an extensive province of South America, forming part of the Spanish dominions in that country. It comprehends five other subordinate provinces or governments; namely, the province of Venezuela in the centre, the government of Maracaibo on the west, Guiana on the south, the government of Cumana on the east, and the Island of Margaretta on the north-east. It is bounded on the north from the Cape de la Vela to the point of Paria, by the Caribbean sea; on the east by the Atlantic from the 12th to the 8th degree of north latitude; on the south by Dutch Guiana and Peru, and on the west by the kingdom of Santa Fé.
This country, extending from the 12th degree of north latitude towards the equinoctial line, might be expected, from its geographical position, to be subject to the utmost violence of the tropical heats, and to be reckoned almost uninhabitable by a scorching sun. But throughout the whole continent of America, the general law of the climate is modified by the elevation of the ground; and, owing to this circumstance, the inhabitants of many parts of the Caraccas enjoy the temperature of perpetual spring. For this happy singularity in its climate, the province of the Caraccas is indebted to a chain of the Andes, which, commencing near the province of Quito, traverses the country in its whole extent, and, gradually diminishing in height in its progress to the east, finally loses itself in the Island of Trinidad. This chain of mountains, which varies in breadth from ten to twenty leagues, is generally of moderate elevation. In some points it rises to the height of 8000 feet, but its average height is not more than 4500 feet above the level of the sea. These inequalities of height give rise to a corresponding diversity of temperature; owing to which the vegetable productions of distant countries, here meeting with a congenial climate, are frequently found concentrated within a comparatively narrow compass. At intervals rich valleys open, and the sides of the mountains are covered with the finest trees. In travelling into the interior from the coast, the European experiences a great and enlivening change from the hot air of the low countries to the pure and cool atmosphere which prevails in these mountainous regions. The city of Caraccas, according to Depons, is 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and though it is situated in 10° 31' north latitude, so far from being oppressed by the insupportable heats of the torrid zone, it enjoys the mild and temperate climate of the southern countries of Europe. The highest range of the thermometer in summer is 85°, and in winter 76°, and the minimum of heat in winter is 52°.
To the south, these mountains are bounded by the valley of the Orinoco. The country is here extended into immense plains, known by the general name of Las Llanos. Those plains afford pasturage to innumerable cattle, the proprietors of which reside in the towns, leaving them to the care of slaves or people of colour. This race of men, accustomed to be almost continually on horseback, and being almost in a state of nature, in these immense and uninhabited plains, contract the most disorderly and lawless habits. Many of them are professed robbers; they are already beginning to form themselves into bands, and to infest the roads, so as to render travelling dangerous. In these plains the heat is intense, the thermometer frequently rising to 110 and even 115 degrees.
The seasons here are divided into winter and summer, which are not so much distinguished by cold or heat, as by rainy and dry weather. The rainy season commences generally in April and continues till November. These rains are not, however, without intermission. There are some days in which no rain falls, and there are others, though they are not frequent, in which it rains incessantly. It may be calculated that, during the rainy season, it rains, on an average, three hours each day, and oftener in the morning than in the evening. The long continued and drizzling rains of the polar regions are not known here. But notwithstanding of this, the rains which in the torrid zone rush down with the violence of a torrent, produce in one hour about six times the quantity of water which is ever known to fall in Europe within the same space. During the rainy season, the rivers are consequently in a continual state of inundation; the channels which, during the rest of the year, remain parched and dry, are now filled with overflowing streams; and the plain through which flows the Orinoco, is inundated by a sea of fresh water for a space extending 150 leagues in length and 40 in breadth.
For about a century after the acquisition of Terra Agriculture Firma by the Europeans, no attempt was made to raise any sort of produce from the soil. Gold and silver were the great objects of research, and the pursuit after these superseded every other species of industry. The adventurers, however, who settled in the country, not finding a sufficient quantity of the precious metals to gratify their rapacity, turned their thoughts towards the pearl fisheries. Being speedily disappointed in their expectations of wealth from this source, they had recourse to agriculture, and, on trial, they found the soil of the Caraccas extremely fertile, and capable of producing ample returns. They began with cultivating cacao, plantations of which were multiplied throughout the country, and the labours of the planter were so admirably seconded by a favourable soil, that the produce was both abundant and of an excellent quality. Cacao was almost exclusively cultivated till a very late period. About the year 1774, the culture of indigo was begun, and it was speedily ascertained, that the soil was equally well adapted to raise this valuable produce. Most of the new plantations were, therefore, prepared for this new species of culture, and immense plains, till then uncultivated, were covered with plantations of indigo. The profits derived from this trade, and the great concourse of traders and cultivators, occasioned villages to spring up in the desert, and gave to many towns, such as Maracay, Trilmero, and Victoria, which were before in a state of decay, the aspect and consistence of cities. About the same time the cotton plant was introduced. The cultivation of sugar, tobacco, and generally of all the other products of the tropical regions, was also commenced. In this fine country, however, blessed as it is with all the advantages both of soil and of climate, agriculture still languishes. There is a want of enterprise and active industry among the planters—their plantations are committed to the care of ignorant overseers; and the Spanish proprietor, who generally resides in town, seldom visits his estates above once in a year. This carelessness frequently produces embarrassments; the land is mortgaged for the purpose of raising money, and the capital which ought to be laid out in improved cultivation, is thus forestalled for the purposes of extravagance. "It is a matter of astonishment," says Depons, "that in the most beautiful country in nature, where everything concurs to promote luxuriance of vegetation, the plantations should be so inconsider- Caracas, able in magnitude. A planter, whose income amounts to 4000 or 5000 dollars per annum, is considered rich. There cannot be enumerated twenty plantations in the Caraccas which yield a greater revenue. It is not, however, that the property is too much divided. It is rare to see a plantation of which one-tenth part of its extent is cultivated. It is a cheerless and painful sight to behold the labour of three successive centuries crowned with such pitiful results. On a soil two hundred times less spacious, incomparably less watered, and less fertile, and with not more than one-half the white population, the French have succeeded in raising, at St Domingo, ten times more produce than is raised at this day in the vast province of the Caraccas."
