See the Encyclopædia under that head, and Optics in this Supplement.

CAUBUL. That extensive territory in the centre Names and of Asia, which at present composes the kingdom Integral Parts of Caubul.

Caubul, is formed of various and disunited portions. The basis is a large tract of mountain table land, interposed between Persia and Indostan, and to which the Persians have given the generally received appellation of Afghaunistaun. To this original territory, conquest has added, on the east, Cashmeer, with the greater part of Moultaun and Lahore, called commonly the Punjab; on the north, Bulkh, or Bactria; on the west, Heraut and a great part of Khorasan; and, on the south, a portion of Sinde and Beloochistaun. Several of these provinces are very slightly attached to the main body of the kingdom. Beloochistaun and Bulkh have been already described; and the provinces of Moultaun and the Punjab are so connected with Indostan by natural boundaries and physical aspect, that we cannot forbear referring them to that country, notwithstanding the political events which, at present, sever them from it. Our details will refer chiefly to the remaining provinces, which may be considered as the integral portions of the kingdom of Caubul. Under the heads of Afghans, Caubul, and Candahar, in the original work, will be found a summary of the very little that was known relative to this part of Asia. Mr Elphinstone's excellent account of his recent mission to Caubul, has thrown an entirely new light upon those regions; and will enable us to exhibit a much more full and satisfactory view, than was before possible, of their actual condition.

The modern Afghaunistaun was recognised by the ancients under the appellations of Aria, Drangiana, Arachlosia, and Parapomisus; but these countries were scarcely known, unless by the marches of Alexander, who traversed them only partially; for, in advancing, he went chiefly to the north of this region, and to the south of it in returning. In modern times, Cau- Caubul has shared all the revolutions which has changed the face of Southern Asia. In the eleventh century, under Mahmood of Ghuznee, it was the seat of an Empire, which extended from the Ganges to the Euphrates, and from the Jaxartes to the ocean. This sceptre was broken by the inroad of those innumerable hordes which, under Gengis and Timour, poured down from the interior of Tartary. Caubul was conquered, in 1506, by the Emperor Baulher, who made the city of that name his capital. This example was not followed by the Moguls his successors; but the plains of Afghanistan continued to be divided between Persia and India, while the mountainous tracts commonly maintained their independence. In the beginning of the last century, a tribe of Afghauns conquered Persia, and continued to reign over that Empire till its independence was re-asserted by Naudir Shauh. That daring Chief not only expelled the invaders, but rendered Caubul, in its turn, subject to Persia, and carried his arms into Indostan. After the death of Naudir, Ahmed Shauh, the head of one of the principal Afghan tribes, founded the present kingdom of Caubul. He not only made it independent of every foreign power, but extended its boundaries on every side, twice entered Delhi, and annexed to his dominion several of the Indian provinces. In 1773, he was succeeded by his son Timour, a moderate Prince, who made it his chief aim to maintain tranquillity throughout his extensive dominions. In this object he with difficulty succeeded; but a train of policy, so adverse to the habits and inclination of his subjects, was not calculated to make his government respected, and he left, in 1793, a weakened sceptre to his posterity. In this kingdom, the Chiefs select from the sons of the deceased monarch the individual whom they judge best qualified to reign. The choice, in this instance, fell upon Zemaun Shauh. A half-brother, Mahmood, however, raised the standard of revolt, and, after various successes, obtained possession of the person of Zemaun, whom he deposed, and deprived of sight. Meantime another brother, Shujah, advanced a claim to the throne, which he made good, and was found reigning at Peshawer when Mr Elphinstone arrived there in 1808. Mahmood, however, had escaped from prison, had raised a new force, with which he had taken Candahar, and was advancing upon Peshawer. The mission afterwards learned that he had entered that city, driving Shujah before him. A civil war then ensued, in which the contending parties alternately obtained possession of the capital. Which of the two now holds the preeminence is not known, and is not of very much importance; but it is of importance to ascertain the general statistical and political state of a great kingdom, which borders so closely on our eastern possessions.

Boundaries.—The kingdom of Caubul is bounded on the east by Indostan, on the north by Toorkistaun, or Independent Tartary, on the west and south by Persia. Its extent may be roughly stated at 600 miles from east to west, and 550 from north to south.

Mountains.—Among the natural features of Caubul, the most remarkable is that portion of the great mountain chain of Asia, which passes along its northern frontier. The lofty peak of Hindoo Coosh or Koh, communicates its name to this range, which forms evidently a prolongation of the Hemalleh, or snowy chain, which divides India from the table land of Tibet. Hemalleh, however, extends from south-east to north-west, while Hindoo Coosh runs directly east and west. It is of stupendous height, and its most elevated summits clad in perpetual snow; yet they do not seem altogether to equal some of those which tower above the plains of Nepaul. The observations made by Lieutenant Macartney, apparently with considerable skill and attention, fixed the elevation of some peaks at 20,493 feet; though the operation, being performed at the distance of 100 miles, afforded too small an angle to secure rigorous accuracy. "The stupendous height of these mountains; the magnificence and variety of their lofty summits; the various nations by whom they are seen, and who seem to be brought together by this common object; and the awful and undisturbed solitude, which reigns amid their eternal snows, fill the mind with admiration and astonishment, that no language can express." This chain continues with undiminished magnitude for about 440 geographic miles west from Cashmeer, and then shoots into that elevated peak to which the name of Hindoo Coosh is peculiarly applied. West of this point, it becomes considerably lower; and travellers from Candahar to Bulkh cross it without meeting any perpetual snow. The Greek term of Parapomisus is here commonly applied to it. In approaching the frontier of Persia, the mountains become of still inferior elevation; though branches continue to stretch westward, which may be viewed as prolongations of the great central chain.

