 13½ reals de Plata. For this add two-thirds to the produce of these years, about -</td> <td>250,000,000</td> <td>52,604,166</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The allowance for contraband is variously estimated at a third, a fourth, and a sixth. Estimating it at one-fourth, it will amount to -</td> <td>302,774,434</td> <td>63,708,780</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Add for contraband, {<br>one-fourth, .}</td> <td>1,211,097,739<br>302,774,434</td> <td>254,835,155<br>63,708,780</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Total produce, -</td> <td>1,513,872,173</td> <td>318,543,935</td> </tr> </table>

From this estimate of the produce of these mines, it will be found that they were never more flourishing during the whole period of 233 years, from 1556 to 1789, than from 1555 to 1606. For several successive years, the royal fifth amounted to one and a half million of piastres, which supposes an annual produce of 1,490,000, or 882,000 marcs, according as the piastre of silver is estimated at 18½ or 8 reals.* This is the more surprising, as at this period more than a third of the silver was never registered. Adding this one-third to the annual produce calculated from the royal fifth, the quantity of silver produced at this time, will amount to 10,000,000 of piastres, equal to L. 2,104,166. After the year 1606, the produce began gradually to diminish, although from this time to 1688, it never was below 350,000 marcs per annum. From the commencement of the subsequent century, the produce continued decreasing, and from the year 1736, when the royal fifth only amounted to 85,410 piastres till about the year 1748, the annual amount of the duties was never equal to 200,000 piastres. After this period, the produce began to increase, and gradually rose to between 300,000 or 400,000 marcs. This quantity, however, Helms, who had the best opportunities of information, assures his

* This coin, towards the conclusion of the sixteenth century, was reduced to the value of eight reals; and as it is uncertain when this change took place, we cannot exactly ascertain the quantity of silver which was produced at this period. We can only be certain of its highest and lowest quantity. readers could be doubled, if the mines were drained of the water with which they are overflowed, and if some other simple improvements, which he suggests, were carried into effect.

In 1545, it is mentioned that ores containing from 80 to 90 marcs per quintal of 1600 ounces, were common. The marc is nearly equal to about eight ounces; so that, according to this account, 1600 ounces of ore were found to yield about 600 or 700 ounces of silver. The average produce was, at this period, from eight to nine ounces per quintal, which was nearly in the proportion of one ounce in twenty-two or twenty-five. Since the commencement of the eighteenth century, it is stated by Humboldt, that they reckon only on extracting from three to four marcs of silver from the caxon of ore, equal to 5000 lbs. which is only one ounce of silver out of every 2000 or 2500 ounces of mineral. According to experiments made by Helms on 300 specimens of ores, they were found to produce from six to eight ounces of silver for every caxon of 5000 lbs.; although in some ores the silver was in the proportion of 20 marcs to each caxon, which is about one in 384.

The minerals of Potosi are consequently extremely poor, and it is owing to their abundance alone, that they still produce so great a quantity of silver. From 1574 to 1789, the mean quantity of silver afforded by the ores has diminished in the proportion of 170 to one, while the silver extracted from the mines has only diminished in the proportion of four to one. It thus appears that the productiveness of mines does not by any means depend so much on the richness or poverty of the minerals which they contain, as on their abundance, and the facility with which they are worked. It happens, accordingly, that the Mexican mines, which are the richest in the world, contain remarkably poor minerals, the best yielding, on an average, from \(4\frac{3}{10}\) to \(5\frac{3}{10}\); the middling from \(1\frac{3}{10}\) to \(2\frac{7}{10}\), and the worst about \(1\frac{3}{10}\) ounces of silver for every 1600 ounces of ore. In some of the mines of Germany, on the other hand, of which the produce falls so far short of those of South America, the mean proportion of silver is found to amount to 10 ounces per quintal, and in fortunate periods to 15.

From 1545 till 1571, the silver minerals of Potosi were all smelted in portable furnaces contrived by the Indians. These were cylindrical tubes of clay, very broad, and pierced with a number of holes, which, admitting the air, gave the flame a great degree of intensity. About the year 1571, the method of amalgamation with mercury was introduced; and of the 8000 or 10,000 quintals produced by the mine of Guancunelica towards the end of the sixteenth century, above 6000 or 7000 quintals were consumed in the works of Potosi. About the year 1763, the consumption amounted to between 16,000 and 17,000 quintals annually. There are at present 2000 miners engaged in the works at Potosi, who are paid at the rate of 25s. per day. Fifteen thousand lamas, and an equal number of asses, are employed in carrying the ore from the mountain of Potosi to the amalgamation works.

