EUROPE (1823) — Encyclopaedia Britannica Historical Editions

EUROPE

Volume 504 · 21,274 words · 1823 Edition

One of the great divisions of the globe. On a first view, Europe appears to be less favoured by nature than the other quarters of the globe over which it has obtained so great an ascendancy. It is much smaller in extent; its rocky and mountainous surface does not admit of those noble rivers, like inland seas, which lay open the remotest regions of Asia and America to the commerce of the world. Its vegetable productions are neither so various nor so exuberant; and it is poorly supplied with the precious metals, and with many of those commodities on which mankind set the greatest value. On the other hand, the climate of Europe, if it nourishes a less luxuriant vegetation, is of an equal and temperate kind, well adapted to preserve the human frame in that state of health and vigour which fits it for labour, and promotes the developement of the intellectual and moral powers. The mountains that intersect its surface were barriers which enabled infant communities to protect themselves from violence, and to lay the foundation of arts, knowledge, and civilization. If it has few large navigable rivers, its inland seas and bays are the finest in the world, and were the means of creating and nourishing that commercial spirit which has been one great source of its improvement. Though comparatively deficient in gold and silver, it is abundantly supplied with those useful metals and minerals which minister still more essentially to the wants of civilized life. Its apparent defects have become the source of real benefits, and the foundation of its grandeur. The disadvantages of its soil and climate have excited the industry of its inhabitants, given them clearer ideas of property, kindled a resolute spirit to defend their rights, and called into existence that skill and enterprise, and those innumerable arts and inventions, which have enabled the inhabitants of this apparently barren and rocky promontory to command the riches and luxuries of all the most favoured regions of the globe. It is only in Europe that knowledge and the arts seem to be indigenous. Though they have appeared at times among some of the nations of Asia, they have either stopt short after advancing a few steps, or they have speedily retrograded and perished, like something foreign to the genius of the people. In Europe, on the contrary, they have sprung up at distant periods, and in a variety of situations; they have risen spontaneously and rapidly, and declined slowly; and when they disappeared, it was evident, they were but crushed for the time by external violence, to rise again when the pressure had subsided. It is only in Europe, and among colonies of Europeans, that the powers of the human mind, breaking through the slavish attachment to ancient usages and institutions, have developed that principle of progressive improvement of which it is impossible to calculate the final results. The rudest tribe in Europe, in which this principle has taken root, has a certain source of superiority over the most improved nations of Asia and Africa, where society remains perfectly stationary. If these nations are ever destined to advance in civilization, they must borrow from Europe those arts which she has invented, and which belong to civilized life in every climate. But the tenacious adherence of rude nations to the customs and superstitions of their ancestors will not allow us to hope that the benefits of civilization will be rapidly diffused in this way. It is more probable, that colonies from the older states of Europe will multiply, as the population becomes more and more redundant; and that these colonies will carry the arts and knowledge, the language and manners of Europe with them, to the other quarters of the world. From prejudices on both sides, it is found that two races in very different stages of civilization do not readily amalgamate; and it is therefore probable, that the feebler inhabitants of these countries, like the American Indians, will be gradually displaced by the continued encroachments of the more energetic race of Europe. Such a change, however, must take place slowly, and there is nothing in it to alarm humanity. The vast number of tribes that people Asia and Africa seem born only to be the victims of savage superstition and ferocious tyranny. No treatment they are likely to experience from European colonies can render their condition worse; and were the whole swarm of these nations to die out in the course of nature without being renewed, no great deduction would be made from the sum of human enjoyment. Should the state of things we have been contemplating, and which seems to arise naturally out of the circumstances of Europe, and the other quarters of the globe, be realized, it will be curious to reflect on the circle of changes which will then be completed. The ancient inhabitants of Europe, as well as the modern, were originally colonies sent off from the surplus population of Asia. Here they have thrown off their barbarism, invented and improved arts and sciences, and carried their social institutions to a high degree of perfection; and now, in the maturity of their strength, they are throwing back their surplus numbers upon Asia, to conquer and supplant the remains of those tribes from whom they originally sprung.

Europe is bounded on the north and west by the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans; on the south by the Mediterranean; on the east by the rivers Don, Wolga, and Kama, and by the Uralian Mountains from the Kama to the Arctic Ocean. These are the limits most generally admitted. Some alterations have been proposed on the south-east side, with the view of making the boundary line correspond more accurately with the physical divisions of the earth's surface; but as they have not obtained the sanction of geographers generally, the line that is best known seems entitled to the preference. The greatest length of the Continent of Europe is from Cape St Vincent to the Sea of Kara, in the direction of north-east and south-west, and is 3490 English miles. Its greatest extent from north to south is from Cape Matapan to Cape North, 2420 miles. Its greatest extent from east to west is on the parallel of 48°, from Brest to River Don, 2230 miles. The superficies of Europe, including the Azores, Iceland, Nova Zembla, and all the other islands belonging to it, is 3,432,000 English square miles.

The climate of Europe is distinguished by two peculiarities. It enjoys a higher mean temperature than any of the other great divisions of the world, in the corresponding latitudes; and it is not subject to such violent extremes of heat and cold. These advantages it owes chiefly to its numerous seas, inland bays, and lakes, which render its temperature similar to that of islands; and partly also, according to Humboldt, to its situation at the western extremity of the greatest range of dry land on the surface of the globe; the western sides of all continents being warmer than the eastern. Europe lies almost entirely within the temperate zone, not more than one-fourteenth part of its surface being within the arctic circle. Only a very small part of it is uninhabitable from cold, and it nowhere suffers much from excessive heat. The mean temperature at its southern extremity, in the latitude of 36°, is about 66° of Fahrenheit; and at Cape North in the latitude of 71°, where the mean temperature is 32°, the cold is not greater than in the latitudes of 55 or 56 on the east coasts of Asia and America. Hence Europe is habitable at a higher latitude by 12 or 14 degrees than either of these continents. The following table, taken from Humboldt's Memoir on the Distribution of Heat (abridged in Dr Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, XI. 188), shows the difference in temperature between Europe and the eastern shores of Asia and America at the parallel of 40°: the difference is much greater at the parallel of 60°.

<table> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Lat.</th> <th colspan="3">Mean Temperature</th> </tr> <tr> <th>of the Year.</th> <th>of 3 Winter Months.</th> <th>of 3 Summer Months.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Rome,</td> <td>41.35</td> <td>60.4</td> <td>45.8</td> <td>75.2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Pekin,</td> <td>39.54</td> <td>55.2</td> <td>26.8</td> <td>82.6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>New York,</td> <td>40.40</td> <td>53.8</td> <td>29.8</td> <td>79.2</td> </tr> </table>

There is a difference of the same kind between the temperature of the sea-coasts of Europe and the interior. In islands, and on the sea-coast, the mean temperature of the year is higher, and the heat is more equally distributed through the different seasons. As we advance from the coast eastward the mean annual temperature diminishes, but the heat of summer and the cold of winter increase. Thus London has the same mean annual temperature as Vienna, but it has the summer of Petersburgh, and the winter is warmer than at Milan. The Mediterranean, the Baltic, and inland lakes, produce the same effect as the ocean in an inferior degree. The two following tables are taken from Humboldt (Annals of Phil. XI. 188): the first shows the temperature of the year, and the various seasons in places having the same latitude; the second shows the different distribution of heat through the various seasons in places having the same mean annual temperature.

<table> <tr> <th rowspan="2">PLACES.</th> <th colspan="6">Mean Temperature</th> </tr> <tr> <th>of the Year.</th> <th>Winter.</th> <th>Spring.</th> <th>Summer.</th> <th>Autumn.</th> <th>Warmest Month.</th> <th>Coldest Month.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>I. Lat. 56. Edinburgh, Copenhagen, Moscow, Lat. 48.</td> <td>47.8 45.6 40.5</td> <td>38.6 30.8 10.8</td> <td>46.4 41.2 44.0</td> <td>58.2 62.6 37.1</td> <td>48.4 48.4 38.3</td> <td>59.4 65.0 70.6</td> <td>38.3 27.2 6.0</td> </tr> <tr> <td>St Malo, Vienna, II. Lat. Dublin, Prague</td> <td>54.4 50.6 53.21 49.2 50.5</td> <td>44.2 32.8 39.2 31.4 31.4</td> <td>52.2 51.2 47.3 47.6 47.6</td> <td>60.0 59.2 59.6 58.9 58.9</td> <td>55.8 50.6 50.0 50.2 50.2</td> <td>67.0 70.6 67.0 67.0 67.0</td> <td>41.8 26.6 41.8 41.8 41.8</td> </tr> </table>