Next in magnitude to the Hindoo Coosh, ranks the ridge of Solimaun. It commences a little to the west of Peshawer, at a very high peak, covered with perpetual snow, called Suffaid Koh, and proceeds thence, with diminishing magnitude, almost directly south, till it sinks into the plains of Sinde and Beloochistan. Only a narrow valley, through which the Caubul river flows, is interposed between it and the central range, on the opposite side of which begins the Beloor Taugh, extending northward as far as Cashgar, and which may probably be considered as a continuation of the Solimaun. From these two principal ranges, a variety of others, in different directions, traverse the elevated plain of Afghanistan. One of the most remarkable of these is the Salt range, which, beginning not far from Suffaid Koh, runs east-south-east, crosses the Indus at Karrabah, or Callabaugh, and is continued to the banks of the Jelum. It is composed in many places of solid salt, clear as crystal, and so hard that plates for the table are formed out of it. At Callabaugh, it is seen lying in large blocks, for the purpose of being conveyed to the countries situated up and down the river. In other respects, the mineralogical structure and composition of all these ranges is entirely unknown.

Of the rivers of the kingdom of Caubul, the most considerable by far is the Indus. This stream has been proved, by recent discoveries, to have a much longer course than had hitherto been assigned to it Caubul by modern geography. It seems to have been traced to a mountainous track on the eastern border of Little Thibet, the same which, on its opposite side, gives rise to the Bramapoutra. Here two branches arise, near to each other, which, after widely diverging, unite a few journies to the north-east of Cashmeer. Soon after their combined streams turn to the south, and force their way across the barrier of Hindoo Coosh. Here the Indus is, for a long time, confined in a narrow channel between rocks, and after receiving the rapid river of Caubul, is broken into numerous whirlpools and eddies, which are heard to a great distance, producing a sound like that of a stormy sea. After passing the salt range at Callabaugh, the stream no longer meets with any obstruction, and pours its waters over the plain in various channels, which successively separate and reunite, till they are poured, by many mouths, into the Indian Ocean. Near Auch an important accession is received from the Punjund, which bears the united waters of the five great rivers that traverse the Punjab; yet all these combined are considerably inferior to the Indus before the junction. The whole course of this noble river is estimated at 1350 miles.

Among the rivers which fall into the Indus from the west, the principal is the Kama, which, rising on the opposite side of the same peak which gives rise to the Oxus, rolls through the mountainous country of Kaushkaur, then penetrates the barrier of Hindoo Coosh, and pours down with tempestuous rapidity into the valley beneath. It here joins the river of Caubul, and the united stream falls into the Indus a little above Attok. The western part of Afghaunistaun is watered by the Helmund, which rises near Caubul, and, after rolling for 200 miles through mountainous tracks, enters a fertile plain, which, however, is soon crossed, and its subsequent course directed through a desert, when it falls, beyond the Afghaun frontier, into the lake of Durra or Zereng. Its whole length is about 400 miles. It receives a considerable number of smaller streams from different parts of the chain of Parapomisus. Near Ghuznee several small streams concur in forming the only lake in this country, called Aubistandeh.

The climate of Afghaunistaun exhibits the most striking varieties, in consequence of the abruptness with which the mountain ranges often rise from the deep plains beneath. A few hours journey carries the traveller from a place where snow never falls, to another where it never melts. In the plain of Jellalabad, immediately beneath Suffaid Koh, persons are often killed by the intensity of the hot wind, while regions of eternal ice are towering above. At Caubul, the winter, if not more severe, is more steady than in England. The inhabitants wear woollen cloths and great coats of tanned sheep skin; they often sleep round stones, and avoid, as much as possible, leaving the house till the vernal equinox brings milder weather. Ghuznee, from its high situation, suffers more from cold than any of the other cities; and snow there often lies deep after the vernal equinox. In Damaun, on the contrary, a province lying along the Indus, the heat is such that the inhabitants are obliged to wet their clothes before going to sleep, 'and to keep, during the whole night, a vessel with water standing by the bedside. The heat is still more intense in the plain of Sewestaun, on the south western frontier; whence the Afghauns are accustomed to make the odd exclamation, "O Lord, when thou hadst Sewee, why needest thou to have made Hell!"

The prevailing winds in Afghaunistaun are from the west and south-west. The latter begins in the middle of summer, and blows for about a hundred and twenty days without intermission. This wind, throughout all this country, is cool, while the east wind is hot. The chief rain is in winter. When this falls in the form of snow and melts at the return of heat, it is of great importance to agriculture; but in the form of rain, its effect is lost, and the main dependence of the husbandman is then upon another rain, much smaller in quantity, which falls in spring. The monsoon that produces the great rains of India, is scarcely felt in Afghaunistaun; and the latter may be considered in general as a dry country.

The soil is nearly as various as the climate. In well watered plains of moderate elevation, as Pesha- wer and Candahar, it is exceedingly fertile, and produces two full crops in the year. Wheat and barley, the grains of Europe, are cultivated in preference to rice and Indian corn. In the higher districts, only one crop can be raised in the year; and in some, the grain must be sown at the end of one autumn, that it may ripen before another. The loftier part of the mountain chains is of course condemned to perpetual ruggedness and sterility. On the other hand, in the level districts to the south, bordering upon Seestau and Beloichistau, extensive deserts are produced by the absence of water. The empire of desolation seems, on this side, to be continually spreading; the moving sand being blown by the south-west wind over the bordering fertile tracts, which it gradually covers, and converts into desert.

The account of the animals of Afghaunistaun is very imperfect. Lions are rare; tygers and leopards are more common; wolves, hyenas, foxes, and hares, everywhere abound. The agricultural labour is performed by oxen; but a species of broad-tailed sheep form the riches of the pastoral tribes. Horses occur in considerable numbers, but not of the same excellent quality as those bred in the extensive plains north of Hindoo Coosh.