Gold is found in most of the mountainous districts of this viceroyalty. It is either worked in mines, gathered from the sands, or collected from the streams. Near the town of Mojos, there is a considerable stratum of rich magnetic iron sand, in which are found particles of gold of the size of a lentil, and sometimes as heavy as the quarter of a ducat. The Indians, however, by their unskilful mode of working the sand, lose all the finer particles of the gold, which are carried away by the stream. From the town of Mojos to within a short distance of Potosi, from which it is distant 180 miles, similar alluvial layers occur, and gold is washed from them, especially at the little town of St Jago de Cotagaita, which is distant about 90 miles from Potosi. In the province of Lipes there are gold mines, many of which have been abandoned. But two are now worked, and one of copper, the strata of which are intermixed with gold, silver, iron, and leadstone. In Puno and Oruro, there are several gold mines. But most of them have gone to decay from the inactivity of the inhabitants, or they have been overflowed, and all efforts to drain them have been found unavailing. The most abundant mines are in the province of Cochabamba and Sicasica. The whole of the mountains in this last district, where the Indians collect ore by working, abound in rich gold ore, and when, about a hundred years ago, a projecting part fell down, lumps of pure gold, weighing from two to fifty pounds, were severed from the stone; and, even in the present times, in the layers of sand washed from the mountain by the rain water, pieces of pure gold are found, some of which weigh an ounce. From the ignorance of the inhabitants, however, most of these treasures lie totally neglected.

A very brief and general account of the animals of this country, is all that can be attempted within our present limits. The horses and horned cattle, originally imported from Europe, have multiplied amazingly in the extensive plains of South America. Asses, mules, European sheep, stags of different species, foxes, rabbits, goats, and hogs, are numerous, and great numbers of wild dogs are to be met with. These are descended from those of a domestic kind that have left their masters in pursuit of the game, with which the country everywhere abounds. The other wild animals are the puma or American lion, the jaguar and cougar, two species of American tigers, which are strong and ferocious animals, and commit great devastations among the flocks. The jaguar, when full grown, is a large animal, some of them measuring five feet from the nose to the root of the tail, which is two additional feet long, and so strong that they will drag the carcass of a horse or bull which they have killed to the place where they intend to devour it. They are excellent swimmers, and Azara mentions, that he has seen them swimming across a large river loaded with their prey. The Puma is a weak and cowardly animal, and is now become very scarce in the parts inhabited by the Spaniards. The guazuara, called the cougar by Buffon, is 47 inches long, without including the tail, which is 26 inches long. It flies from the human species, but kills calves, sheep, pigeons, and all other smaller animals. It does not stop to eat the flesh, but is contented with licking the blood. Of the other animals, the most remarkable are the anta or danta, which is between the elk and buffalo species. It is of the size of a large ass, has no horns, and is of singular strength. It is frequently found in the forests and plains of Paraguay, but has been so much hunted both for its skin and flesh, that it is scarce both in Tucuman and Buenos Ayres. The armadillos are very numerous all over South America, and are of various species, differing in size, and in the nature of the armature with which they are covered. The tamandua, or nurumi, or ant-eater, is 59½ inches long, without reckoning the tail, which is in length 22½ inches, besides a thick bunch of hair at its end, 11 inches long. Azara enumerates various other small animals, which are generally carnivorous, preying upon birds, reptiles, or other inferior quadrupeds. The chibi-guazu, which he considers to be the jaguar of New Spain, or the tiger-cat of other countries, is 34 inches, and the tail 13 inches. Wild cats are found of various sorts. There are also several animals which have the form of the martin, the pole-cat, and the ferret, but which are much larger and stronger. The sarigue or the fecondo, is a small animal peculiar to America, which preys upon pigeons, mice, insects, eggs, &c. It has a long triangular and pointed face; its eyes are oblique and jutting out. Its mouth is large, and well furnished with teeth. Its tail is long, thick, and covered with scales, which it uses to climb up trees and walls when the surface is in any degree rough. It has long whiskers, and its ears are round, naked, and transparent.