Besides the colonial commodities already enumerated, this country produces vanilla, wild cochineal, gums, resins, roots, barks, and plants, many of which are prized for their medicinal virtues. In the mountains of the interior are found the same kinds of wood as in the Antilles, and many other kinds peculiar to the country. The vast forests by which the country is covered, contain abundant supplies of timber for the most extensive ship-yards. All those inexhaustible resources are, however, useless, owing to the difficulty of transporting the wood over the trackless paths of the mountains. These difficulties might be considerably diminished, if due exertion were made to clear the channels of the rivers from occasional obstructions, so as to facilitate the intercourse with the interior. But there is neither enterprise nor industry in the country adequate for such improvements. Besides large timber for the construction of vessels and other purposes, their forests contain materials for the work of the carpenter and cabinetmaker, so various, as to embarrass them in their choice. The beams and joists of houses are, in general, made from the wood which the Spaniards call Pardillo, and in some places they use a species of very hard oak. Cedar is used for doors, windows, tables, &c.; and, for ornamental furniture, they have several kinds of wood susceptible of the highest polish. Among these is distinguished the black ebony, found in great abundance in the forests in the neighbourhood of Lake Maracaibo. Yellow and red ebony is also common; but mahogany is not so abundant as in the West India islands, and it is, besides, inferior both in respect to its shades and gloss. Iron wood, which abounds in different parts of the country, is used for shafts to the wheels of water-mills; for the rollers of the cylinders used for pressing sugar-canes; and, generally, on all occasions for which wood of extraordinary hardness is required. The red ebony is also applied to the same uses as the iron wood, and is even thought to surpass it in hardness. No wood has yet been found fit for dyeing, except the Brasil wood. But the immense forests which overspread the mountainous parts of this country have not been explored to any extent. They still continue, for the most part, to be the exclusive domain of ferocious animals and venomous reptiles, and we cannot be certain, until they are more fully known, what hidden resources they may afford for the extension of commerce, or the improvement of art.
On the first discovery of Terra Firma, the pearl-fishery formed a considerable branch of trade as well as of revenue. The pearla ronde was found to abound Pearl Fish in the shoals which extend from Cape Paria to that of Vela; and the island of Margaretta, Cubagua, Coche, Punta Araya, and the mouth of the Rio la Hacha, were celebrated for the quantity of pearls which they produced. The fifth of the produce was claimed by the king, and it was estimated in the beginning of the 16th century to amount to about 15,000 ducats, which, considering that an extensive contraband trade was at the same time carried on, shows the whole amount to have been considerable. Till the year 1530, the annual value of the pearls sent to Europe amounted on an average to 800,000 piastres. Towards the end of the 16th century, the produce of the American pearl-fisheries diminished rapidly, and, according to some accounts, they were altogether abandoned by the year 1683. Various causes were assigned for the decline of this trade. But the chief cause seems to have been the increasing scarcity of the oysters which yielded these precious stones. With such persevering rapacity was this lucrative trade pursued, that the shells were destroyed faster than they could be multiplied. It is known that the animal which inhabits the pearl-shell does not live above nine or ten years, and it is only in the fourth year that the pearls begin to show themselves. Of these shells, a boat will collect in about two or three weeks more than 35,000. At Ceylon, the government only permits the pearl-fishing to be continued for one month in the course of a year; but on the coasts of the Caraccas there was no restriction. The pearl banks were fished at all seasons, and the consequence is, that they have been abandoned for nearly two centuries. At Cumana it is supposed, that, during such a long period of reprieve, the pearl-shells must have been greatly increased; and, in 1812, some attempts were made to revive the fishery. But it is generally observed, that the few pearls which are now accidentally found are both extremely small, and devoid of brilliancy, while those found among the Indians on the arrival of the Spaniards on Terra Firma, were particularly distinguished for these two properties. It is difficult to account for this change. Humboldt conjectures that the earthquakes to which this country is peculiarly subject, may have altered the bottom of the sea, or that the changes in the submarine currents may have so far influenced the temperature of the water, as to diminish the sustenance necessary for the support of the animal which produces the pearl. The small pearls which are still occasionally found on the coasts entangled in the fishermen's nets, are sold to the retail dealers of Cumana, at the ordinary price of a piastre, or 4s. 2d. per dozen.