The political constitution of Caubul is by no means of that simple structure which is usual in Asia. Constitu- tions monarchies. The royal power has been compared to that which was exercised by the Scottish monarchs during the feudal ages. Over the great towns, the country in their immediate vicinity, and the foreign dependencies, their authority is direct, and almost supreme. The rest of the nation is divided into clans or communities, who act nearly independently of the sovereign, and from whom a contingent of troops and money is with difficulty levied. These communities are called Oolooss. They are governed by a Khaun, who is usually appointed by the King, but always out of the oldest family of the Oolooss. The Khaun, within his own community, is quite a limited monarch; he can undertake no- thing of importance without the consent of the Jeerga, or representative assembly of the people. The judicial power, so far as exercised, is also vested in the Jeerga. The principle of private revenge, however, is deeply rooted in the mind of the nation, and an appeal to the Jeerga carries with it some degree of reproach; being supposed to indicate, in the individual who has recourse to such a remedy, a want either of power or courage to vindicate his own wrongs. Even the Jeerga recognises the right of retaliation, by making a formal offer to the offended party of delivering the criminal into his hands, that he may inflict his own punishment, though it is understood that he shall decline and leave the point to the determination of the Jeerga. Alliances are formed, and wars carried on by the Oolooss between themselves, without any concern or interference of the sovereign. This form of government keeps every part of the country in a state of tumult and ferment, and presents at first sight a very unfavourable contrast to that undisturbed tranquillity which, under an absolute government, reigns over the greater part of the plains of India. Mr Elphinstone, however, through this outward aspect of rudeness and turbulence, saw enough to convince him of the radical superiority even of this rude freedom. The powers of action, and, as it were, of vitality, lodged in each of these independent communities, enabled it to flourish, unaffected by the personal character of the sovereign, or even by the convulsions which subverted his throne. The succession of revolutions to which the kingdom has been exposed during the last half century, have produced effects visibly injurious on the great cities, and the districts situated along the high roads. But the more remote and independent parts of the country have proceeded in an uninterrupted career of improvement; cultivation has been extended, new aqueducts built, and various public establishments undertaken.

Though the external appearance of the Afghauns be more uncouth than that of the Indian, they possess estimable qualities to which he is a stranger. A certain measure of reliance can be placed upon their statements of fact; not that they can compare with Europeans in veracity, or will scruple dissimulation, when any great interest is to be promoted; but they are far from that profound and habitual falsehood, which characterizes the natives of Persia and Indostan. They manifest also an active spirit of curiosity, to which the subjects of despotism are altogether strangers. Displays of European art and machinery, which by Indians were noticed evidently from mere politeness, without any real interest, excited in the Afghauns the highest gratification, and an anxious wish to examine the processes by which they were performed. There exists also more purity of manners than is observed in other Asiatic countries. Polygamy, indeed, and the purchase of wives, prevails here, as over all the East. They are well treated, however, and often acquire an ascendancy in the family, from which the severity of Mahometan institutions seems elsewhere to exclude them. In the country districts, where the system of seclusion cannot be carried to such a rigorous extent as in towns, the passion of love seems often to be felt in all its ardour. Many of their popular poems relate to amorous adventures, and detail incidents not dissimilar to those which form the subject of similar compositions in Europe. It is said to be not uncommon for a young man to set out for India, or some other foreign country, with a view of earning the purchase money of the female of whom he has become enamoured. This price being usually considerable, the procuring of an Afghaun wife is attended with difficulty, and men arrive often at the age of forty, before they are able to collect a sum sufficient. This has led to a very peculiar mode of penal infliction. The fine imposed, on conviction of any crime, is levied in young women, to be given as wives to the injured person or his friends. Murder is twelve young women; severe mutilation, six; and so on, diminishing for smaller offences.

Hospitality is a virtue for which the nation is eminently distinguished. Not only a stranger, but the bitterest enemy, beneath the roof of an Afghaun, is in perfect security. Usage has even established, that any individual, who enters his house, and places himself in the posture of a supplicant, shall receive the boon which he thus craves. Yet, with this even romantic courtesy and humanity, are combined almost universally the habits of plunder and robbery. The extent of these practices varies among different tribes; and in those placed under the immediate eye of the Sovereign they are much restrained; but scarcely any tribes are wholly exempted. Instances have occurred in which an Afghaun has received a stranger with all the rights of hospitality, and afterwards, meeting him in the open country, has robbed him. The same person, it is supposed, who would plunder a cloak from a traveller who had one, would give a cloak to one who had none. From these circumstances, it is conceived, that no European, carrying property along with him, could, with any degree of safety, travel through Afghaunistaun. Nothing except absolute poverty could afford him any chance of security.

The Afghaun nobles reside almost entirely at court. They maintain a considerable state; but do not move with that crowded and noisy attendance which forms the delight of the Indian great man. In their comparatively small retinue, order and silence are strictly observed; so that they are alighted, and often entered, before their approach is announced. Even those whose fortunes are most ample, do not display the magnificence usual among the Persian nobility. In an entertainment, to which the British mission were invited, the dishes, consisting of all kinds of roasted, boiled, and baked meats, were dyed of various colours, and profusely ornamented with gold and silver leaf. The English were surprised, however, to see the servants jointing the meat with a penknife, and laying it on the plates with their hands. The amusements consisted in dancing girls, and displays of fire works, neither of which being very excellent in its kind, the pleasure afforded was extremely moderate. The nobles employed in offices at court are the most corrupted part of the nation, and, with a few exceptions, are guilty of every species of meanness.

Among Afghauns of all descriptions, the favourite amusement is hunting. They practise it against all descriptions of game, and in every possible variety of mode. Sometimes large parties assemble, and, forming a crescent, sweep the country, so as to enclose all the game to be found within the compass of a certain district. They do not excel much in shooting or hawking; but have a singular mode of chasing partridges. A number of horsemen, one after another, pursue the bird, and never allow it to rest a moment, till, being quite exhausted, it is easily beat down with a stick. Within doors, quail and cock-fighting afford favourite enjoyments; nor is any exercise which calls forth bodily strength and dexterity omitted. The Afghauns are also a social people; they give frequent dinner parties, and delight in serious as well as gay conversation. The inhabitants of the towns find great enjoyment in excursions to the gardens in the vicinity, which command usually magnificent prospects.