The mountains of Europe are more numerous in proportion to its extent than those of the other great continents, but they are of less elevation than the mountains of America and Asia. The highest, and the most extensive chains in Europe, run generally in the direction of east and west, and are placed near its southern shores. The central mass of the Alps, with which all the other mountains in the south of Europe are connected, forms the summit of the continent, and determines the position of the surface, and the course of most of the rivers. From this central point the surface of the land descends to the sea by a series of valleys, skirted by subordinate chains. The three countries to the southward of the Alps and their branches, Greece, Italy, and Spain, consist of mountainous peninsulas projecting into the Mediterranean. The countries to the west, north, and east of the Alps, which present more extensive plains and gentle declivities, are the seats of the three principal monarchies in the south of Europe. Austria, seated on the eastern declivity, rules over the countries watered by the Danube; France occupies the western declivity, and the countries watered by the principal streams that flow to the west; and Prussia the countries watered by the streams that flow to the north. If we descend from the Alps to the sea in a western direction, the first valley we meet with is the level part of Switzerland between the Alps and Mount Jura, elevated from 1600 to 1800 feet above the sea; the second, between Jura and the Cevennes, some hundred feet lower; and the third, and lowest, extends from the Cevennes to

* Copenhagen is about 620 miles east from Edinburgh; Moscow about 1000 miles farther. the Atlantic. In a north and north-east direction, the first valley is Bavaria, the second Bohemia, both of which are completely enclosed by mountains; the third, consisting of Silesia, Brandenburg, and Poland, terminates in the Baltic. In an eastern direction the first valley is Austria, the second, Hungary, both encircled with mountains; the third, Bulgaria, extends to the Black Sea. South from the Alps we have first the valley of Lombardy, and then the narrow coast of Genoa. The vast plain occupied by Russia, and the eastern part of the Swedish peninsula, may be considered as a prolongation of the valley of Prussia and Poland, extending to the Dofrines on the west, the Uralians on the east, and Mount Caucasus on the south. Thus, in a general point of view, the elevation and declivity of the large plains of southern Europe bear a certain relation to the position and distance of the central mass of the Alps.

The principal mass of the Alps extends in a semi-circle from Nice, on the shores of the Mediterranean, to Trieste, on the Adriatic, a distance of 550 miles. Southward of Mont Blanc, the Alps consist of a single chain, with many lateral branches, which lie chiefly on the west side; but immediately to the eastward of Mont Blanc, the principal chain divides into two, which enclose the sources of the Rhone. These meet, again, at St Gotard, and, on the east side of it, part into three chains, one of which loses itself in Bavaria, another in Austria near Vienna, and the third terminates near Trieste. A lateral chain, of no great elevation, passes eastward, and connects the Alps with the mountains of European Turkey. Smaller branches connect the Alps with the Bohemian and Carpathian mountains on the north, with the Vosges and Cevennes on the west, and, through the latter, with the Pyrenes. The Apennines are but a prolongation of the Alps on the south. Mont Blanc, the loftiest of the Alps, and the highest mountain in Europe, has an elevation of 15,680 English feet; and Mount Rosa, the Jungfrau, the Schreckhorn, and several other summits, approach to this height. The elevation of the chain diminishes towards both extremities. In general, the escarpments, or steepest sides, are turned towards Italy, and the lateral and subordinate branches are most numerous, and extend farthest on the opposite side. The central chain of the Alps consists chiefly of granite, gneiss, sienite, and other primitive rocks. Among the lateral ridges, to the westward of St Gotard, calcareous rocks, with clay-slate and mica-slate, abound on the side of France; on the side of Italy, the ridges are narrower, magnesian rocks abound, and the clay-slate is wanting. On both sides are found great deposits of gravel, and large detached blocks or boulders, often at a vast distance from their original situations. Eastward from St Gotard, the central chain is accompanied on each side by a calcareous chain of great elevation.* Though the summits of the Alps are steep and rocky, and the higher valleys are filled with glaciers, there is much good soil below. The vine grows to the height of 1600 feet above the sea, the oak to the height of 3390, corn to 4200 feet, and the larch to 6720 feet. At 6400 feet above the sea, we have the climate of Lapland, in latitude 68°, so that a degree of latitude, in the northern half of the temperate zone in Europe, corresponds to an elevation of about 290 feet. The inferior limit of perpetual snow, according to Humboldt, is at the height of 8760 feet, in the latitude of 46°. (Annals of Phil. II. 373.)

The chain of the Pyrenees, which is next to the Pyrenees Alps in elevation, runs in the direction of east and west. Its length is about 240 miles; but, if we include the Cantabrian mountains, which continue in the same line without interruption, the whole length will be about 500 miles. The central chain of the proper Pyrenees is of granite, but the most elevated summits are of secondary limestone, and lie on the south side of the granite. Mont Perdu, esteemed the loftiest of the whole range, consists of feld limestone, and rises to the height of 11,270 feet. The south side of the Pyrenees is rugged and precipitous; but, on the north, there is a gradual descent to the plains of France by a series of parallel ridges diminishing in height. The Cantabrian mountains are lower than the Pyrenees, and present their steepest sides to the north. There are four other chains of mountains in Spain all running in a direction approaching to east and west, and all connected with one another and with the Pyrenees. The most elevated of these is the Sierra Nevada, the southmost, one of whose summits rises to the height of 11,660 feet. (Laborde, I. 173.) The inferior limit of perpetual snow on the Pyrenees is at the height of 8960. The red pine rises to the height of 7480 feet, which is about 700 feet higher than any species of trees on the Alps.†

The Apennines form an uninterrupted chain 750 Apennines. miles in length, extending from the south-west termination of the Alps near Nice to the Straits of Messina. The north-west division, which skirts the basin of Lombardy, consists chiefly of greywacke; from Tuscany to near the southern extremity, the prevailing rock is secondary limestone. Granite and other primitive rocks are found at the two extremities in Liguria and Calabria, but are wholly wanting in the intermediate space. The most considerable elevations are about the middle of the chain, where Il Gransasso rises to the height of 9570 feet. (Edinb. Review, XXVI. 156.)

The Carpathian and Sudetic mountains, with the Carpathians. Erzgebirge and Bochmerwald, may be considered as forming one continued chain, the length of which, from the point where it strikes the Danube in Hungary, to the point where it strikes the same river in Bavaria, is about 1200 miles, exclusive of the transverse branches which separate Moravia from Bohemia and Hungary. The declivities of this long range of mountains are steepest on the south side. The elevations are lowest on the west, and generally increase as we advance castward, till we come to the sources of the Thiess in the north of Hungary, after which they again decline. The Fichtelberg,

* Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geographie, Paris, 1803-5, VII. 509. † Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog. XV. 52.—Annals of Phil. VII. 373. at the westmost point of the chain, is 4030 feet high; Schneekoppe, the highest of the Sudetic mountains, is 5280 feet, and Lomnitz in Hungary, the loftiest of the whole range, is 8460 feet. None of these mountains rise to the region of perpetual snow, the inferior limit of which, according to Wahlenberg, is about 60 feet above the summit of Lomnitz. The most elevated parts of these mountains consist of primitive rocks; corn and fruit trees are said to grow at a greater height upon the Carpathians than upon the Alps, though the latter are two degrees farther south.*

The chain of the Dofrines, or great Scandinavian Alps, is about 1000 miles in length, and has a general elevation of from 6000 to 6500 feet. The altitude of Snahatta, near the centre of the chain, in latitude 63, is about 8120 feet. (Von Buch's Travels.) These mountains consist almost entirely of primitive rocks, and present their steepest sides to the west. On Sulitelma, the highest mountain of this chain in Lapland, in latitude 67.10, the inferior limit of perpetual snow is at the height of 3500 feet.

The Uralian mountains, which form the boundary of Europe on the north-east, are but imperfectly known. Some of their summits are covered with perpetual snow, but their height is believed not to exceed that of the Scandinavian Alps. They consist chiefly of primitive rocks. The whole length of the chain, which runs nearly north and south, is about 1400 miles, but more than one-half of it is in Asia.

Of the mountains of European Turkey, we know as little as of the Urals. From a central point, nearly equidistant from the Danube, the Adriatic, and the Ægean Sea, three chains proceed in different directions; one, the ancient Hemus, runs eastward to the Black Sea; a second, north-westward, till it joins the Carnic Alps; and a third, southward through the peninsula of Greece. These principal chains send out many branches, but neither their height, nor their geological structure, is known with any degree of accuracy.

The Cevennes in the south of France extend about 300 miles in length from north to south, and their two most elevated summits, Mont d'Or and Cantal, rise to the height of 6400 and 6100 feet. Mount Jura, between France and Switzerland, has nearly the same elevation. The Vosges, a small chain in the north-east of France, rise nowhere more than 4600 feet above the sea. (Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog. XVI. 6, 28, 44.)