Mineral springs abound in these provinces, both warm and cold; and they are of various qualities, namely, the ammoniacal, the ferruginous, the nitrous, and the acidulous. Some of these waters have a degree of heat which nearly approaches to that of boiling water. Owing to their situation, however, generally in uninhabited places, far from any frequented path, they are not of the same advantage to medicine as if they were differently situ- ated, because the patient cannot enjoy the benefit of those waters, and, at the same time, all those domestic comforts which are equally necessary to his recovery. He must sacrifice the one to procure the other; so that, in many cases, the disadvantage of the change is greater than the benefit.
All that portion of the coast which is north of the province of Venezuela, furnishes a considerable quantity of salt, of a beautiful whiteness. But the most abundant salt-pit is that of Araya, which consists of a mixture of the fossil and marine salts. Its produce, under the regime of the mother country, was monopolized for the benefit of the Crown, the consequence of which was, that the working of the pits was little attended to, and that they did not yield anything like the quantity of salt which, under better management, they were capable of producing.
The aspect of this country is agreeably diversified by lakes and rivers. Of the lakes, those of Maracaibo and Valencia are the most deserving of notice. The lake of Maracaibo is of an oblong form, lying north and south, and communicating by a narrow neck with the sea. Its length, from the bar to its southern extremity, is 150 miles. Its greatest breadth is 90, and it is 450 miles in circumference. It is navigable for vessels of the greatest burden; and though it is not liable to tempests, there is always an undulation on its surface; and when strong breezes blow, more especially from the north, its waves become sufficiently agitated to bury under them canoes and small craft. Its waters are, in general, fresh and fit for drinking; but, at times, the waters of the sea are forced, by means of storms, towards the lake, and it then becomes brackish as far as the town of Maracaibo. All the different species of fish which are found in the rivers of South America, with the exception of the tortoise, abound in this lake; but the general sterility of the adjacent country, and the unhealthy atmosphere which is occasioned by noxious exhalations from its waters, are unfavourable to the progress of cultivation; so that the Indians, in place of making their abode on its shores, have generally dwelt on the lake itself, in wooden huts, constructed for the purpose. To the north-west of the lake is an inexhaustible mine of mineral pitch, which is of so inflammable a nature that during the night, and especially in hot weather, phosphoric fires are continually seen, which have the appearance of lightning. These fires are known by the name of the lanterns of Maracaibo, and they serve as a light-house and compass to guide the course of the Spaniards and Indians who are navigating the lake.
The lake of Valencia, though not of the same magnitude as Lake Maracaibo, presents a far more agreeable and interesting spectacle. Its shores, in place of being arid and unhealthy, are clothed with all the luxuriant vegetation of the tropical regions, and the temperature is mild and salubrious. This lake is about one league distant from the city of Valencia, and about 18 miles from the sea. It is of an oblong form, stretching north-east and south-west, and is about 40 miles in length, and about 12 in the broadest part. It is situated in a valley surrounded with high and inaccessible mountains, excepting on the west, where it extends into the interior; and it receives the waters of twenty rivers, without any visible outlet. This circumstance has given occasion to the conjecture, that its waters must be discharged by a subterraneous passage; and, in confirmation of this hypothesis, it is stated by Depons, that the boats which navigate the lake sail with rapidity from the shores to the centre, but that it requires longer time and greater exertion to return from the centre towards the shore. How far this conjecture is well-founded, seems extremely doubtful. The contributions from so many rivers may be no more than sufficient to supply the drain occasioned by the constant and intense evaporation of a tropical sun; and, at any rate, until this question is determined by accurate investigation, it seems idle to have recourse to the supposition of subterraneous channels to account for what may be the result of more obvious causes. One fact is certain, that, of late years, the waters of the lake have experienced a considerable depression, and they still continue receding within a narrower space. This is sufficiently accounted for by the progress of cultivation throughout the country, in consequence of which the cultivators draw an increased supply of water from the streams which flow into the lake, in order to irrigate and refresh their different plantations. In proportion as the waters recede, tracts of ground are left uncovered, which, having received for centuries past the deposited slime and substances of the lake, have thence acquired a prodigious fertility. These spots are eagerly selected for cultivation, and they reward the labours of the planter with a large return. The eastern shores of the lake are laid out for the culture of tobacco in five plantations, which occupy 15,000 persons, and the remainder of the lands which surround it are employed in raising other productions peculiar to the country. The woods in the vicinity afford a haunt to numerous varieties of birds, which are equally distinguished by the brilliancy of their plumage, and the melody of their notes. Reptiles are also common. Among these are two species of lizards, which are considered by the Indians and Spaniards as delicious food, and which are eagerly sought after. The waters of the lake are thick and of a nauseous taste, which is ascribed by Depons to the putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances. Its surface is diversified by numerous islands, by which its navigation is somewhat impeded. Most of these are inhabited, and yield abundance of provisions, fruits, and vegetables.