Education, to a certain extent, is very general among the Afghauns. Moolahs, performing the office of schoolmasters, are established not only in towns, but even in every village. Unfortunately, the grand object is to enable their pupils to read the Koran in Arabic, often without understanding it; and not a fourth part of the lower orders can read their own language. The more advanced studies are the Persian classics, Arabic, grammar, logic, law, and theology. The two great seminaries of learning are Peshawer and Bukhara, the former of which has somewhat the preeminence. Although the superiority of the Persians in literature is acknowledged, yet their reputation of heresy deters all faithful Soonees from repairing to their colleges. The Afghau princes, in general, have been eminent encouragers of learning. Ahmed Shaul held weekly assemblies at his palace, often prolonged to a late hour, and in which various topics of theology, law, and literature, were discussed. He and most of his successors have practised poetical composition, though their fame does not rest upon that basis. The most celebrated of the Afghau poets in Rehman; in whose pieces, however, so far as they were explained to Mr Elphinstone, he was not able to discover any merit; but he is willing to believe that this may have arisen from the defective nature of the few specimens which he obtained. More true poetical fire glows in the verses of Khooshhhaul, a Khaun or Chieftain, whose valour maintained the independence of his tribe against the power of Aurungzebe. His odes seem well calculated to inspire his followers with the love of independence, and with a passion for war and glory. The poetical taste of the nation is also indicated by the reading of poetry being established as a regular profession, which is followed in the towns by a considerable number of individuals.

Agriculture. The useful arts have made considerable progress. Agriculture is followed with assiduity. The grand process upon which its success depends, is that of irrigation, which is practised to a great extent, throughout all the kingdom. It is usually effected by small canals, into which the water is turned by dams, and sometimes by partial embankments. A much more laborious contrivance, called a cauraiz, is frequently employed. A chain of wells are sunk on a sloping field, and are connected by a subterraneous channel, so constructed, that the water of all the wells is poured into the lowest one, and thence into a water-course, from which it is conducted over the field. This laborious structure forms sometimes the mode in which a rich man employs his money; sometimes it is performed by an association formed among the poor. The ground is always watered before being ploughed. The ploughing is performed with two oxen, and is deeper than in India; the grain is sown always in broadcast, and a substitute for the harrow is formed by a plank, above which a man stands, to increase the pressure. The crop, in the course of its growth, is watered at least once, usually oftener. The sickle is the only instrument employed in reaping, and the grain is threshed by the treading of oxen. Two kinds of artificial grass are raised. Wheat forms the staple food of the inhabitants, and barley is chiefly used for horses. The cheapness of provisions, particularly of fruits and vegetables, is almost incredible. Grapes are considered dear when they exceed a farthing a pound, and the coarser species are sometimes given to cattle; the best apricots are less than a halfpenny a pound, and melons much cheaper. The smallest piece of copper money purchases ten pounds of spinach, twenty-five of cabbage, &c. The land is divided into very minute portions, and the proprietor and cultivator are usually the same person.

Of the manufactures of Afghanistan no mention is made; and they seem to be limited to objects of immediate consumption. Manufacturing industry is confined to the provinces annexed to the kingdom of Caubul by conquest from India. The most important branch is the manufacture of the shawls of Cashmere. These beautiful fabrics are wrought in a shop or shed, consisting of a frame-work, at which from two to four people are employed. The plain shawls are woven with a shuttle, the variegated ones with wooden needles,—there being a needle for each species of coloured thread. A year or more is sometimes employed in the manufacture of a very fine shawl, but six or eight of the ordinary kind may be made in that period. The annual number produced in Cashmere is estimated at about 80,000. The wool is imported chiefly from Great Thibet, by the way of Rodauk.

Afghaunistaun, from its situation, can only have an inland commerce. This is conducted by caravans, and the merchants usually employ camels for the conveyance of their goods; though when they have to cross any part of the chain of Hindu Coosh, horses and poneys must be used. Considerable obstacles are encountered from the roughness of the roads, the difficulty of finding water and provisions, and the attacks of the predatory tribes. In traversing the territories of the latter, strict order is observed, and the march is covered by parties of horse stationed at proper distances. During the night, a large proportion of the caravan remain on watch. In towns they lodge in the caravansaries, which consist of large squares, along each side of which the apartments are ranged, with a mosque in the centre. Each merchant usually hires, at a very easy rate, two rooms for himself and his goods. Afghaunistaun, from its want of manufactures, yields few commodities which can bear the expense of so laborious a transport. The principal are, fruits of all kinds, furs, madder, and assafractida. The produce of its subject provinces, the shawls of Cashmeer, the chintzes of Moultaan, form more convenient articles of exchange. The trade of this country, however, is chiefly supported by its being the channel through which India maintains its communication with Persia and Toorkistaun. All the Indian manufactures are thus conveyed into those regions, while European goods are brought by the Russians, by way of Orenburg to Bukhara, and thence to Caubul. The English mission, after having, with great difficulty, conveyed some large mirrors across the desert, hoping thus to inspire the king with a high idea of British manufacture, were much astonished and mortified, in the first private house which they visited, to see two mirrors of greater dimensions, which they understood had been brought by the above channel. From Toorkistaun itself are imported vast numbers of horses, for the supply of all the great men and armies of India. These, in consequence of the immediate channel by which they arrive, are there erroneously called Caubul horses.

Such are the general features of the kingdom of Caubul; but every district has its separate tribe, divided and subdivided into others, and every one having something peculiar to itself. Our limits will only allow us to notice some of the most prominent of these distinctions. The western Afghauns are divided chiefly into the Ghiljies and Dooraunees. The Ghiljies are the most warlike of all the Afghaun tribes. Ghuznee, situated in the heart of their territory, was the residence of the great Mahmood, and the Ghiljies formed the strength of those armies, with which he spread desolation over Asia. The conquest of Persia, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, was also effected by the Ghiljies, and they continued the ruling tribe till the invasion by Naudir Shauh. The restoration of the Afghaun monarchy being effected by Ahmed Shauh, the chief of the Dooraunees, the Ghiljies have never regained their former ascendancy. Their constitution is extremely democratic, the administration, in some districts, verging almost on total anarchy. This spirit, which was always prevalent, has gained much additional strength since the sovereign ceased to belong to their tribe, and to add to his constitutional prerogative the more revered character of hereditary chief of the Ghiljies. This distinction now belongs to the Dooraunees, who, since the elevation of Ahmed Shauh, have had the king of Caubul for the head of their tribe. The great Dooraunee Sirdars unite the influence derived from office and military command, to that which they enjoy in right of their birth. Accordingly, though the democratic principle is by no means crushed, the power both of the king and chiefs is greater here than in any other part of the kingdom. The character and deportment of the Dooraunees are the subject of much panegyric. They are brave, honourable, hospitable, ardently attached to their tribe, and, at the same time, more liberal and humane than the rest of their countrymen. This preeminence is admitted by the Ghiljies, even while they avow themselves their bitterest enemies. One of them being asked by Mr Elphinstone, what sort of people the Dooraunees were, answered, "Good people; they dress well, they are hospitable, they are not treacherous." Being then asked how his countrymen treated such as fell into their hands, he replied, "We never let one escape; and now, if I had an opportunity, I would not give one time to drink water. Are we not enemies?" He added, "Our hearts burn, because we have lost the kingdom, and we wish to see the Dooraunees as poor as ourselves."