The mountains of Britain extend with some interruptions over a space of 630 miles, along the west side of the island. They are not placed in chains, but rather in irregular groups, and consist chiefly of primitive and transition rocks. Snowden in Caernarvonshire, the highest mountain in Wales, has an elevation of 3568 feet. Bennevis in Inverness-shire, which rises 4350 feet above the sea, is the highest land in the island. (Jameson's Geognosy, 319, 320.)

There are thirteen volcanoes in Europe, which are all situated in the vicinity of the sea. The most remarkable are, Mount Etna, in Sicily, which is 10,963 feet in height. (Jameson.) Its eruptions happen very irregularly; sometimes 50 or 100 years have intervened between one eruption and another, at other times less than one year.* Mount Vesuvius, in Naples, which lies about 200 miles north from Etna, is 3900 feet high. (Jameson.) Its eruptions are less frequent than those of Etna. Stromboli, which occupies an island in the Mediterranean, about 80 miles north from Etna, is the only volcano in Europe that throws out smoke or flames constantly. Heckla is a mountain near the south coast of Iceland, 4900 feet high. (Jameson.) Its eruptions are not frequent. The last was in 1783.

Europe is well watered with rivers, but they are Rivers but brooks compared with the mighty streams of Asia and America; and, from the unevenness of the surface, afford, in general, no great extent of inland navigation. The Danube, the largest river that is entirely in Europe, is about 1500 miles in length, and waters a superficies of 370,000 square miles. But the Amazons, though only twice the length of the Danube, waters a surface seven times as large, and equal to four-fifths of the Continent of Europe; and, as the quantity of rain that falls in tropical countries is much greater than in northern latitudes, it is probable, notwithstanding the increased evaporation there, that the Amazons conveys more water than all the rivers of Europe put together. If we divide the length of the Danube into a hundred parts, the length of the principal rivers of Europe, expressed in these parts, will be as follows:

<table> <tr><th>River</th><th>Length</th></tr> <tr><td>Danube</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>100</td></tr> <tr><td>Volga (partly in Asia)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>130</td></tr> <tr><td>Dnieper</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>72</td></tr> <tr><td>Don</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>69</td></tr> <tr><td>Rhine</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>49</td></tr> <tr><td>Elbe</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>42</td></tr> <tr><td>Vistula</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>41</td></tr> <tr><td>Loire</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>37</td></tr> <tr><td>Tagus</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>32</td></tr> <tr><td>Oder</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>31</td></tr> <tr><td>Rhone</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>30</td></tr> <tr><td>Seine</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>23</td></tr> <tr><td>Po</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>21</td></tr> <tr><td>Tiber</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>10</td></tr> <tr><td>Thames</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>9</td></tr> </table>

A much smaller proportion of the waters of the European Continent flows into the Mediterranean than the extent of its coasts would lead us to expect. The high mountains that range along the south of Europe, parallel to its shores, from Gibraltar to Constantinople, turn the course of the large streams in an opposite direction. Though the length of the line of coast between the points last-mentioned, without computing minute sinuosities, is 4000 miles, or one-fourth of the circumference of Europe, not more than one-tenth of the waters of this quarter of the globe fall into the Mediterranean. The Black Sea, on the other hand, which presents only 850 miles of coast on the side of Europe, receives one-fourth of its waters. It will be seen, from the subjoined table, that one-tenth part of the waters

* Mentelle et Malte-Brun, V. 8. XVI. 62.—Wahlenberg, in Annals of Phil. IX. 140. of Europe flow into Asia by the Wolga; that the Black Sea and the Baltic alone receive one-half, while only about one-sixth falls into the Atlantic. If the whole of the river waters of Europe be divided into a hundred parts, their distribution will be nearly as follows:

<table> <tr> <th>Length of Coast in Miles.</th> <th>Water conveyed by Rivers in parts.</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Whole length of the bounding line of Europe, and whole quantity of water,</td> <td>16,000</td> <td>100</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Mediterranean, from Gibraltar to Constantinople,</td> <td>4000</td> <td>10</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Black Sea and Sea of Asoph,</td> <td>850</td> <td>26</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">The Baltic to the Naze of Norway,</td> <td>3340</td> <td>25</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">The Atlantic, from Gibraltar to Cape North,</td> <td>3640</td> <td>17</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">The Arctic Ocean, from Cape North to the Sea of Kara,</td> <td>2200</td> <td>12</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">The Caspian Sea (in Asia),</td> <td></td> <td>10</td> </tr> </table>

(Arrowsmith's Atlas.)

We are not acquainted with the height of the sources of many of the European rivers above the sea. Those of the Danube, according to Malte-Brun, are from 2100 to 2200 English feet, which gives a fall of one foot and a half per mile; but, near the sea, the inclination is less; for, at Buda, 900 miles from the mouth of the river, its height, according to Wahlenberg, is 229 feet, which gives a fall of three inches per mile, for the lower part of its course. In general, the rivers of Russia, Poland, and the north of Germany, flow over a more level surface, and are more navigable, than those of the south of Europe. Professor Robison states, on the authority of the Abbe Chappe, that the sources of the Wolga are but 480 feet above the ocean (Ency. Brit. article River); but, as the Caspian Sea, in which this river terminates, is found to be 324 feet below the Black Sea (Ann. Phil. VIII. 391), this increases the space through which the waters of the Wolga descend to 804 feet, in a course of 2000 miles. The average fall may therefore be about two inches and a half per mile.

The islands of Europe, including Nova Zembla and Iceland, occupy a space equal to 280,000 square miles, or one eleventh part of the surface of the Continent; and of this space, the area of the British Isles amounts to rather less than one half. The Black Sea is the only large sea connected with Europe, in which there are no islands worthy of notice.

The Mediterranean, the noblest inland sea in the world, forms the southern boundary of Europe, separating it from Africa, and partly also from Asia. It may be considered as the bottom of a vast basin formed by the Pyrenees, Alps, Mount Hemsu, Taurus, Libanus, and Atlas. These mountains are every where near its shores, which are consequently narrow and much inclined. Hence there are no such extensive plains as Hungary or Poland near the coast of this sea, and hence also no very large rivers fall into it except the Nile; and, altogether, it receives a smaller quantity of water from rivers than the Black Sea or the Baltic, though six times larger than either. Its length is about 2350 miles; its breadth is extremely various, and its surface (exclusive of the Black Sea) is nearly equal to 1,000,000 of square English miles, or something less than one-third of the Continent of Europe. It is generally of great depth, and its numerous islands, which have uniformly a rocky surface, appear to be the summits of marine mountains.

The Baltic, the greatest inland sea that is entirely in Europe, is about 1200 miles long, of very unequal breadth, and presents a surface of 175,000 square miles, exclusive of islands. It occupies the bottom of another large basin, 850 miles in breadth, and 1400 in length, extending from the Norwegian mountains, on the north and west, to the Carpathians on the south, and to the high lands in which the Dneiper, Don, and Wolga rise on the east. This basin, equal to one-third of the surface of Europe, has a very different character from that of the Mediterranean. The mountains are not very elevated, and are so placed as to leave a large tract of land very little inclined between them and the Baltic, over which, especially on the south side, many considerable rivers flow with a gentle current. Hence the country round the Baltic is much more level than round the Mediterranean; lakes are numerous in the low grounds, from the want of declivity; the sea itself is comparatively shallow, and receiving a much greater quantity of river water, it is much inferior in saltness. The commerce of the Baltic is annually interrupted by the ice, which endures four months in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The whole of this inland sea has sometimes been frozen over for a short time, but this is rare.

The Black Sea, which belongs only partly to Europe, is 690 miles long, 360 miles broad, and, including the sea of Asoph, presents a surface of 170,000 square miles, being almost of the same magnitude as the Baltic. It derives four-fifths of its water from Europe, and is curiously distinguished from the other seas of Europe, by its being almost totally without islands.

The White Sea is 450 miles in length, of a very irregular figure, and occupies a space equal to 38,000 square miles. It receives some considerable rivers, but is frozen during six months of the year.

The lakes of Europe are numerous, and are of two kinds; those which lie in cavities at the foot of high mountains, which are generally deep; such as the lakes in the Alps; on the east side of the Norwegian mountains; and among the mountains of England and Scotland; and those which are formed in level countries from the want of a sufficient declivity to carry off the water, such as the lakes in Finland, Poland, and Brandenburg. Four-fifths of the lakes of Europe are in the country round the Baltic.