The abundant rains, which fall in the Caraccas, Rivers, find their way to the ocean by a variety of channels, and there is, accordingly, no country which is watered by more numerous streams. Every valley has its rivers, and if they are not all of sufficient size to answer the purposes of navigation, they afford ample supplies of water for the necessary purpose of irrigating the grounds which are cultivated along their shores. All the streams which rise on the northern ridge of the mountains in the interior run from south to north, and fall into the Caribbean Sea, while those which have their sources in the southern declivity of the same range of mountains, traverse in a southern direction the whole ex- tent of the intermediate plain, till they reach the majestic stream of the Orinoco. The principal rivers which flow northward into the Caribbean Sea are the Guigés, Tocuyo, Aroa, Yaracuy, Tuy, Unara, Nevei, Manzanares. These are so strongly fenced in by the natural barriers of high banks, and the ground at the same time forms such a continued declivity, that they seldom overflow the adjacent country to any extent, so as to occasion damage. The most considerable rivers which fall into the Orinoco are the Mamo, the Pariagon and Pao, the Chivata and Zoa, the Cachimano, the Aracay, the Manapira and Espino, and, lastly, the great river Apure, which enters the Orinoco by several channels. This river receives an immense variety of smaller streams, and is, indeed, the only channel by which all the lesser rivers, which rise in the extensive tract of country through which it flows, are conveyed to the Orinoco. During the rainy season, its waters, near its mouth, are spread over the flat country, which it traverses to an extent of nearly 96 miles; and, in general, all the rivers of this province, which flow through level grounds, overflow, during part of the year, a large tract of the adjacent country. This inundation covers a larger space as the rivers approach the ocean. Near the mouth of the Orinoco, one vast sea of fresh water is spread over the country to an extent, according to Depons, of nearly 200 leagues. The rise of the rivers commences in April, and ends in August, and during the subsequent month of September, there is no perceptible fall in the waters of the Orinoco. About the beginning of October they begin to retire from the flat country, and by the end of February the river has reached its lowest point.
In the settlements which they established in different parts of South America, the Spaniards, it is well known, were actuated solely by the desire of procuring the precious metals, and every other less valuable produce was regarded as unworthy of consideration. Under the influence of this spirit, the first adventurers in Terra Firma directed all their researches, as we have already observed, to the discovery of mines. These, however, proved so unproductive, that they were soon abandoned, and the colonists were, in this manner, compelled to have recourse for their subsistence to the cultivation of the soil. But it does not appear that their early efforts were favoured by the superintending care of the mother country. No Spanish vessel ever approached the desert shores of this new settled colony; and it was only at the special request of the colonists, that one vessel from the mother country was annually freighted to this part of America, to supply them with the necessaries of life. In this languishing state, the Caraccas continued during the whole of the 16th century. The faint hope of discovering mines, joined to the prosecution of the pearl fishery, which was at this time carried on with singular perseverance and cruelty, still continued to stifle every idea of agricultural industry; and it was not till the year 1634, when the Dutch took possession of the island of Curacao, that the inhabitants of Terra Firma were encouraged, by the vicinity of those industrious settlers, to devote their attention to agriculture, for the purpose of providing themselves with the means of commercial exchange. Cacao and hides constituted for a long period the two staple articles which they exchanged with the Hollanders for such other commodities as they were in want of.
The commencement of a trade with foreigners, however inconsiderable, excited the jealousy of the mother country, which, though it gave no seasonable aid to the early efforts of those colonists, was resolved to claim the dominion over them, as soon as their industry could be made subservient to its profit. Two vessels were accordingly allowed to sail from Spain, freighted with merchandise for the colonies, on which enormous duties were charged. The consequence was, that the Spanish merchants were undersold by the Dutch traders, and those foreigners were left during the remainder of the century in quiet possession of the trade, which was carried on both more openly and to a greater extent. During the first thirty years of the subsequent century, the intercourse with Spain was revived; but the trade with the mother country bore no proportion to the contraband trade. The annual produce of the province amounted to 65,000 quintals* of cacao; the legal exports were estimated at 21,000 quintals, so that 44,000 quintals still remain for the contraband trader. The Spanish Government, viewing with increasing dislike the growing connection of its colony with foreigners, resolved to stop the intercourse by the violence of power; and, with this view, confiscations, fines, and the most degrading punishments, were inflicted on those who engaged in it. Numerous families were ruined by these severities, but the trade continued as before. It originated in the necessities of the country, and such encouragements to evasion were held out, as covered all the risks of detection.