The heights of Solimaun are occupied by the Khyberees, Vizerees, and Sheraunees, tribes still more barbarous than the names which they bear. They are all robbers, and some of them little better than savages, living in caves cut out from the rock. The Eusofzies inhabit the north-eastern extremity of Afghaunistaun, and occupy a fertile valley on the right bank of the Indus, watered by the river of Suant. They came into this region as conquerors, and have reduced all the original inhabitants to a state of slavery. The slaves being more numerous than the masters, perform all the laborious offices, and leave the latter in a state of almost total indolence. Although democracy be very prevalent throughout Afghaunistaun, it nowhere rises to such a height as among the Eusofzies, who indeed can scarcely be said to have any government whatever. The small number of the freemen, and a species of connection resembling that of a religious sect, which binds them to each other, are sufficient to prevent any violent disorder. Proud of this freedom, the Eusofzies regard themselves as the noblest of the Afghaun tribes, and look down with contempt even on the Dooraunees.

Cashmeer was wrested from the Mogul by Ahmed Shauh, and has ever since continued a subject province of Caubul. The soil is more fertile, and the inhabitants more industrious than in any other part of the Afghaun dominions. The capital of the same name is the largest city in the kingdom, containing from 150,000 to 200,000 inhabitants; and the revenue is estimated at 4,626,300 rupees, nearly half a million Sterling. The country is ruled by a governor, who exercises with severity all the functions of a sovereign. The Dooraunees, who compose the military force, indulge in unusual licence, and treat this fine country as a conquered province. These oppressions give rise to frequent insurrections; but as the Cashmerians are endowed with a very small portion of courage, their risings are quickly crushed by the arrival of an Afghaun army; and the yoke is rendered more severe by the abortive attempt at emancipation.

The principal cities of Afghaunistaun are Pesha-Principal Cities, wer, Caubul, Candahar, and Heraut. Peshawer, at present the largest town in Caubul, is situated in a most beautiful and fertile plain, of about 35 miles in diameter. It is watered by several branches of the river of Caubul; and while it displays all the luxuriance of tropical fertility, is nearly environed by the snowy summits of the Hindoo Coosh, and the ridge of Solimaun. The city itself is upwards of five miles in circumference, is built upon an irregular surface, and contains about 100,000 inhabitants. The houses are built of brick, generally unburnt, in wooden frames. They are usually three stories high, the lower story being occupied by shops. The streets are narrow, not being designed for wheel-carriges; and, though paved, they are slippery and inconvenient. The shops are commodious, and well supplied with a variety of articles; while greens, curds, and particularly water, are called through the streets. The inhabitants present a varied and picturesque appearance; "people of the town in white turbans, some in large, white, or dark blue frocks, and others in sheep-skin cloaks; Persians and Afghauns, in brown woollen tunics, or flowing mantles, and caps of black sheep-skin or coloured silk; Khybercees, with the straw sandals, and the wild dress and air of their mountains; Hindoos, uniting the peculiar features and manners of their own nation, to the long beard and the dress of the country; and Hazaurehs not more remarkable for their conical caps of skin with the wool appearing like a fringe round the edge, and for their broad faces and little eyes, than for that want of the beard, which is the ornament of every other face in the city. Among these might be discovered a few women, with long veils that reached their feet. Sometimes, when the king was going out, the streets were choked with horse and foot, and dromedaries bearing swivels, and large waving red and green flags; and, at all times, loaded dromedaries, or heavy Bactrian camels, made their way slowly through the streets."

The Balla Hissaur, or royal residence, is a castle of no strength. It contains some fine halls and magnificent gardens; but being only occasionally occupied by the king, is much neglected. This, and a fine caravansera, are the only public edifices that deserve notice. Few of the nobility have houses at Peshawer.

Caubul is a small city not supposed to contain more than 8000 inhabitants. It is, however, compact and handsome, and has for some time been the chief residence of the court. It is also a great emporium of trade, and the number and arrangement of its bazars have excited much admiration. Its climate and scenery have been a theme of panegyric to the writers of Persia and India. It is situated in a valley encompassed by mountains, and watered by numerous streams, which maintain perpetual verdure and fertility. A single district in the neighbourhood contains no less than 6000 orchards. In the province of Caubul are situated the remains of Ghuznee, once the proud capital of Western Asia. It is now reduced to 1500 houses, but proves its ancient greatness by some lofty minarets, situated without the walls, and by the tomb of the Sultan Mahmood, placed at the distance of three miles from the city.

Candahar is a large city, though, as Mr Elphinstone apprehends, not quite equal to Peshawer. It is built of an oblong form, and on a more regular plan than is usual in Asia. Its edifices, however, are not more elegant than those of the other cities of the kingdom. It is chiefly inhabited by Afghauns, who, however, are by no means allowed to enjoy the same rude freedom as on their mountains, but are subjected to a very rigorous system of law and police.

Heraut scarcely belongs to Caubul, being governed, almost independently, by a prince of the royal blood. It is a very ancient city, and somewhat surpasses the others in magnificence, being built, in a great measure, after the Persian model. It is supposed to contain about 100,000 inhabitants.

The following table of the population of the kingdom of Caubul, founded chiefly upon conjectural data, is supposed rather to fall short of, than to exceed the truth.