The soil of Europe has neither the extremes of luxuriance nor sterility which belong to the soil of the other great continents. If it does not yield the rich fruits of tropical climates, it is not deformed by the burning sands of Africa, or the pestilent swamps of America. It does not pour forth its riches spontaneously, but, soliciting the care and the labour of man, it requites his industry with what is necessary to supply his wants; and, by exercising and sharpening his powers of mind, gives birth to those arts which place the productions of the most favoured climates at his disposal. Many of the plants which have been domesticated in Europe are natives of distant countries. The vine, the olive, and the mulberry, are said to have been brought from Syria by the Greeks; the Arabians introduced cotton; maize was received from the Indian tribes of America; the walnut and peach come from Persia; the apricot from Armenia; and the sugar-cane from China. There are not very many plants belonging to the tropical regions that absolutely refuse to grow in Europe, but an enlightened economy finds other productions more profitable. Besides sugar and cotton, the banana, the orange, citron, fig, pomegranate, and date, grow in the south of Europe. But the more delicate fruits are confined to southern latitudes, and disappear one by one as we advance northward. And it is worthy of remark, that the zones in which they grow generally follow the lines of equal summer heat, and run obliquely across the Continent in the direction of south-west and north-east. If a line is drawn on the map from Brest to Konigsberg, skirting the southern shores of the English Channel, and the Baltic, the zones that limit the growth of different plants run nearly parallel with this line. (Young's Travels in France, I. 306.) This holds generally in the south and middle of Europe; but in the extreme northern parts, and especially with regard to plants that require a moderate heat continued for a considerable time, the lines that limit the growth of certain vegetables seem to follow a different course, and decline towards the south as we advance eastward, in consequence of the increasing severity and length of the winter. It is scarcely necessary to say, that the zones, traced as proper for different plants, only mark the limits within which their cultivation is found advantageous. Most of them will grow beyond these limits; but they either require some peculiar advantages of soil or situation, or they are less profitable than other kinds of produce.

The sugar cane, one of the most desirable tropical plants, grows in Sicily and the south of Spain in the latitude of 37° and 38°. The culture of it, which was once extensive in the latter country, has not been entirely abandoned, even since sugar was procured from the West Indies. Cotton is cultivated in the south of Spain on a small scale, to a greater extent in Sicily, the south-east angle of Italy, and in Greece and its isles, as high as the latitude of 41 1/2°: we find it again a little beyond the eastern limits of Europe, at Astrakan, in the latitude of 46°.* The orange and lemon come to perfection in the west of Europe, only in the countries to the south of the Pyrenees and Apennines, within the latitude of 43° in Spain, and 44° in Italy. The olive does not succeed on the west coast of France in the latitude of 43°, but grows as far north as 44° or 45° on the east of France, and in Italy. Attempts to raise it at Astrakan, in latitude 46°, have not succeeded, on account of the rigour of the winter. The fig and the pomegranate, which accompany the olive in the west of Europe, are found in the Taurida in the east, at the latitude of 46°, where the olive will not grow, a proof that these trees bear the winter cold better. (Young's Trav. I. 311; Storch, II. 309.) The climate proper for maize is found to terminate on the west coast of France at 45 1/2°; on the Rhine at 49°; on the Elbe at 50° or 51°. Rice has nearly the same geographical range, but requires a peculiar soil and situation.† The culture of the vine extends as far north as the latitude of 47 1/2° on the Atlantic coast; on the Rhine to 50°; and on the Oder to 52°. In Russia it grows as far north nearly as 59°, but is not cultivated beyond 50°. (Young, I. 306; Storch, II. 310, 323.) The mulberry generally accompanies the vine. The limits of the culture of the common cerealia are not so well defined, as the necessities of man oblige him to raise corn under the most unfavourable circumstances. In a general point of view, however, the parallel of 57° or 58° may be regarded as the northern limit of the cultivation of wheat in Europe. It is raised as far north as 60° or 61° in Finland, but only in some favoured spots. In Russia, generally, it is chiefly confined to the provinces under the latitude of 57°. (Thomson's Trav. in Sweden, 409; Storch, II. 229, 240.) The harder cerealia, rye, oats, and barley, are cultivated in some sheltered situations on the coast of Norway, as high as the latitude of 69° 55'. But on the east side of the Norwegian mountains, these grains scarcely ripen in the latitude of 67° or 68°; and farther east in Russia, it has been found impossible to carry cultivation of any kind beyond the latitude of 60° or 62°. Barley, which accommodates itself better than any other grain to these high latitudes, by shortening the period of its growth, is sown and reaped within the space of seven or eight weeks. But the introduction of potatoes promises to be of vast advantage in these cold regions, as this plant thrives and yields a produce of thirty or fifty fold in places where grain often will not ripen.‡ Peaches and apricots succeed with much care as far north only as the latitude of 50° in Russia; melons as far as 52°. The plum and the cherry grow wild as far north as 55°, but are carried farther by cultivation. (Storch, II. 302, 304, 308.) Fruit trees and the oak terminate in Sweden, at Gefle, in the latitude of 61°; but the pine and the birch advance within the arctic circle; and the former grows to the height of sixty feet in the latitude of 70°. (Annals of Phil. VII. 382.) The blackberry and the whortle-berry grow in Lapland, and the gooseberry even in Greenland. (Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog. I. 502.) Tobacco is extensively

* Laborde's View of Spain, II. 122-125. Storch, Tableau de la Russie, II. 250. Mentelle et Malte-Brun, X. 122. † Young, I. 306; Malte-Brun, Precis, II. 508; MS. Travels in Germany. ‡ Storch, II. 209, 244, 304, 370; Von Buch. Ed. Rev. XXII. 163, 171; Crome, Allgemeine Uebersicht der Staatschaft von den Samtlichen Europaischen Reichen und Landern, 1818, p. 108; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geographie Universelle, 1812, II. 508. cultivated over the greater part of the Continent of Europe, from Sicily to Sweden. Flax and hemp have as extensive a range as corn, but they are raised in the greatest perfection between the latitudes of 45° and 60°.

We have stated, that the superficial extent of Europe is about 3,432,000 square miles. If we draw a concave line from a point in the Uralian mountains, about the latitude of 60° or 61°, to the west coast of Norway, in the latitude of 69°, passing through the Lake Onega, and a little to the northward of the Gulf of Bothnia, this line will mark the extreme limits of cultivation, and will cut off a space equal to 550,000 square miles, or nearly one-sixth of Europe. The space cut off, however, is not entirely useless, as a part of it produces pasturage and wood. The cultivation of rye, oats, and barley, is confined to the region south of this line, and includes more than five-sixths of Europe; but in the northern parts of this zone, only a very small proportion of the land will bear corn. The region adapted to the cultivation of wheat comprehends about four-sevenths of Europe, and includes all the densely peopled parts. The region of the vine extends over three-sevenths of Europe.

Europe, in proportion to its extent, is probably richer in mineral wealth than the other quarters of the globe. It contains all the metals except platinum; and though it affords gold and silver only in limited quantities, iron, copper, lead, with coal and salt, commodities of greater value to society, are abundant and widely distributed. The mountains, consisting of primitive and transition rocks, are the great depositaries of these mineral treasures.

Iron is found in all the chains of mountains in Europe. The richest mines are in the Dofrines, or Scandinavian Alps. But rich mines are also found in the Alps of Stiria, Carinthia, and Bavaria; in the Pyrenees, the Vosges, the Cevennes, the coal district of Britain, the Urals, the Carpathians, the Hartz, and many other places.

Copper is also widely distributed, though less abundant than iron. The richest mines are in Hungary, in the Carpathian mountains. It abounds also in the Saxon and Bohemian mountains, in the Dofrines, the Urals, the north of England, and the Alps; and it is found in the Vosges, the Pyrenees, and other mountains of Spain, in the north of Germany, and in Tuscany.

Lead exists in the Alps, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Cevennes, Vosges, the British mountains, and the Urals.

Tin is found only in a few places in Europe. The richest mines are in Cornwall; next to these are the mines in the Erzgebirge. It is also found in Hungary and Spanish Galicia.

Mercury, like tin, is confined to a few places. The mine of Idria, in Austria, which yields 8000 to 10,000 quintals per annum, is the most productive in Europe. There are also considerable mines at Deux Ponts, in the Palatinate; in the Spanish province of La Mancha, and in Transylvania.

Gold is widely diffused through Europe, but generally in such quantities as not to repay the expense of working. It is wrought, however, in the Carpathians, the Urals, the Dofrines, the Alps, and it is said, in Ireland. Anciently there were rich mines of gold in Spain and Greece.

Silver is more abundant than gold, though less widely distributed. There are productive mines of this metal in the Erzgebirge, the Carpathians, the Urals, the Norwegian Dofrines, and in Sardinia. It is found also in the Alps, the Vosges, and the Sierra Morena.