These violent measures not being found to answer their intended purpose, several Biscayan merchants offered to the government, in 1728, to destroy the contraband commerce, on condition of being allowed the privilege of supplying the wants of the colony, and of exporting its produce. To this proposal the government acceded, after imposing several burdensome conditions on the company. These, however, were complied with, and with such activity, prudence, and economy, were the affairs of the company carried on, that they succeeded in supplanting the contraband trade, while their management gave complete satisfaction to the colonies. From the year 1730 to 1748, 858,978 quintals of cacao were shipped from the colonies to the mother country, which amounted to one-third more than had been exported for the last thirty years. In 1742, the company had acquired such credit with the government, that they applied for and obtained the monopoly of the colonial trade. Great jealousies were excited in the colonies by this concession; and to appease the universal discontent which prevailed, it was agreed, in 1750, that a board should be appointed, composed of an
* A quintal is 1600 ounces. equal number of members of the company, and of cultivators in the colony,—the Governor-General to be President, who should regulate the prices at which the colony and the company should respectively exchange their merchandise. It was, at the same time, permitted to those planters who were not satisfied with the established price, to send one-sixth part of their cacao to Spain, on their own account, and in the vessels of the company. Under this regulated monopoly, the colonial trade was carried on with less of injustice to individuals than might have been expected, and with great prudence and success. For the destruction of the contraband trade, the company maintained, at an annual expense of 200,000 dollars, an armament of ten vessels, which carried 86 guns and 518 men; besides, 102 men employed on shore. Superb warehouses were constructed in the different ports to which its vessels traded, for the accommodation of its agents; and advances, without interest, were made to different planters to the amount of 640,000 dollars, on the security of the produce of their estates, at a fixed price. By the encouragement thus given to the trade of the colony, cultivation was extended,—flourishing villages arose in different parts,—and in addition to cacao, formerly the only staple of the country, other species of colonial produce were now cultivated. About the year 1735, the whole cacao produced in the province was estimated at 65,000 quintals, while, in 1763, there were embarked,
<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Quintals.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>For Spain,</td> <td>50,319</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Vera Cruz,</td> <td>16,864</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the Canaries,</td> <td>11,160</td> </tr> <tr> <td>St Domingo, Porto Rico, and Havannah,</td> <td>2316</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Local consumption,</td> <td>30,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total,</th> <th>110,659</th> </tr> </table>
During the same period the cattle multiplied rapidly on the extensive plains which stretch to the south of Caraccas, and hides were added to the other articles of exportation. By the increase of cultivation and trade, the various duties, which were hitherto insufficient to defray the expenses of government, became perfectly adequate to every charge; and the government of the mother country was freed from the burden to which it had been subject for a period of 200 years, of sending remittances from Mexico, for the purpose of supporting the civil and military establishments of Venezuela.
Such were the beneficial effects produced by the moderate and prudent conduct of the Company. It was evident, however, that no security existed for the continuance of this good management, farther than the discretion of the directors, who, in process of time, were corrupted by the temptations held out to them; and, in place of trading with the colonies upon the equitable principles of commercial exchange, became eager to obtain all the unfair advantages of the most rapacious monopolists. Bribery was resorted to, in order to procure a regulation of prices favourable to their interests,—the duties were evaded,—the contraband trade was encouraged,—and by all those transactions the planters were injured, while the mother country was deprived of the trade which the Company had engaged to carry on for her benefit. The natural remedy for these abuses was a free trade. A regulation was accordingly issued in 1778, by which all the chief ports of the Caraccas and of Spain were reciprocally opened to each other's produce, and the trade between them was, in effect, declared free. A scale of duties was at the same time established, by which the articles exported to the colonies were divided into three classes. The first of these consisted of articles the growth or manufacture of Spain, which were charged at the lowest rate, namely, \(9\frac{1}{2}\) per cent. on leaving Spain, and the same on being landed in America. All goods, likewise, of which the value was doubled by domestic industry, were placed in the same class. In the second class were comprehended such articles as had received a certain augmentation of value from domestic industry, but not such as to raise their value one half. These paid, on their shipment to the colonies, and on their arrival, \(12\frac{1}{2}\) per cent. The third class of articles, which were of foreign workmanship, were liable to a duty of 22 per cent. on leaving Spain. The colonial produce, on its importation into Spain, was made subject to moderate duties.
From the year 1793 to the year 1796, and from 1796 to 1800, Depons, in his account of the Caraccas, gives the following comparative statement of the value of the produce exported.
<table> <tr> <th colspan="2">Exportations from 1793 to 1796.</th> <th>Dollars.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>367,819 quintals cacao, at 18 dollars,</td> <td></td> <td>6,620,742</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2,955,968 lbs. indigo,</td> <td>12 reals,</td> <td>5,172,937</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1,498,332 lbs. cotton,</td> <td>20 reals,</td> <td>299,666</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1,925,584 lbs. coffee,</td> <td></td> <td>159,070</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Total,</th> <th>12,252,415</th> </tr> </table>
<table> <tr> <th colspan="2">Exportations from 1796 to 1800.</th> <th>Dollars.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>239,162 quintals cacao, at 18 dollars,</td> <td></td> <td>4,304,916</td> </tr> <tr> <td>793,210 lbs. indigo,</td> <td>14 reals,</td> <td>1,986,117</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2,834,254 lbs. cotton,</td> <td>20 dollars,</td> <td>566,850</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1,536,967 lbs. coffee,</td> <td></td> <td>184,435</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Diminution on the four last years,</th> <th>5,810,097</th> </tr> </table> This diminution of exports is ascribed by Depons to the defects of the internal administration, and partly also to the war which, after this period, was begun between Great Britain and Spain. This writer does not specify particularly the faults to which he alludes; but, in the mean time, no such change had taken place in the domestic administration of the country, as will account for such an enormous defalcation in the value of the produce exported.