Of the domestic animals, those most worthy of note are the lama and the paco, both natives of the mountainous parts of Peru, and inhabiting the higher districts of the Tucuman, and the provinces of Los Charcos, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The lama is a most useful animal, and is capable of carrying heavy burdens in the most rugged and dangerous roads. It is about four feet high; the body, including the neck, is five or six feet long. This animal bears a great resemblance to a camel, excepting that it has no hunch on its back. The paco, or vicunna, is a species of subordinate animal to the lama, in the same manner as the ass to the horse. Their wool is fine and long, and is a valuable article of merchandise. The natural colour of it is that of a dried rose-leaf; and while every kind of clothing manufactured of it possesses a peculiar degree of genial warmth, it is at the same time most beautifully silky and light. The lama and the paco inhabit the highest mountain-deserts amid perpetual ice and snow; and the cold, far from being unfavourable to them, seems to invigorate and refresh them. The tapir, though more abundant in Brasil, is also found on the banks of the Parana and Paraguay. It is of the size of a small cow, but has neither horns nor tail.

Of birds, the emu, which is generally known by the name of the American ostrich, and the well-known bird of prey the condor, are the most remarkable. The emu is bred in the Pampas. It is generally six feet high, measuring from the head to the feet; and it runs with such swiftness that the fleetest dogs are thrown out in the pursuit. Carrion vultures, which fly in large flocks, are also very common, and feed upon numerous carcasses of the cattle slaughtered for the sake of their hides.

The rivers abound in great varieties of fish; and of amphibious animals, there are on the coast turtles, seals, and sea-lions; while alligators or caymans, of a large size, and very voracious, swarm in all the rivers. The interior of the country is infested by innumerable tribes of reptiles and insects, which are brought into life in the damp forests, and on the rank soil on the borders of rivers. Serpents also abound in these parts, among which the most remarkable is the enormous boa constrictor, which is chiefly found in the marshy places of the forests.

In regulating the colonial trade, Spain has uniformly proceeded upon the principle of sacrificing the colony for the supposed advantage of the mother country; and, with this view, such restraints were imposed on the commerce of her South American provinces, as forced them to depend entirely on the parent state, both for the supply of their wants, and for the sale of their produce. They were not only entirely debarred from trading with Europe, or with any other country, in their own vessels, but their intercourse with each other was either entirely prohibited or obstructed by many severe restrictions. Under this system, the commerce of Spain with her colonies centered entirely in the port of Seville; and the cargo of every ship destined for the colonies was inspected by a board appointed for the purpose, before she could receive a licence to make the voyage. In 1720 this commerce was transferred to Cadiz, as being a more convenient port; and the commerce was carried on by means of annual fleets, which sailed periodically, and which consisted of two squadrons, known under the respective appellations of the galleons and the flota. These expeditions were made exclusively to the Gulf of Mexico; and it was through the ports of Porto-Bello and Vera Cruz alone that the colonies of Spain were either supplied with European commodities or found a vent for their own productions. Owing to this limited intercourse, the produce of America was exchanged for that of Europe on terms extremely disadvantageous. Her markets were always imperfectly supplied with the commodities of Europe, which bore, in consequence, a very high price; while her own productions, being restricted to particular ports, were always liable to arrive at a market already overstocked. The Spanish colonies languished under those harassing restrictions; and Buenos Ayres, whose territorial resources consisted neither in gold, silver, indigo, cochineal, nor in any of those precious products which are easily exported, but in bulky and perishable commodities requiring the constant command of shipping, remained for a long time in a state of obscurity and depression.

But the operation of this system was eventually counteracted by its extreme violence and injustice; in consequence of which it was found impossible, in cases where it prohibited the colonies from being supplied with articles of the first necessity, to carry it into strict execution. Salutary evasions were, therefore, connived at, and, in process of time, a contraband trade was established, which was found so beneficial, that it flourished in spite of all the expedients adopted to prevent it. The legitimate commerce was proportionably diminished, and the annual squadron gradually dwindled away from 15,000 to 2000 tons of shipping.

Those encroachments on the monopoly of the colonial trade plainly suggested the necessity of relaxing the restraints by which the colonies were oppressed, and of devising some method for ensuring to them a constant and adequate supply of European produce. In the year 1740, a considerable part of the American trade was permitted to be carried on by register ships, which, on purchasing a licence from the Council of the Indies, were allowed to sail at any time, and which, in the year 1748, finally superseded the galleons and flota, after they had been in use for two centuries. By means of this intercourse, the American market was more regularly supplied with the productions of Europe, and Buenos Ayres was benefited, along with the other colonies, by these regulations.