Of coal the richest mines are found in the north and west of England. It abounds also on both sides of the south of Scotland; in Ireland, in the Netherlands, in one-fourth part of the French territory; and occurs more sparingly in Saxony, Hanover, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Bavaria, Austria, Franconia, Westphalia, Swabia, Catalonia, and some other parts of Spain, in Portugal, and in Sardinia. After Britain, France is the country in Europe best supplied with this mineral. The produce of the French coal mines has increased fourfold within the last twenty-five years. (Ann. Phil. VII. 314.)

Salt is procured from the waters of the ocean, and, salt in the interior of Europe, from numerous salt mines and salt springs. The most productive salt mines in Europe are those in Poland, on the north side of the Carpathians; and those in Salzburg, on the north side of the Alps, both of which belong to Austria. There are also extensive depositaries of mineral salt in Transylvania and Hungary; in Valencia, Navarre, and Catalonia, in Spain; in Cheshire, in England; and in Bavaria and Switzerland. Salt springs are numerous along the sides of primitive mountains in most countries of Europe. The most extensive salt mines of Russia are in Asia.

Antimony, cobalt, zinc, manganese, sulphur, alum, and a great variety of other mineral productions, are found in Europe; but it is unnecessary to specify their localities.

It is observed, that the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians, and other mountain chains which run east and west, are richest in metals on the south side; while the Dofrines, Urals, and others which run north and south, are richest on the east side. Of the mountain chains of Europe, the Apennines are the poorest in metals, the Carpathians probably the richest. (Pinkerton's Geog. Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog.)

The present population of Europe is sprung from a variety of tribes, but authors differ much as to the number and peculiar characters of the original races. It would serve little purpose to enumerate the contradictory hypotheses which have been advanced on this subject. We shall, therefore, rather confine ourselves to an account of those more obvious general characters, founded on language, manners, or physical constitution, which distinguish the different portions of the population of Europe at present.

The nations in the south-west of Europe, the French, Italians, and Spaniards, speak languages in which the Latin idiom predominates. They have generally black hair and black eyes, are rather inferior in stature to the Gothic nations, but gifted with more imagination, and a higher degree of organic sensibility; they are more temperate, more inventive, but less persevering.

The Gothic race includes the English, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, Dutch, and the various German nations inhabiting the country between the Rhine and the Oder, with the Swiss, Bavarians, and a part of the inhabitants of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria. These nations are distinguished by fair hair, blue or grey eyes, large stature, and a clear complexion. They have less imagination than the southern nations, are more addicted to pursuits that exercise the understanding, are more thoughtful and serious, and less temperate in drinking.

The Sclavonic nations occupy the east of Europe generally, including Russia, Moldavia, Poland, ancient Prussia, with the greater part of Silesia, Hungary, Moravia, Bohemia, Croatia, and Sclavonia. They are rather lower in stature than the Gothic race, the countenance is shorter, but more animated, and the hair black. The prevailing religion is the Greek Christian, and in the western parts the Roman Catholic. They all speak dialects of the Sclavonic language, of which the Russian is one.

The remains of the Celtic tribes are found in the Highlands of Scotland, in Wales, Ireland, Britanny, and Biscay in Spain. They are rather low in stature, have lively eyes, prominent cheek-bones, red or yellow hair in the north, but sometimes black hair in the south.

The Finns in the north of Europe have a language of their own, and the characters of a peculiar race. They have light brown eyes, a pale complexion, cheeks hollow, are of middling stature, but heavy and muscular.

The Samoieds, Laplanders, and other tribes who live within the polar circle, are distinguished by their very low stature, the smallness of the legs and feet, and largeness of the head, prominent cheek-bones, small round black eyes, black and bristly hair, and a swarthy skin. The Laplanders, from inter-mixture with the Finns, Russians, and Norwegians, have lost, in some degree, the characteristic traits of the original race.

The modern Greeks and Albanians are supposed to be descended chiefly from the ancient inhabitants of the country, whose language they have preserved. They have a greater resemblance to the Latin nations than to those of the Gothic race. The Turks are an Asiatic tribe.*

Europe has been gradually advancing from poverty and barbarism to wealth and refinement since the tenth century, but the progress of the different nations has been very unequal. No single cause has contributed so much to their improvement as commerce; and hence the first advances have always been made by maritime states; and the progress of the different communities has been nearly in proportion to their vicinity to the sea, or the facility of their communication with it. The small republics of Italy and the Hanse towns were the seats of industry, wealth, knowledge, and freedom, while slavery, ignorance, and rapine, reigned in the countries around them. The tendency of commerce to enrich a country seems to depend on its power to create disposable capital. Though a certain species of opulence exists among the great landholders of agricultural countries, those masses of disposable capital which give vigour to industry, and supply the means of great improvements, are only found in commercial states. Commerce also favours the growth of manufactures, and these two species of industry raise up a middle class closely allied with the great body of the people. It is among this class that ideas of civil and religious liberty take their rise, and find their firmest supporters; whereas in countries entirely agricultural, liberty means only the domination of the aristocracy. The spirit of liberty once introduced, laws are improved, prejudices hostile to industry extinguished, and new vigour infused into every branch of society. It is thus that freedom and wealth have generally followed in the train of commerce; and that the commercial states have led the way in those improvements which have so much ameliorated the condition of Europe. When the Italian republics flourished, however, Europe was not in a state to be much benefited by the lights their experience afforded. The Dutch republic, which flourished at a later period, gave a more striking demonstration of the advantages of industry, freedom, toleration, and good government, at a time when neither liberty nor toleration were understood even in England, and when industry was in a very low state all over Europe. The example of the Dutch furnished statesmen with new ideas, and had a sensible influence on the policy of England, France, and other countries. The genius of Peter the Great derived from this small republic the seeds of those improvements by which civilization was spread over the vast empire of Russia. The superiority which the Dutch possessed has since been transferred to Britain, and she has acquired with it the privilege of instructing other nations in the sources of public wealth, and the science of government.

The Reformation had a material effect in accelerating the progress of society. It put an end to a multitude of abuses and prejudices adverse to improvement, and inspired the human mind with a new activity. Those countries in which it took no root seemed to have had their progress suddenly arrested, while others, less favoured by nature, derived new life and vigour from its influence. Italy and Spain, now so far behind Britain, France, and Germany, were the first countries in Europe for knowledge, wealth, and industry, at the period of the Reformation. The establishment of the Protestant religion produced a more liberal spirit among the Catholics in those countries where the two churches exist together; but in those countries where protestantism has never obtained a footing, the dread of its introduction has thrown the government more and more into the hands of the clergy; the clergy, armed with power, have become more jealous and intolerant, and have nearly put an end to all freedom of thought. The literary glory of Spain expired some time after the Reformation, and Italy has been checked in her career. The older writers of these countries breathe a spirit which would not

* Mentelle et Malte-Brun, I. 540.—M. de Stael, Germany, Introduction. be tolerated at the present day, nor does society there afford the elements out of which such characters could be formed. And thus it happened that the very same event which called forth the powers of the human mind in the north of Europe, extinguished the intellectual activity of the south.

The improved means of internal communication in countries in modern times, have had a considerable effect upon the state of society. In ancient times free states were necessarily small, because when neither the press nor the post existed, that union of sentiment, necessary to control the conduct of men in power, could not be effected among a large population scattered over a wide space. A number of free states sprung up in Greece, because that country, perforated by mountains and arms of the sea, afforded natural means of defence to such small societies as could then exercise the functions necessary to the preservation of freedom. It is a mistake to suppose that, in these states, a greater extent of territory could have been united under one government by adopting the representative system. The resolutions of a body of representatives would command no more respect from a government than those of as many private individuals, if they were not constantly supported by the opinions of the mass of society; and this requires such a rapid and general circulation of intelligence as could not then exist. The small size of the Grecian states was a necessary condition of their freedom; but it was a serious disadvantage, not only because it lessened the commercial intercourse between the different parts of the country, but because such small communities had not strength enough to resist a great force from without; and hence these states, fell a prey to the superior power of the Macedonian monarchy. The whole of the south-west of Europe exhibits the physical features of Greece upon a larger scale. Its surface is broken into numerous sections by gulfs and mountains, and abounds in natural barriers. Favoured by these circumstances, the different communities in this quarter of the world in modern times, enjoyed a certain degree of independence and security, which hastened their progress in civilization. Russia, which occupies the only large plain in Europe, has been the last reclaimed from barbarism. So long, however, as the means of communication remained very imperfect in modern Europe, free governments were confined to small states, and the large were abandoned to feudal tyranny or military despotism; but the science of government has gradually improved, as knowledge, commerce, and the arts, have advanced; and, at present, the admirable inventions of the post and the press give such an electric rapidity to the circulation of public sentiment, that twenty millions of men could be as easily united in defence of their rights as the small population of Attica, in the time of Xerxes.