The war between Britain and Spain appears to be the most probable and satisfactory cause of this diminution. By that event, the whole colonial trade of Spain became the prey of the British cruisers; and such was their unremitting vigilance, that the intercourse between the colonies and the mother country was almost entirely interrupted. In these circumstances, the rigour of the colonial monopoly was relaxed; the ports of the colonies were thrown open to neutrals; and, in addition to this intercourse, a contraband trade, to a great extent, was carried on with the British colonies. But of this illicit traffic no return would of course be made in the general account of the colonial trade; and it is possible, therefore, that the apparent defalcation of exports pointed out by Depons may have arisen from the circumstance of an illicit having taken the place of a contraband trade. In the year 1800, the Court of Spain, swayed by the selfish representations of the Spanish merchants, revoked the liberty granted to the colonies of trading with neutrals; and the consequences of this order were injurious in the extreme, and would have been ruinous to the colonies, had they not resorted, as before, to the necessary remedy of the contraband trade. This trade was carried on to a great extent with the British colonies, and was either connived at, or, as was affirmed, was in some cases formally licensed, by the British cruisers. During this period, therefore, and generally indeed during the whole course of the war, no custom-house account of imports and exports can be considered as affording any accurate view of the foreign trade of this colony.
The public revenues of the Caraccas arise from various taxes, namely, from the alcavala, which is a tax of 5 per cent. collected on all sales, whether of moveables, or of landed property. Every species of merchandise or territorial production is made subject to this impost, the moment it is exposed to sale; and retail dealers are in the habit of compounding with the Government, by the payment of an annual sum on their whole stock. This tax produced, in 1793, 150,862 dollars, and, in 1797, only 10,248, owing to the suspension of maritime commerce. A revenue is also derived from export and import duties, from duties on all distillers of intoxicating liquors, and on the shops where they are sold; from the sale of titles and offices, from stamps, from the sale of bulls granting spiritual indulgencies, from the monopoly of tobacco, and from various other local imports. The tithes, which are rigorously levied throughout the Caraccas, form a branch of the public revenue; two-ninths belonging to the Crown, and the remaining seven-ninths being appropriated to the payment of the ecclesiastics, and to the building and upholding of religious edifices.
The cargoes exported from Spain to the Caraccas do not, generally, contain above one-fourth of Spanish produce and manufactures, the other three-fourths being supplied chiefly from Britain, France, the Hause Towns, and part occasionally by Italy. The articles in the greatest demand at the Caraccas are linens, laces, black stuffs, principally serges, prunellas, satins, and taffeties. These are used for the cassocks and mantles of the priests, and for the dresses used by the women in their devotional exercises. Thick cloths are also in demand, and most of the whites are dressed in cassimere or in French cloths. Hats are also a saleable article, and French hats are universally preferred to those manufactured in other countries. No round hats are worn except by the lowest classes, or by boys, all the civil and military officers wearing cocked hats. A considerable quantity of boots, for the wearing of which the young Spaniards have acquired a taste, have been lately imported from the British colonies, and have met with a ready sale. As the shoemakers of the country cannot imitate the fashion and the make of these articles, the importer is free from competition, and he is therefore enabled to charge a high price. Shoes, however, are made in the country of a sufficiently good quality, and at a moderate price. They do not, therefore, form so profitable an article of importation. Among the coarse goods, the linens of Brittany, Rouen, Morlaix, and of Russia, are universally used.
The population of the Caraccas is stated by Depons to amount to 728,000, and he assigns the following proportions to the different provinces:
<table> <tr> <th>To the province of Venezuela, including Varinas,</th> <th>a population of</th> <th>500,000</th> </tr> <tr> <td>To the Government of Maracaibo,</td> <td></td> <td>100,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>To that of Cumana,</td> <td></td> <td>80,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>To Spanish Guiana,</td> <td></td> <td>34,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>To the Isle of Margaretta,</td> <td></td> <td>14,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> <td>728,000</td> </tr> </table>
Of this population the whites form two-tenths, the slaves three-tenths, the descendants of freedmen four, and the Indians compose the remainder. Some writers are of opinion that this account of the population is rather exaggerated.
The principal towns of the Caraccas are, Caraccas Principa l the capital, containing 34,000 inhabitants, Cumaná Towns: 24,000, Porto Cavello 7500, Valencia 6500, Maracay 8400, Guayra 6000, Tulmero 8000, Victoria 7800, Coro 10,000, Carora 6200, Barquisimeto 11,300, Tocuyo 10,000, Guanara 12,300.