Other relaxations of the system of restraint soon followed. In 1774, a free intercourse was opened between several of the American provinces; and, in 1778, seven of the principal Spanish ports, to which, in 1788, five others were added, were permitted to engage in a free trade with Buenos Ayres, and with the ports of the South Sea. These regulations, together with the erection of Buenos Ayres into an independent viceroyalty in 1778, gave it importance and stability; and, from this period, its imports and exports have progressively increased. Previous to the year 1778, not more than 12 or 15 registered vessels were engaged in the colonial trade of South America, and these seldom performed more than one voyage in three years. But, in that year, their number increased to 170 vessels, the value of whose cargoes amounted to L.1,958,676. For the further encouragement of the trade of Buenos Ayres, salted meat and tallow were allowed, in the year 1793, to be exported duty-free; and, by this and other regulations, the trade and population of the adjacent provinces was considerably increased. Azara gives the following annual average estimate of the trade and shipping of Buenos Ayres, taking the average of the years between 1792 and 1796.

Imports from Spain.

<table> <tr> <th>No. of Cargoes.</th> <th>From what Ports received.</th> <th>Value of Spanish Manufactures and Productions.</th> <th>Value of the Productions and Manufactures of other Nations.</th> <th>Total.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>21 1/2</td> <td>Cadiz</td> <td>Piastres. 681,615</td> <td>Piastres. 923,313</td> <td>1,554,928</td> </tr> <tr> <td>21</td> <td>Barcelona and Malaga</td> <td>595,229</td> <td>21,845</td> <td>617,074</td> </tr> <tr> <td>6 1/2</td> <td>Corunna</td> <td>223,484</td> <td>75,584</td> <td>298,669</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3 1/2</td> <td>St Andero</td> <td>32,501</td> <td>24,187</td> <td>56,688</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2 1/2</td> <td>Vigo</td> <td>6,132</td> <td>4,400</td> <td>10,532</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3 1/2</td> <td>Jijon</td> <td>4,684</td> <td>2,128</td> <td>6,812</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3 1/2</td> <td>St Lucar</td> <td>287</td> <td></td> <td>287</td> </tr> <tr> <td>33 1/2</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>2,545,364</td> </tr> </table>

In pounds Sterling, L. 535,587

Exports to Spain.

<table> <tr> <th>No. of Cargoes.</th> <th>To what Ports sent.</th> <th>Silver in Piastres, in Ingots, or in Plate.</th> <th>Value of Gold in Piastres.</th> <th>Value of Produce in Piastres.</th> <th>Total Value in Piastres.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>19</td> <td>Cadiz</td> <td>1,002,557</td> <td>941,798</td> <td>447,483</td> <td>2,891,845</td> </tr> <tr> <td>15 1/2</td> <td>Barcelona & Malaga</td> <td>200,385</td> <td>83,281</td> <td>277,301</td> <td>561,568</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8 1/2</td> <td>Corunna</td> <td>938,348</td> <td>625,696</td> <td>32,685</td> <td>1,656,729</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3 1/2</td> <td>St Andero</td> <td>5,202</td> <td>1,632</td> <td>50,189</td> <td>57,023</td> </tr> <tr> <td>47</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>4,667,166</td> </tr> </table>

In pounds Sterling, L. 982,049

Imports from the Havannah.

<table> <tr> <th>Sugar</th> <th>Confections</th> <th>Honey</th> <th>Cocoa</th> <th>Coffee</th> <th>Brandy</th> <th>Rice</th> <th>Wax</th> <th>Pitch and Tar</th> <th>Linen</th> <th>Manna</th> <th>Dye-woods</th> <th>Acuna wool</th> <th>Value</th> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>13,087 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>37 ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>132 jars.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>65 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>225 ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>1,277 casks.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>240 quintals.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>505 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>37 quintals.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>473 1/2 pieces.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>96 pounds.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>37 1/2 quintals,</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>188 ditto.</td> </tr> </table>

Value in pounds Sterling, L. 20,397.

Exports to the Havannah

<table> <tr> <th>Silver in piastres</th> <th>Salt Beef</th> <th>Tallow</th> <th>Fine furs</th> <th>Sea-wolf skins</th> <th>Common wool</th> <th>Sheep skins</th> <th>Flour</th> <th>Oil of the sea-wolf</th> <th>Copper</th> <th>Goose wings</th> <th>Value</th> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>17,236.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>39,281 quintals.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>10,617 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>147</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>323</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>80 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>113 dozen.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>440 quintals.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>25 ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>50 ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>70</td> </tr> </table>

Value in pounds Sterling, L.15,057.