<table> <tr> <th>Afghauns</th> <td>4,300,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Beloches</th> <td>1,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Tartars of all descriptions</th> <td>1,200,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Persians</th> <td>1,500,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Indians (Cashmerees, Jauts, &c.)</th> <td>5,700,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Miscellaneous tribes</th> <td>300,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">14,000,000</th> </tr> </table>

See Elphinstone's Account of Caubul and its Dependencies. 4to. Lond. 1815.

CAUFIRISTAUN, a mountainous country of Asia, situated partly upon the Hindoo Coosh, and partly upon the Beloor Taugh. Its boundaries are Caubul, Budukshaun, and Bulkh. This territory consists of vast mountains covered with snow, enclosing a few narrow but fertile valleys. It is inhabited by a singular people, the Caufirs, who, in religion, manners, and institutions, have remained entirely distinct from all their neighbours. Their religion is entirely Pagan, and they cherish the deadliest antipathy against the Mahometan name. To have killed a Mussulman is the highest glory at which a Caufir can aspire. Their religious observances bear no resemblance to those established in any part of India. They acknowledge a supreme Deity, whom they call Imra; and, in their ceremonies, represent him by a stone called Imratan, or the holy stone. But they observe, "This stands for him, but we know not his shape." They have besides numerous inferior deities, consisting chiefly of deceased Caufirs, who have distinguished themselves by any eminent qualities. The best mode of securing an apotheosis, is by giving numerous feasts to the village, hospitality and good cheer being held by this people in the highest veneration. The Caufirs are in almost continual war with their neighbours. They sometimes openly attack, but more commonly seek to surprise, their enemy. On succeeding, they set up a war-cry, sing a song of triumph, and massacre all without distinction. Numerous privileges are attached to the having killed a Mussulman. He who has performed this exploit, may wear a turban stuck with feathers, may flourish his axe over his head in the dance, and may set up a pole before his door, with a pin stuck in it for every slaughtered enemy. Their arms are bows, four and a half feet long, with light arrows, sometimes poisoned. When pursued, they unbend their bows, and use them as poles, by the aid of which they leap from rock to rock with astonishing agility. About thirty years ago, all their neighbours united in a general confederacy for the extirpation of the Caufirs. They penetrated the country in every direction, but found themselves unable to maintain their ground, and were soon obliged to retire with considerable loss.

The Caufirs are hospitable in the extreme. A stranger arriving at one of their villages is not only welcomed, but is expected to visit each of the principal men, where he is regaled with every dainty which the house can afford. Their wealth consists of cattle and slaves; the latter are always their own countrymen, as they never spare the life of a Mussulman. The government is chiefly conducted by consultations among the rich men. Their dress consists principally of goat-skins, with the hair turned outwards, two of which form a vest, and other two a kind of petticoat. They are less addicted to hunting than the Afghauns. The favourite amusement is dancing, of which they never tire. They cannot accommodate themselves to the Asiatic practice of seating themselves cross-legged on the ground, but sit in the European manner on benches and stools. They also use tables, and drink wine copiously, though not to intoxication, out of silver cups. These European habits have given rise to the hypothesis of their being a Greek colony, left during the expedition of Alexander; but all probability of this seems destroyed by the circumstance that their language contains no Greek admixture, and is closely allied to the Sanscrit. The two chief towns, or rather villages, of the Caufirs, are Caumdaish and Tsokooce. The former contains five hundred houses. See Mr Elphinstone's valuable Account of Caulub.

(b.) CAVALLO (TIBERIUS), an electrician and natural philosopher; born at Naples 30th March 1749; and son of a physician established in that city.

His father died when he was only eleven years old; but he received a liberal education through the kindness of his friends, and completed his studies at the University of Naples. He was originally destined for commerce, and came to England in 1771, in order to obtain more complete information respecting the various objects of mercantile pursuit. But he soon abandoned his intention of adopting that mode of life, and determined to devote his time almost exclusively to the cultivation of science, and to literary employments connected with it. The splendid improvements which had been lately made in electricity, easily directed his earliest attention to that amusing department of natural philosophy; but his studies were by no means confined to that subject; and the extent of his diversified researches may be understood from an enumeration of his principal publications.

1. Extraordinary Electricity of the Atmosphere in October 1775. Phil. Trans. 1776, p. 407. This observation was made at Islington, where the author then resided; and he seems to have been in some danger of becoming, like another Richmann, a martyr to his zeal in pursuit of his favourite science; for he says that he felt a number of severe shocks, while he was holding the wire of his kite.

2. An account of some new Electrical Experiments. Phil. Trans. 1777, p. 48. He here describes two atmospherical electrometers, and an exhausted tube containing some quicksilver, for illustrating the nature of electrical excitation. A paper of Mr Henly, in the same volume, contains also some communications from Mr Cavallo, and in particular a remark on the opposite electricities which he detected in the bow and strings of his violin.

3. New Electrical Experiments. Phil. Trans. 1777, p. 388. Relating to changes of the colours of pigments, with a description of a pocket electro-metre.

4. A complete Treatise on Electricity, 8vo. London, 1777. German by Gehler, 8vo. Leipzig. 1785. French by Silvestre, 8vo. Paris, 1785. Ed. 4, 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1795.

This Essay contains a clear and familiar account of the principal facts respecting electricity, which had been discovered at the time of its publication, as well as of the best apparatus and of the most interesting experiments. The first part relates to the general laws of the science; the second to the hypothetical theories, by which different authors have attempted to explain them, but without any mention of the calculations of Alpinus and Cavendish; the third part gives an account of the practical arrangement of electrical apparatus, and the fourth of some original experiments and instruments; the fifth part in the later editions, is a republication of the author's Essay on Medical Electricity. To the fourth edition a third volume is added, containing an account of the recent discoveries respecting animal electricity; of the author's multiplier, for detecting the presence of small quantities of electricity, by the repeated operation of two condensers connected together; and of some original and very important experiments, relating principally to the effect of the contact of different metals with each other, and exhibiting an imperfect outline of those properties, which have since furnished Volta and Davy with their ingenious explanations of the phenomena of the electrochemical battery.