This country was first discovered by Columbus History, and in the year 1498, in the course of his third voyage late Revolu- tion. America. Several attempts were made to settle it by means of missionaries, all of which proved unsuccessful. The natives were at last subdued by a military force, and the management of the Spanish settlements in this province were, for a pecuniary consideration, consigned by Charles V. to a German mercantile company named the Welsers. Under their government, the country experienced the most cruel oppression. The company were, in consequence deprived of the sovereignty in the year 1550, and a supreme government was appointed by the Crown. Since this period, these provinces continued under the government of the mother country, until the year 1810, when Spain was nearly overrun by the armies of France, and when no reasonable expectation could be entertained that she would be able to resist the invading force. In these circumstances, the colonies being aggrieved by useless restrictions on their commerce, and by other oppressions, a strong party was formed, ostensibly to protect them from the yoke of France, but really, it is supposed, with a view to detach them entirely from the dominion of the mother country. At last, on the 4th July 1811, the congress of Venezuela published a formal decree for their independence. A declaration of rights was afterwards issued, and with such severity was the new system enforced, that the jails were crowded with persons suspected of disaffection to the revolutionary measures adopted; great numbers were proscribed; some were banished and imprisoned; others were executed, and their heads stuck upon poles, as examples of terror to others. Several towns, and among others Coro and Valencia, declared against the new system. Troops were immediately dispatched to reduce the former city by force; these were beaten back with considerable loss. General Miranda was at the same time sent against the town of Valencia, and after some sanguinary encounters, he obtained possession of the place, from which, however, he was soon driven with loss by the determined resistance of the inhabitants. Being reinforced, he renewed the attack, and finally succeeded in his object. Since this period, the war between the two parties has been carried on with various success; and, from the latest accounts, it would appear that the cause of the independents is gaining ground. At present we have no information by which we can decide as to the issue of the contest; and we must, therefore, defer any farther account of it till we arrive at the general article of South America.
See Semple's Sketch of the Present State of the Caraccas, 1812.—Travels in South America, by F. Depons, 2 vols. 8vo, 1807.—Humboldt's Personal Narrative of Travels in the Equinoctial Regions, 2 vols. 8vo, 1814.
CARDIGANSHIRE is divided from Caernarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, along the greatest part of its southern side, by the Tivy; on the north it is divided from Merionethshire by the river Dory; and from Montgomeryshire by an artificial boundary. The boundaries on the east, between it and Radnorshire and Breconshire, are also artificial. On the west, it stretches along the sea-coast in a bending line, from north-east to south-west, forming part of the shore of Cardigan Bay. Its extent, measured along the shore, is nearly 40 miles. Its breadth does not average 20. It contains 726 square miles, or 464,640 acres. It is divided into five hundreds. The market towns are Aberystwith, Cardigan, Llanbarnvawr, Llanbeder, and Tregaron. The number of parishes, according to the last Parliamentary returns respecting the poor's rates, is 97. It sends one member to Parliament; lies in the province of Canterbury, and diocese of St David's; and is in the North Wales circuit. The coast of Cardigan Bay (which is formed by the projecting counties of Caernarvon on the north, and Pembroke on the south, with the coasts of Merioneth and Cardigan in the centre), according to tradition and appearance, have suffered greatly from the depredations of the sea, especially on the Cardigan shore. The tradition of the country is, that there was formerly a sixth hundred, which is now covered by the sea; and there are still to be seen, at low water, several ridges of rocks, called causeways, which seem to confirm the truth of this tradition. Of these the most remarkable is St Patrick's Causeway, which extends from within a mile of the point of Mochras, south of Harlech, 22 miles into the sea, in a serpentine line. It is formed of rough stones, 24 feet broad; and at the extremity there is a round head, formed of sixteen great stones, one of which is four yards in diameter. Trunks and roots of trees are also found at a considerable distance from the shore.
The principal rivers are the Tivy, the Rydiol, the Rivers Ystwyth, and the Aeron. The Tivy rises in Llyn Teefy, or Tivy Pool, in a mountain in the north-east of the county. On the top of this mountain there are five lakes, of which Tivy Pool is the principal. It is about one mile and a half in circumference, is surrounded by high and perpendicular rocks, and is said never to have been fathomed. The Tivy at first flows through a rocky district; afterwards, forming a regular channel, it passes Tregaron; and, at Llanbeder, becomes the boundary between Caernarthenshire and Cardiganshire. It falls into the sea about two miles below Cardigan. The Rydiol rises on the south-west side of Plinlimmon; its course is about south-west; and it falls into the sea near Aberystwyth. About 12 miles above this town is the Devil's Bridge, called by the Welch, Pont y Monach, or the Monks' Bridge, and Pont ar Fynach, from the confluence here of the Fynach with the Rydiol. There are two arches, one above the other. The uppermost is between 20 and 30 feet in the chord; and the other less than 20. The upper one was built in 1753; the date of the building of the lower one is not known. Near this bridge are the falls of the Fynach. The first fall takes place where the river is much confined by the rocks. The water is carried about six feet over them, into a basin 18 feet below. The next fall is 60 feet, the third fall is 20, and the last is 110 feet. Near this is the fall of the Rydiol, the scenery round which is considered very striking and grand. The Ystwyth rises among the hills on the eastern side of the county, and falls into the sea at Aberystwyth. The Aeron is between six and seven miles in extent, receives six tributary streams, and forms, during the whole of its course, nearly the arc of a circle. It falls into the sea at Aberaeron.