Imports from Lima.

<table> <tr> <th>Sugar</th> <th>Cocoa</th> <th>Cinnamon</th> <th>Rice</th> <th>Salt Stones</th> <th>Indigo</th> <th>Wrought iron</th> <th>Value</th> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>4337 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>295 do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>75 1/2 pounds.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>80 quintals.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>200</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>138 pounds.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>7</td> </tr> </table>

Value in pounds Sterling, L.5264. Exports to Lima.

<table> <tr> <th>Paraguay tea</th> <td>2688 arrobas.</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Tallow</th> <td>2800 do.</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Swan skins</th> <td>20</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Negro slaves</th> <td>83</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Hoes</th> <td>419</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Thread</th> <td>128</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Silk stockings</th> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Hats</th> <td>24</td> </tr> </table>

Value in pounds Sterling, L.4723.

Imports from the Coast of Africa.

<table> <tr> <th>Negro slaves</th> <td>1338</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Hoes</th> <td>1420</td> </tr> </table>

Value in pounds Sterling, L.66,705.

Exports to the Coast of Africa.

<table> <tr> <th>Silver, in piastres</th> <td>120,276</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Value of goods</th> <td>12,738</td> </tr> </table>

Value in pounds Sterling, L.27,987.

In the year 1797, hostilities commenced between Spain and Great Britain; and, in consequence of this event, the trade between the mother country and her South American colonies was necessarily exposed to the maritime hostility of Britain. So effectually was this hostility carried on by the British cruisers, that, in 1798, the trade of the Spanish settlements was at a stand; and it was calculated that above three millions of hides were lying at the warehouses of Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, for which no vent could be found. European goods were totally wanting, or had risen to excessive prices. Linen was not to be had, and the cotton stuffs of the country, or those which came from Peru, were substituted in lieu of it, and for brandy and Spanish wines, those of Cuyo were used. This stagnation of trade was at length relieved by the intervention of the neutral vessels of the Americans, which brought European goods to the colonies, and took away their surplus produce in return; and this contraband intercourse was found so indispensable to the trade of those countries, that it was either connived at or openly encouraged.

A very extensive trade is carried on between the lower and upper provinces of this viceroyalty, and also with Peru and Chili. The herb of Paraguay, known by the name of Paraguay tea, and the cattle and mules of the provinces of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman, form the staples of this commerce. The herb of Paraguay is in such demand, that the crop on the ground is generally sold before it is gathered. The quantity exported to Peru is estimated at 2,500,000 lbs., and about 1,000,000 of lbs. are annually sent to Chili. The remainder is consumed in Paraguay, Tucuman, and the other provinces. There is a continual demand for mules in Peru and Potosi to carry on the work of the mines; and it is calculated that about 60,000 of these animals are annually purchased for Peru and Potosi at the price of between three and four piastres a-head. These are driven into the interior by easy journeys to Salta, where they are taken great care of during the winter, and when in good condition, they are conducted to Potosi, where they sell for eight, nine, or ten piastres a-head; and such as are carried to Peru sell for higher prices, some for 40 and even 50 piastres. Peru and Potosi, and the mountainous districts where the mines are situated, are also supplied with large droves of cattle from the provinces of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman. These are either caught wild, or they are purchased from the immense pasture lands which extend over a great part of the province of Buenos Ayres, and are conveyed by easy journeys into the interior. A great trade is also carried on, more especially when the usual intercourse with Europe is interrupted by war, between Peru and Potosi, and the other provinces which were annexed to Buenos Ayres in the year 1778. These provinces being the principal mining countries, are on this account populous, while, owing to their elevated situation, the climate is bleak, and the soil barren. Supplies therefore, both of subsistence and of manufactures, must be drawn from more fertile regions; and the trade in question consists accordingly in exchanging the produce of the adjoining provinces for the precious metals which form the great staple of the mining districts. Peru, Chili, and the provinces to the east, receive from the mining countries supplies of gold and silver, in exchange for which they send maize, wheat-flour, cotton, oil, pimento, sugar, hides, wax, soap, tallow, &c. baize, woollen manufactures, and articles for the use of the mines, &c.