Mr Cavallo has inadvertently attributed to Nollet the honour of having first entertained the opinion of the electrical nature of thunder and lightning: the German translator has thought it necessary to vindicate the scientific character of his own country, by laying claim to this conjecture on behalf of Winkler, but Mr Silvestre has remarked, with a laudable impartiality, that both Germany and France must on this occasion give way to England, since the first suggestion of the identity is found in a paper of Stephen Gray, published in the Philosophical Transactions about 1785.

5. An account of some new Experiments in Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1780, p. 15. Consisting of remarks on Professor Lichtenberg's discovery of the peculiarity of the figures exhibited by strewing powders on the cake of the electrophorus; with an account of two improved electrometers.

6. Thermometrical Experiments and Observations. Phil. Trans. 1780, p. 585. This was a Bakerian lecture, delivered by appointment of the President and Council of the Royal Society; an appointment which entitles the lecturer to a small fee, left by the will of Mr Henry Baker, but which is commonly considered as rather complimentary than lucrative. These experiments relate to the effect produced by colouring the bulb of a thermometer exposed to the sun's rays, and to the intensity of heat at different Cavalo. distances from its source. The most refrangible colours appeared to absorb the most heat; and it was observed that even the day-light, without sunshine, occasioned a perceptible difference in the indications of the different thermometers.

7. An Essay on Medical Electricity, 8vo, London, 1780. It is seldom that persons not medical have been sufficiently incredulous in their opinions respecting the operations of remedies; and the whole of the expectation held out in this work, has certainly not been fulfilled by later experience; but, as a candid and distinct relation of cases, it may still have its value.

8. Account of a Luminous Appearance. Phil. Trans. 1781, p. 329. One of the permanent arches since found to be connected with the aurora borealis. It was so bright that the stars could not be seen through it, and lasted about an hour.

9. Thermometrical Experiments. Phil. Trans. 1781, p. 509. A Bakerian lecture, relating to the evaporation of ether, to the expansion of mercury, and to a thermometrical barometer; that is, a very delicate thermometer, for ascertaining the temperature of boiling water at different heights above the level of the sea, according to the idea then suggested by Sir George Shuckburgh, and very lately resumed by other natural philosophers. Mr Cavallo observes that the instrument has the advantage of being very portable; but that unless the quantity of water be considerable, its boiling temperature will be somewhat unsteady.

10. A Treatise on the Air and other Permanently Elastic Fluids. 4to, Lond. 1781. This elaborate work commences with the principles of chemistry and of hydrostatics, and proceeds to relate all the known properties of the different kinds of elastic fluids, many of which had been very lately discovered; these are followed by an account of some original experiments, for example, on the gas produced by the deflagration of gunpowder, which is found to be chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid, without any nitric oxyd; on the explosion of hydrogen mixed with atmospheric air, and on the evolution of gas from plants, respecting which the author finds some reason to differ from the opinions of Dr Ingenhurz. Considering that Mr Cavendish had not then discovered the composition of the nitric acid, it must be allowed that the experiments on gunpowder may justly be deemed an important step in the progress of chemical science.

11. Description of an Improved Air Pump. Phil. Trans. 1783, p. 435. The improvement was made by Haas and Hurter, and consisted in a mode of opening the valve of oiled silk mechanically, when the elasticity of the air became too weak to raise it. The rarefaction obtained went to about the thousandth of an atmosphere: in this state the air transmitted electricity, with a light equably diffused; and the balls of the electrometer exhibited no divergence. Some later improvements are said to have carried the rarefaction to \( \frac{1}{3000} \).

12. Description of a Meteor. Phil. Trans. 1784, p. 108. This observation was made at Windsor, and is highly valuable, from the circumstance of a noise like thunder having been heard, about ten minutes after the explosion of the meteor was seen; hence the author concludes that its direct distance was 130 miles, and its height 56\( \frac{1}{2} \).

13. The History and Practice of Aerostation, 8vo, Lond. A work of temporary rather than of permanent interest; but which it was the more natural for Mr Cavallo to undertake, as he was one of the first who had made experiments on the means of employing hydrogen for raising bodies into the air by its levity.

14. Mineralogical Tables. f. Explanation. 8vo, Lond. 1785; containing a comparison of the different systems of mineralogical arrangement then most generally adopted, but at present almost wholly superseded by later methods.

15, 16. Magnetical Experiments and Observations. Phil. Trans. 1786, p. 62; 1787, p. 6. Two Bakerian lectures; the former relates chiefly to the magnetism of brass, and of some other metals, generally rendered discoverable by hammering them; in the latter, the same subject is continued; and it is shown that the same powers may be detected in the metals in question without hammering them, if they are placed on a very clean and wide surface of quicksilver. The limit, at which red hot iron begins to be attracted by a magnet, is found to be the heat at which it ceases to be visible in the day-light. A considerable change is observed in the magnetic powers of iron during its solution in acids: and the author endeavours to apply these experiments to the explanation of the variation of terrestrial magnetism, as derived from the effects of heat, and from internal changes in the constitution of the earth. Mr Bennet has endeavoured to explain the phenomena observed by Mr Cavallo, from the accidental operation of foreign causes, but he has not been perfectly successful in the attempt.

17. A Treatise on Magnetism in Theory and Practice, 8vo. Lond. 1787. Ed. 3. 1800. The arrangement resembles that of the Treatise on Electricity: under the head of Theory the name of Alpinus is mentioned with due respect. The original experiments are chiefly reprinted from the Philosophical Transactions: there is also a description of an improved mode of suspension for a magnetic needle, and there are several letters from Dr Lorimer on the terrestrial variation.

18. Of the Methods of manifesting the presence of small quantities of Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1788, p. 1. In this Bakerian lecture, Mr Cavallo proposes an improvement on Volta's condenser, and makes some remarks on Mr Bennet's doubler, which he thinks objectionable on account of the impossibility to deprive the plate of a small quantity of electricity adhering to it. His own instrument has the advantage of avoiding the friction to which the condensers and doublers in their original form were liable.