That part of the country which lies along the sea surface is level, especially the south-western extremity; but soil the northern and eastern parts are very rugged and mountainous. The soil of the low lands is either a light or a strong loam, lying on slate. The soil of the mountainous division is in general thin and poor, except in the narrow valleys, where it consists of clay or peat. The tract along the sea coast produces good crops of wheat, barley, turnips, potatoes, and oats. The quality, as well as the produce of the barley grown in some parts of this tract, are very remarkable. Between Aberaeron and Llanrysted, is an extensive flat, extending from the sea to the east mountains, which produces from sixty to eighty bushels of fine barley per acre. This land is constantly under this crop, and has been so for at least half a century. It is manured every three years with sea-weed. Potatoes are grown on the peat mosses in such a manner as at once to secure good crops, and to drain the land. The potatoe sets are laid on the surface of the bog, a little manure is spread over them, and they are afterwards covered with earth dug out of the trenches.
Very few sheep are kept on the low land; but on the mountains they are numerous. They are, in general, the native breed, very inferior both for wool and carcase. Cattle are kept in all parts of the county; in the low lands, and in the vales of the mountainous district, principally for butter and cheese; in the other parts they are bred for the English drovers. Of the 464,640 acres which this county contains, it is calculated that 100,000 are in tillage; 145,000 in pasture, and the rest waste land.
Cardiganshire formerly was famous for its mines of lead, but at present they are not very productive; the principal are two, in the vicinity of Cwymystwith. Near Tal-y-bont are some that used to be very productive, but now are almost exhausted; the matrix of the ore is carbonate of lime. There are also veins of copper, but they are not wrought. The want of coal, of which there is none in the whole county, the rugged nature of the country, and the badness of the roads, are probably the chief causes why the mines are not worked. Near Aberystwith are large slate quarries; the slates lie in alternate strata with shale, and are in compact masses, of a coarse texture; the inclination of the strata varies very much, following the general irregularity of shale. The slate that is found near the sea coast, not being mixed with shale, lies in perpendicular strata. There are some very extensive tracts of peat, especially on the coast beyond Aberystwith, bordering on the river Dovy; and from Strata Florida, near the Tivy, to Llyn y Maes, or the lake of the flood; the latter tract is one continued marshy bog, abounding in Turbaries, as far as Tregaron: according to tradition, a town once stood in this marsh. As connected with the natural history of this county, it may be remarked that Mr Aikin observed near the banks of the Rydial, a moor-buzzard, and the horse-ant, the largest species of ants that are natives of Britain. The angel-fish is found in the bay of Cardigan.
There are few manufactures in this county; at Llechwydol, near Cardigan, are iron and tin works. Black cattle, pigs, butter, barley, oats, flannels, Welsh-webs, bark, iron, tin, slates, and ale, are exported from Aberystwyth, and Cardigan. There is a great fair for cattle and sheep at Rhos, near the source of the Tivy.
Cardiganshire is celebrated in the literary history of Wales, for having given birth to David ap Gwylim, who flourished between 1330 and 1370. From the poems of this author, the modern literary dialect of Wales has been chiefly formed, and this dialect is spoken with greater purity in this county than in any other part of the principality.
In Cardiganshire, a custom prevails resembling singular the penny-weddings among the peasantry of Scotch custom. Land. Before marriage a bidder goes from house to house, inviting the inhabitants to come to the wedding, and to bring money and cheese and butter. The marriage always takes place on the Saturday, and the guests assemble on the Friday with their presents. All these are set down on paper, that, if demanded, they may be repaid, but this seldom happens. The furnishing of the woman is also brought home on this day. On Saturday, ten or twenty of the man's friends who are best mounted, go to demand the bride, who is placed on a horse behind her father, and rides off as fast as she can. She is soon, however, overtaken. Presents are continued to be received on the Saturday and Sunday; on Monday they are sold, frequently making, with the money presented, the sum of L. 50 or L. 60.
In 1803, the poor's rates amounted to L.10,167. Poor's Rates. In 1815, there was collected from 92 parishes L.15,409, 8s. 6d.
In 1800, the number of houses was 9040, and of population, inhabitants 42,956. The males were 20,408; the females 22,548. In 1811, there were
<table> <tr> <th>Houses inhabited,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>9639</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Families inhabiting them,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>11,296</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Houses building,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>129</td> </tr> <tr> <th>uninhabited,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>155</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Families employed in agriculture,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>5864</td> </tr> <tr> <th>in trade, manufactures, and handicrafts,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>1913</td> </tr> <tr> <th>All others, not comprehended in these classes,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>3519</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Males,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>23,759</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Females,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>26,501</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>50,260</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Population in 1800,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>42,956</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Increase,</th> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>7304</td> </tr> </table>
See Meyrick's History of Cardiganshire.—Malkin's Scenery, &c. of Wales.—Aikin's Tour in Wales.