Estalla, the compiler of a voluminous collection, Population, which contains much valuable information on South America, called Viagero Universal, estimates the population of this viceroyalty at 1,000,000 of Spaniards and Creoles, besides Indians. He estimates the population of the city of Buenos Ayres at about 40,000, of whom one half are whites or Spaniards. Though reckoned the capital of the viceroyalty, it is not so populous as Potosi, which, according to Helms, contains a population of 100,000; an amount which so greatly exceeds all preceding accounts, as to render the accuracy of his information extremely doubtful. M. Humboldt, in his general table of the population of South America, which, however, he does not give as pretending to accuracy, estimates the Spanish and Creole population of this viceroyalty at 1,100,000; which exceeds Estalla's estimate by 100,000. Azara states the population of the province of Paraguay at 97,500, and that of the province of Buenos Ayres at 170,900.

In 1806, a British squadron, commanded by Sir Home Popham, appeared in the Rio de la Plata, from which a force was landed under the command of Major-General Beresford, for the reduction of Buenos Ayres. Some trifling resistance was offered by the Spaniards; but, in the end, General Beresford entered the town with little opposition. He appears to have been partly indebted for his success to the surprise into which the Spaniards were thrown by this unexpected invasion, for when they had suffi- ciently recovered from their panic, and had leisure to consider the inconsiderable numbers of their enemies, the British were assailed by such a superiority of force, that they were compelled to yield themselves prisoners of war on the 12th of August, having had possession of the place for about the space of six weeks. In the meantime, reinforcements arrived from the Cape, and Sir Home Popham, having made an unsuccessful attempt on Monte Video, took possession of the fort of Maldonado, at the mouth of the Plata. Additional reinforcements having arrived under the command of Sir Samuel Achmuty, the invaders succeeded at length in taking Monte Video by storm, and they only waited for farther succours to resume the attack of the capital.

The expected reinforcements at length arrived, in May 1807, under General Whitelock, to whom was committed the chief command of the expedition; and, on the 15th June, a farther reinforcement was received under General Crawford. With this force, amounting to 8000 men, it was resolved to attack Buenos Ayres by marching into the town. But no sooner had they entered the place, than they were assaulted, from all quarters, with a commanding and superior fire of grape and musketry. The streets were intersected by deep ditches secured by cannon which poured upon the assailants an incessant and destructive fire; while, from the windows and tops of the houses, they were exposed to a galling fire of musketry, to hand-grenades, bricks, and stones. In this unequal contest, about a third of the British army was either killed, wounded, or captured, without any material advantage gained; and, next day, an armistice was concluded, which issued in a convention, by which it was agreed that the British should evacuate the Plata in two months; and that all prisoners taken on both sides should be restored.

The project of the French Emperor to subdue Spain, for the purpose of establishing his brother Joseph on the throne, gave rise to a spirit of just indignation throughout the South American colonies; and when his successes seemed to pave the way for the subjection of the mother country, their first care was to take effectual measures for the security of their own independence. With this view, in the town of Buenos Ayres, the government of the viceroy was superseded by one of popular appointment; and though the leaders of the revolution still professed allegiance to Ferdinand, it was generally believed that they had secretly resolved to shake off the yoke of Spain. Different views, however, prevailed in other parts of the country. In Monte Video the Regency of Cadiz was recognised; and, in the interior, a counter-revolution was begun under the influence of Liniers and the adherents of the new government in Spain. To suppress this movement, a force was dispatched into the interior, at whose approach the chiefs of the counter-revolution fled, and being pursued and taken, they were barbarously murdered. The opposition to the revolution begun at Monte Video, was of a more formidable character. It was directed by Elio, an officer of marine, who arrived from Spain with the commission of viceroy, and who, not being able to prevail on the Junta of Buenos Ayres to recognise his authority, proceeded to bombard the city and to destroy its commerce. On the other hand, the Junta sent their army against Monte Video, and compelled Elio to take refuge within the walls of the fortress. An armistice was afterwards concluded between the parties; but the subsequent transactions are yet involved in considerable obscurity. We propose to reserve the account of the revolution which has been begun in these colonies, for the Article South America; trusting that, before we shall have advanced so far in the course of our work, the cause of independence will have finally triumphed, and that we shall then be able to exhibit a distinct and satisfactory view of its progress, and of its probable results both to America and to Europe.

Azara, Voyages en Amerique Meridionale, depuis 1781 jusqu'en 1801. 4 vols. 8vo. 1809.—Humboldt, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, 4 vols. 8vo.—Wilcocke's History of the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, 1806.—Helms's Travels from Buenos Ayres, by Potosi and Lima.—Alcedo's Geographical and Historical Dictionary of America and the West Indies, translated by Thompson, 5 vols, 4to. 1810.—Edinburgh Review, Vol. XIX.