The progress of improvement tends to level all distinctions between states, but those founded on the extent of their natural resources. Capital, skill, intelligence, and all acquired advantages, tend to an equilibrium. When Europe was overrun with barbarism, the city of Venice, by its commercial wealth, was a counterpoise to two or three of the great monarchies of the Continent. The discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to the East Indies, gave a new direction to commerce, and undermined the greatness of that city. The Dutch republic rose by its freedom and industry, and was able, in the time of Charles II. to dispute the empire of the sea with the combined powers of England and France. But England increased her commerce, and improved her constitution, and having a larger and more fertile territory, as well as a greater population, she at length obtained an ascendancy over Holland, deprived her of the empire of the sea, and strip her of most of her colonies. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, Spain and Turkey were the first powers in the west and east of Europe, and inspired their neighbours with the dread of conquest. Sweden ruled with undisputed sway in the north; and Russia, now so formidable, was scarcely known. Spain, under a better government, might recover a part of her influence, but the Turkish empire seems near its dissolution; and the importance of Sweden and Holland is gone irretrievably, in consequence of the growing strength of the neighbouring powers. The extent of territory and immense natural resources of Russia must, in the end, raise her to a decided superiority over all the other powers of Europe, if the empire does not fall to pieces from its own weight, or get into disorder from the vices of its government. Its progress hitherto has been greatly aided by the personal characters of its sovereigns. If we were to judge merely from the advantages which different states possess for raising and supporting population, we might predict that, in the course of a century and a half, Russia would rule with uncontrolled sway over the old Continent, and the United States over the new; and that the other states, which now figure in the first rank in either hemisphere, would then owe their existence, like the small principalities of Europe at the present day, to the forbearance, or the mutual jealousy of their powerful neighbours. But, in the course of events, many changes may occur to give a different destiny to both Continents.

The number of the inhabitants of Europe has been progressively increasing during last century, slowly in the earlier part of the century, but more rapidly as we approach the present times. Apparently it has been least considerable in Spain, Italy, Sweden, France, and Germany; rather greater in Prussia, Austria, and the British Isles; and greatest in Russia. Within the last thirty or forty years, the advance has been very perceptible, even in the countries which suffered by the war. When we compare the statements of the population of the different districts of Prussia, Austria, and Germany, as given in Hoeck's Tables, between 1790 and 1799, with those given by Hassel, in 1815, we find an increase almost everywhere. In 1787, Zimmermann estimated the population of Europe at 144,000,000; at present, according to the best authorities, it is about 184,000,000. This exhibits an increase of 40,000,000 in 32 years, which implies an annual augmentation of 7.7 in the 1000, or 1,416,000 persons on the present population; and at this rate, the number of inhabitants would double in about 90 years. There is no reason to think that this result differs materially from the true average during this period. In Britain, Russia, Si- lesia, and some other countries, the rate of increase has been still more rapid. The most obvious cause of this increase of population is the increase of production, from the improvement of agriculture and the arts; but part of the effect may be ascribed to the general introduction of potatoes in many countries, by which the same portion of ground is made to support three or four times as many persons as it would under corn. In France, where Mr Young, in 1789, found the cultivation of potatoes extremely limited, it is now so much extended, that, according to Chaptal, the annual produce is nearly 20,000,000 hectolitres, or 55,000,000 bushels,—a quantity fully as great in proportion to the population as Mr Colquhoun assigns to Britain and Ireland. This augmentation of numbers does not appear to have been accompanied with any deterioration in the habits of the people. On the contrary, the diminution in the rate of mortality which has taken place in Britain, France, and Sweden, is a decisive proof of an improvement in the condition of these countries; and by analogy, we may extend the same conclusion to the other parts of Europe. It may be remarked, that the general extension of commerce, and the accumulation of capital, render a season of scarcity, in a particular country, much less destructive now than formerly. In Britain, whose commerce and capital enable her to draw supplies from all parts of the world, the additional mortality, in the most severe scarcity, does not exceed one-tenth; but, in Sweden, a poor country, it sometimes amounts to one-third. (Milne's Annuities, p. 400.) In ancient times, when each country depended entirely on its own produce, the effects of a scarcity were dreadful.

The states of Europe at present are 57 in number and, considered with respect to political importance, may be divided into four classes. Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, belong to the first; Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and the Netherlands, to the second; Portugal, Naples, Bavaria, Sardinia, Denmark, Saxony, Wirtemberg, Hanover, and Switzerland, to the third; Baden, Tuscany, and the States of the Church, with the other small states of Germany and Italy, belong to the fourth class. Objections may be made to this classification, but we have not been able to find a better; and a few remarks will explain the principle on which it is founded. The first five powers are the only powers that exercise a decided influence over their neighbours; and it is by their joint counsels that differences among the smaller powers are adjusted, and all questions that concern the general state of Europe decided. The four states of the second class visibly occupy a lower place in the scale of power than those of the first. They have very little exterior influence, but they are not directly controlled by any of the stronger powers; and it is only among them and the states of the first class that wars are now likely to originate. The third class includes those states which are too feeble, and too much under the influence of the great powers to become principals in war, but are of importance enough to be valued as auxiliaries by states of the first and second classes. The fourth class consists of states which have too little force to maintain any degree of independence, and owe their existence to the justice, the forbearance, or the mutual jealousies of the stronger powers. It is only in Europe that small states exist among large ones; and their existence is the consequence of that equality of power among the great states, which compels each to respect the rights of the others, and to pay a certain degree of deference to public opinion. The close union among four of the powers of the first rank since 1813, has established their influence over the rest of Europe much more firmly than at any former period.

A detailed account of the principal European States is given under the proper heads in the Encyclopaedia, or in this Supplement. Our object here is only to bring together such general facts as will afford a comparative view of the internal condition, power, and resources of those larger societies which comprise the greatest part of the population of Europe. With respect to the smaller states, we cannot make room for any further details than what are contained in the Table, which forms the conclusion of this article.

Number of States, and their Comparative Importance.

BRITAIN.

Though much smaller in extent than any of the other states of the first rank, Britain is the most wealthy and powerful of the whole. She has a moderately good climate, a soil less fertile in grain than that of France, but affording better pastureage; an extensive line of sea-coast with numerous harbours; a natural and well defined frontier, a good commercial position, and the largest fields of coal in Europe. But all these advantages have contributed less to her aggrandisement than the excellence of her laws and constitution. The progress of Britain in commerce, manufactures, and agriculture, within the last century, and especially within the last 40 years, has been wonderfully great.

The British Isles contain about 76,000,000 of acres, of which about 49,000,000 are in cultivation, and 27,000,000, or more than one-third, waste or uncultivated. About one-half of the waste land is in Scotland, where the cultivated soil forms only 26 parts in the 100 of the whole surface of the country; in England it forms 82 parts in the 100, and in Ireland 69.* The agriculture of Britain, compared with that of the Continent, is distinguished by the farms being generally larger, the plan of cultivation more systematic and skilful, the produce on equal soils greater, the pasture land bearing a higher proportion to the land in tillage, and the breed of animals being superior. In Scotland the pasture land forms about one-half of the land in cultivation; in England four-sevenths. The whole annual produce of grain in Britain and Ireland

* Colquhoun's Treatise on the Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British Empire, 1815, p. 56, 57. Sir J. Sinclair, Pamphleteer, X. 94. is estimated by Dr Colquhoun at 35,000,000 of quarters, excluding seed; of which, wheat is supposed to form 26 parts in the 100 in quantity; barley 17 parts, oats 49, rye 2, peas and beans 5. The value of the annual produce of grain is computed by the same author at L.73,700,000; that of the pasture land at L.89,200,000; and the whole gross produce of all the branches of agriculture, including gardens and cattle, at 216,000,000. But as this estimate was made in 1812, when prices were uncommonly high, a third or a fourth should be deducted for the present value. The valued rack-rent of England and Wales, as returned to Parliament by the Commissioners of Taxes in 1810, was L.29,503,073, which gives 15s. 6d. as the average of rent of all kinds of land per acre. The rental of Scotland in 1813, according to Sir John Sinclair, was L.5,041,779, including mines and fisheries; and deducting L.341,000 for these, the rent of land will be L.4,700,000, or 4s. 11d. per acre on an average. (Pamphleteer, X. p. 94.)

The progress of Britain in manufactures has been still more rapid, within a recent period, than in agriculture; and her natural advantages for this species of industry are perhaps more exclusive. She has a good supply, within herself, of the raw material for all her staple manufactures except cotton; and her means of procuring this article are, at least, equal to those of her neighbours. The growth of this manufacture in Britain has been unprecedentedly rapid. In 1767, the value of all the cotton goods manufactured did not exceed L.200,000; and, in 1812, it was estimated at L.29,000,000. The produce of the woollen manufactures, in the same year, including the raw material, was estimated at L.26,000,000; that of leather at L.15,000,000; of linen at L.15,000,000; and the whole produce of manufacturing industry, exclusive of the value of the raw material, at L.114,000,000. (Colquhoun, p. 91.)