19. Of the Temperament of musical intervals. Phil. Trans. 1788, p. 233. The author's particular object is to calculate the exact scale for the division of a monochord, according to the system of a perfectly equal temperament: but he very candidly remarks, that "for playing solos," the usual temperament is the best, "giving the greatest effect to those concords which occur most frequently;" and he says, that when a harpsichord was tuned according to the scale laid down on this monochord, the harmony was perfectly equal throughout, and the effect "the same as if one played in the key of E natural on a harpsichord tuned in the usual manner."

20. Description of a new electrical Instrument, capable of collecting together a diffused quantity of Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1788, p. 255. This collector consists of a fixed plate of tin, situated between two movable ones; it is said to be more certain in its operation than the condenser, the results of which are liable to considerable irregularities from various accidents, and to be more free from the inconvenience of permanent electricity than the doubler.

21. Description of a Micrometer. Phil. Trans. 1791, p. 283. Description and use of the Mother of Pearl Micrometer. 8vo. Lond. 1793. A thin slip of mother of pearl with a fine scale engraved on it, placed in the focus of the eye-piece of a telescope: its principal use is for ascertaining the distance of an object, of known dimensions, by its apparent magnitude thus measured; for instance, for judging of the distance of a body of troops, in military operations: the mother of pearl is found to be more convenient than glass for receiving the divisions, and to be sufficiently transparent for transmitting the images of the respective objects.

22. On the Multiplier of Electricity. Nicholson's Journal, I. p. 394. 1797. In this letter Mr Cavallo attempts to show the advantage of his instrument over doublers of all kinds: Mr Nicholson, in a very respectful answer, expresses his doubts whether the objections to the doubler do not arise from its extreme sensibility only, as demonstrating the existence of an electricity too weak to affect the other instruments compared with it: Mr Cavallo had however remarked, that the inconvenience partly arose from the greater intensity of the charge communicated to the plate of the doubler during the operation, which required a longer time for the restoration of the natural equilibrium.

23. An Essay on the medicinal properties of factitious Airs, with an Appendix on the nature of the Blood. 8vo. London, 1798. The modern improvements in pneumatic chemistry have been still less productive of advantage to practical medicine, than the discovery of the powers of electricity, and this work can scarcely be considered as having conferred any material benefit on the public. The observations on the blood are chiefly the result of a minute and careful microscopical examination of its particles, but the author was not particularly happy in the light which he employed for viewing them.

24. Elements of Natural or Experimental Philosophy, 4 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1803. This work, the last and most valuable of the author's publications, will long serve as a useful manual of the most important parts of the mechanical and physical sciences. The first volume is devoted to mathematical and practical mechanics; beginning with matter and motion, and proceeding to simple machines. The second relates, first, to fluids; to the principles of hydrostatics, cohesion, hydraulics, pneumatics, sound, and music; and secondly, to the most important parts of chemistry. In the third volume we find the doctrine of heat, optics, electricity, and magnetism; and the fourth, besides astronomy and the use of the globes, contains a compendium of the history of aerostation; an account of meteors, including the recent discoveries respecting acroliths; and a collection of useful tables.

25. Mr Cavallo was also an occasional contributor to several Periodical Publications; and his critical articles were not in every instance anonymous. He was made a Member of the Royal Academy of Naples in 1779, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in the month of December of the same year.

It is impossible to hesitate in attributing to Mr Cavallo the possession of very considerable powers of mind; but these powers seem to have been of a different nature from those which have distinguished some other individuals, remarkable for the faculty of acute reasoning, and brilliant invention, and apparently born to succeed in the highest flights of genius. Mr Cavallo's talents appear to have had more of the imitative character, and to have been rather calculated for the attainment of excellence in the fine arts than in science; but his memory was uncommonly retentive, and his industry seems to have been indefatigable. He used to relate, that when he was first compelled to study Euclid, he felt himself utterly incapable of comprehending the train of argumentation, and he was obliged to get the whole work by heart, both propositions and demonstrations, in order to impress the conclusions strongly on his mind; this expedient answered his purpose very well, as long as the impression lasted; but after some years he had forgotten his task, and he was obliged to go through the whole again, in the same manner, still finding it easier to commit the eight entire books, with all the unmeaning letters of reference, to the care of his ever faithful memory, than to acquire the spirit of the mode of reasoning, and to anticipate the steps of the demonstration; although, after having performed this second labour, he felt himself sufficiently master of the subject. It may be observed that he possessed considerable skill in music; and music was called by the ancients an imitative art; a description which may indeed be somewhat objectionable, with regard to the province of the original composer, who creates something altogether unlike what had ever before existed; but which may not improperly be applied to the occupation of a performer; and Mr Cavallo, even when his hearing was impaired, still retained a very correct taste in the execution of vocal music. He possessed also his country's aptitude for the painter's art; and he was particularly happy in cutting out striking likenesses of his acquaintances in paper. The principal object of his life was to collect and arrange the labours of others; and he was so much in the habit of collecting, that he had for many years made it his amusement to collect specimens of the hand writing of eminent persons, which he had extended to an immense number of individuals, of different ages and countries. But he was by no means incapable of copying from the great book of nature; and he made, in the course of his various researches, a number of original experiments, well calculated to illustrate particular questions, relating to the sciences which he cultivated. In the latter part of his life, he had discontinued his attendance at the meetings of the Royal Society, as well as his contributions to the Transactions; but he was in the habit of frequenting some other literary conversations, at which he constantly met some of his oldest and kindest friends.

A short time before his last illness, he was engaged in some experiments on Mr Deluc's perpetual pile of paper, and on the electricity of different specimens of crystals; but he does not appear to have obtained any new results from these investigations. He died at his residence in Wells Street, on the 26th of December 1809, and was buried in St Pancras Church Yard, near the tomb of General Paoli, with whom he had long been on terms of the greatest intimacy. Literary Memoirs of Living Authors; Dance's Collection of Portraits; Gent. Mag. 1809; Suppl. Monthly Mag. 1810. p. 86; Aikin's General Biography, Vol. X.; Chalmers's Biographical Dictionary, Vol. VII.