The commerce of Britain seems to have increased pretty regularly during the first sixty years of the last century; but, from 1760 to 1786, it remained almost stationary. From this period to the present time, the increase has been rapid beyond example. The exports of England, about 1700, were L.6,045,000; in 1760, L.14,694,000; in 1786, L.15,385,000. (Chalmers, Hist. View, p. 315.) In 1818, the official value of the exports of the United Kingdom was L.53,539,711; of the imports, L.36,900,681, exclusive of the trade between Britain and Ireland. The mercantile tonnage in 1818 was 2,674,468, including that of the colonies, and the number of seamen 173,609. (Parliamentary Papers.) The annual produce of foreign commerce, or the sums derived from it by all classes concerned in it, were estimated, in 1812, at L.46,373,478; the gains from inland trade at L.31,500,000; and the whole annual produce of industry, from all sources, at L.430,000,000. (Colquhoun, p. 96-100.)

The growing wealth of Britain has had to sustain an increasing weight of public burdens. The public revenue of England, at the Union in 1709, was L.5,691,803; of Scotland, L.160,000. In 1768 (a year of peace) the nett revenue was L.9,100,000; in 1790, L.15,986,068; and, in 1812, it was L.64,979,960, of which England furnished L.55,095,123, Scotland L.4,155,599, and Ireland L.4,882,264. (Colquhoun, p. 262.) In the year ending 5th January 1819, the nett revenue was L.55,741,098, which was collected at an expence of L.8, 3s. 4½d. per cent. The nominal amount of the national funded debt, at 5th January 1819, was L.802,296,265, including about L.7,000,000 of loans to Austria and Portugal; the unfunded debt was L.51,992,095. The interest on the funded debt was L.27,999,389; adding to this L.2,500,000 for interest on unfunded debt, we have L.30,500,000; and, assuming the true rate of interest to be 5 per cent., the capital of the national debt may be valued a L.610,000,000. The army, on the 25th January 1819, was 104,369 men. The navy consisted of 173 ships of the line, and 448 of inferior size, including ships building, with 20,000 seamen. (Parliamentary Papers; Navy List.)

The population of England appears to have doubled in the 100 years ending 1811; that of Scotland appears to have increased one-half in the same period; that of Ireland is supposed to have doubled within the short space of 46 years. (Colquhoun, p. 10.) In the period between 1801 and 1811, the rate of increase, in England and Scotland, was such as would have doubled the population in 52 years. (Milne, Ann. p. 112.) This rapid increase of numbers appears not to have been accompanied with any deterioration of condition, at least in the people of England and Scotland. In the five years ending 1784, the annual mortality in England and Wales was 1 in 37; in the five years ending 1810, it was 1 in 47.86. The average number of poor relieved in these 10 years was 1 in 8, 9, or nearly one-ninth of the inhabitants. (Milne, p. 437-442.) Of the population of Britain and Ireland, about 3.5 families in the 100 are employed in agriculture, 45 in trades, manufactures, and handicrafts, and 20 in other occupations. The total population of Britain and Ireland, in 1819, according to the rate of increase indicated by the returns for 1801 and 1811, should be about 18,740,000. To these must be added about 875,000 British subjects in the various colonies, and about 45,000,000 of native inhabitants and negroes, making a total of 64,615,000 persons. (Colquhoun, p. 7.)

FRANCE.

This country enjoys, upon the whole, greater natural advantages than any other in Europe. Her territory is above one-half larger than Great Britain and Ireland, and is superior in soil and climate. She has a greater proportion of arable land than any of her neighbours; the natural means of communication between her provinces are abundant and easy; she is well provided with all the useful metals except tin, and is better supplied with coal than any other country in Europe except Britain. When we add to these advantages the intelligence and activity of her population, and consider that corvees, tithes, feudal services, and most of those abuses which shackled her industry, are now removed; that she is likely to enjoy the benefits of good laws and a free constitution, and is not encumbered with a great national debt, we cannot doubt that, if peace continue for any considerable length of time, she will yet rise to a much higher degree of wealth and prosperity than she ever before possessed. Even during the distractions of the Revolution, though her commerce was annihilated, her agriculture and manufactures have been extended and improved, her population has increased, and their condition has been ameliorated. The greatest bar to her progress will probably be the extreme division of property; and, for some time, the want of capital.

The surface of France contains within its present limits 52,000,000 hectares, or 128,000,000 acres. From partial surveys, for fiscal purposes, made in each department, it is estimated that the waste land, including roads and rivers, amounts to one-eighth of this, or 12 parts in the 100; the arable land to 44 parts in the 100; the woodland to 14 parts, the pasturage land and meadows to 14, the vineyards to 4, wild land 7, quarries, buildings, orchards, gardens, olive and other plantations, make up the remaining 5 parts. (Chaptal, de l'Industrie Françoise, I. 205. Paris, 1819.) In addition to the vegetable productions that grow in England, the climate of France enables her to raise maize, vines, olives, mulberries, and chestnuts; and by some of these a produce is extracted from soil which, in England, would yield nothing. The whole produce of grain in France is estimated, by Chaptal, at 143,000,000 hectolitres, equal to 50,000,000 quarters, or 40,000,000, deducting one-fifth for seed, which is only 5,000,000 above the produce of Britain and Ireland, as estimated by Colquhoun. Of this produce of grain, wheat forms 36 parts in the 100, rye 21 parts, maize 4 1/2, buckwheat 6, barley 9, oats 22, legumes 1. The quantity of potatoes (19,800,741 hectolitres) is equal to two-thirds of the rye. The produce of 4,000,000 of acres planted with vines, in 1808, was 37,600,000 hectolitres of wine. (I. 173, 177.) The annual gross produce of the land, which was estimated, by Arthur Young, at L.230,000,000 Sterling, is estimated, by Chaptal, at 4,678,000,000 of francs, or L.187,000,000 Sterling,* of which the principal items are,

<table> <tr> <th>Corn and legumes (secs),</th> <th>L.77,172,000</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Vines,</td> <td>28,757,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Forage,</td> <td>27,322,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Wool,</td> <td>3,258,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Raw silk,</td> <td>617,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hemp,</td> <td>1,237,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Flax,</td> <td>760,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Woods and forests,</td> <td>5,657,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Cattle, sheep, and swine,</td> <td>17,880,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Poultry,</td> <td>2,588,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Fruits,</td> <td>2,584,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Pulse and other esculent vegetables (legumes frais),</td> <td>7,873,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>(Chaptal, I. 226–238, Young, I. 468.)</td> <td></td> </tr> </table>

* Reckoning the Pound Sterling equal to 25 francs, its real value at present is 25.2. See the article EXCHANGE.

† Chaptal, I. 139, 144, 153, 224, &c. Birkbeck's Tour in France, 1814, p. 109.

The mean revenue derived from a hectare of land is estimated at 28 francs, or 22s. 6d. equal to about 9s. 1d. per acre; and the revenue of the whole departments, calculated on this basis, is L.59,449,000; but, calculated according to the reports of special Commissioners, in 1815, it is L.65,040,000. The last sum includes houses, and may be considered as corresponding nearly to the rackrent of lands and buildings in France. (I. 208–212.) This is certainly too low. The average rent of all kinds of land in France was estimated, by Young, at 15s. 10d. per acre. (Trav. I. 476.) The most peculiar feature in French agriculture is the vast number of small proprietors, who cultivate their patches of land by their own labour. Arthur Young supposed that, before the Revolution, one-third of the property of the kingdom was held by such persons; and Chaptal says the number of proprietors is doubled within the last thirty years. The latter computes the whole number of farms in France at 3,000,000; so that, on an average, each cannot exceed 43 acres, including wastes. In the cultivation of good soils, the agriculture of France is nearly equal to that of England, but it is much inferior in the management of poor soils, in the system of cropping, and in the breed of animals. It has been much improved, however, during the Revolution, by the extensive cultivation of artificial grasses, by augmenting the live stock, by the general exclusion of fallows, and by increasing the cultivation of potatoes.†

The manufactures of France, amidst all the troubles of the Revolution, have been generally advancing, though some branches have retrograded. The number of workmen employed in Lyons, the principal seat of the silk manufacture, was one-fourth greater in 1812 than in 1789. France produces within herself about eleven millions of pounds of raw silk, and imports nearly as much; and the total value of the manufactured articles produced is estimated at L.4,300,000. Of wool, France produces about eighty-three millions of pounds (Avoirdupois), valued at L.3,258,000, and imports twenty-six millions of pounds; which, converted into various fabrics, is estimated to be worth L.8,000,000 Sterling. The value of the manufactures of flax and hemp is estimated at L.11,712,000. The spinning of cotton by machinery, which was scarcely introduced before the Revolution, employed one million of spindles in 1812; and there were 220 establishments for spinning cotton in 1818. The cotton imported in 1817 amounted to thirteen millions of kilogrammes, or twenty-eight millions of pounds, which, when worked into fabrics, is estimated to be worth L.7,664,000. This is only about one-fourth of the value of the cotton manufactures in Britain; but in France this species of industry has had to struggle with extraordinary difficulties. The manufactures of iron in France are estimated at L.8,292,000; those of leather at L.5,732,000. The whole gross produce of manufacturing industry, including manufac- turers' profits, is estimated at 1820,000,000 of francs, or L.72,800,000, of which the value of the raw material forms 32 parts in the 100, wages 47, manufacturers' profits 10, and expences 11. (Chaptal, II. 116-120, 145, 203.)

With regard to the commerce of France, we have no satisfactory details to present for any recent period. According to Arthur Young, the commerce of France nearly quadrupled, between 1718 and 1786. (I. 520.) In the three years ending in 1789, the imports on an average were 613,543,000, and the exports 448,748,000 francs, or about 24\( \frac{1}{2} \), and L.17,000,000 Sterling. (Chaptal, I. 134.) In the public journals (Magazines and Newspapers) we find the exports of France for 1818 stated at L.15,400,000.

The population of France, notwithstanding the interruption to industry, and the drains occasioned by the long wars, has increased since the commencement of the Revolution. According to calculations made by the National Assembly in 1791, France contained 26,363,074 inhabitants, and, in 1818, it contained 29,327,388 within the same limits. (Young's Travels, I. 479. Chaptal, I. 206.) This shows an augmentation of 4 in the 1000 annually; but in a period of peace, the rate of increase must be much greater. The condition of the labouring classes also appears to be improved. Wages, which Arthur Young estimated at 19 sous or 10d. English per day, throughout the kingdom for all kinds of work, were estimated at 1s. 5\( \frac{1}{2} \)d. per day, in 1814, by Mr Birkbeck, who considers this sum as equivalent to 2s. 11d. in England. The annual mortality, which was estimated at 1 in 30 by Neckar before the Revolution, we find stated recently to be 1 in 35. (Malte-Brun, Precis Geog. II. 563.)

According to returns made in 1815, there were then in France 22,300 primary schools, with 787,979 pupils. There were besides 368 secondary schools, 36 lycées, and 26 universities.

The public revenue of France was estimated, in the ways and means for 1819, at 889,209,500 francs, or L.35,568,000. The public debt is stated at L.127,000,000, and the interest at L.9,666,000. The army 140,000. The navy, 40 ships of the line and 30 frigates. The secular clergy, according to Crome (p. 214), amount to 51,300, with 700 francs each of salary, besides 50 bishops, and 9 archbishops, with 15,000 and 25,000 francs a-year. We cannot believe the number to be so great. The revenues of the church, calculated on this basis, would amount to L.1,475,000. Before the Revolution they amounted to L.5,687,500, and lately we find them stated at 20,700,000 francs, or L.828,000 for 1817. (Public Journals; Young's Travels; Hassel.)

Acquisitions of France in Territory and Population from the commencement of the Revolution to the Peace in 1815.

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Population.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Austrian and Dutch Netherlands</td> <td>10,100</td> <td>2,150,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Carried forward,</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Bishopric of Liege, part of Archbishoprics of Cologne, Treves, Mentz, Duchy of Juliers, Palatinate, Moeurs, and Gueldres,</td> <td>12,600</td> <td>2,050,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Department Montblanc (4-5ths), Leman, Maritime Alps (1792), with Venaissain (1790), Montbeliard, and other enclaves,</td> <td>4,710</td> <td>825,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Piedmont (1802), Genoa, Tuscany (1806), Parma (1808), Roman States (1810), and the Valais, Holland, Bremen, Hanburgh, Lubeck, part of Hanover, Oldenburg, Munster, and Osnaburg (1810), Illyrian Provinces on the north shores of the Adriatic, including Venetian Dalmatia,</td> <td>27,410 36,500 19,300</td> <td>5,025,000 4,530,000 1,372,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Add Territory and Population of old France in 1812,</td> <td>204,000</td> <td>28,500,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">States Dependent on France.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>The Cisalpine Republic, afterwards the kingdom of Italy, established in 1797, consisting of Austrian Lombardy, with a district of Sardinia, the Bergamesco, Bresciano, Modena, Massa, Carara, Bologna, and Romagna, to which were added, in 1805, the Venetian Territories in Italy, and, in 1808, the remainder of the Roman States east of the Apennines,</td> <td>31,000</td> <td>6,350,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Confederation of the Rhine, formed in 1806, was augmented from time to time, and ultimately included nearly all the small states comprehended in the present German confederation. There were 22 members in 1812, exclusive of France,</td> <td>113,000</td> <td>14,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Naples,</td> <td>30,500</td> <td>4,963,500</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">By the peace of Paris in 1815, France was stripped of all her conquests, and reduced within her ancient limits, as they stood in 1789, with some inconsider-</th> </tr> </table>

* Hoeck, Apercu Statist.; Hassel, Allg. Europ. Staats; Malte-Brun et Mentelle, Geographie et Atlas. able variations, not sensibly affecting her whole extent of territory, or amount of population.

AUSTRIA.

The Austrian empire is one-fourth larger than France, and twice as large as Britain and Ireland. Its population consists of a mixed mass of nations, differing in origin, language, religion, and manners, having few common ties, and little intercourse with one another. Austria has but a small extent of sea-coast, and is almost entirely an inland power. The climate is similar to that of France, but subject to greater extremes of heat and cold, the soil not much inferior, the grain and fruits nearly the same. She is richer in mineral wealth than any other state in Europe, and possesses coal though not in great abundance. Her natural resources are capable of vast improvement, and in the hands of a wise and liberal government, would soon raise her far above the rank she now enjoys. Of the six sections into which her territories are divided, Lombardy is the most populous in proportion to its extent; Bohemia and Moravia are next in population, and are the seats of the chief manufacturers; Austria Proper and Hungary are remarkably rich in mines; and Galicia, though in a low state of cultivation, is fertile in grain, and contains the most productive mines of salt in Europe. Austria has but a slender title to be regarded as a German power; less than one-fifth of her population are Germans. The Slavonic race, who form nearly one-half of the population, give a character of ignorance and backwardness to the government. In Bohemia, Hungary, and other provinces where this race predominates, vassalage exists in some of its forms, and cramps the progress of society. The Austrian empire, in truth, consists properly of six separate governments, feebly united under one head. Each of these governments, except that of Lombardy, has a diet or states, composed of the deputies from the nobility, clergy, and towns; but these bodies exercise no real influence over the government, except in Hungary, where the old feudal institutions remain in vigour, and the aristocracy have always maintained a great degree of independence.

The surface of the Austrian monarchy is estimated at 258,000 square English miles. Of this surface, the waste lands, including morasses, mountains, rivers, and ground covered with buildings, is estimated at 5 parts in 24, the useful soil at 19 parts in 24; and of the useful soil, about 43 parts in the 100 are in tillage, 9 parts meadow land, 9 parts commons, which support cattle, 2 parts vineyards, 2 parts gardens and orchards, and 35 parts forest land. The total produce of grain is estimated at 165,500,000 metzen, or about 35,670,000 quarters; consisting of, wheat 14 parts, barley 11, rye 31, and oats 44. In 1804, the net produce of a joch (equal to 1 1/2 acre) of corn land, for the whole Austrian states, was valued, by Lichtenstern, at 5 florins (10s.), and of pasture land at 2 florins (4s.). (Hassel's Stat. abris des Oest. p. 90.) The annual produce of wine in the Austrian dominions is estimated at 36,000,000 to 40,000,000 of emers (each equal to 14 English gallons), of which Hungary furnishes nearly two-thirds. This is rather more than one-half of the produce of the French vineyards. Galicia is the only province in which there are no vines. Hungary and Sclavonia supply 180,000 centners of excellent tobacco. The Ex Venetian states furnish yearly 1,200,000 pounds of silk; Milan and the Tyrol nearly as much; and altogether this species of culture employs 400,000 persons. Flax, hemp, hops, and fruits, are also extensively cultivated; and the forests, which cover more than one-fourth of the empire, furnish an ample supply of wood. The total produce of the vegetable kingdom is valued at L. 68,500,000 Sterling,—a small amount, considering the extent of the country; but agriculture, though there are numerous societies for its improvement, remains in a low state, from the prejudices of the higher classes, and the oppressions to which the peasantry are exposed. The horses in the empire are estimated at 1,800,000, the sheep at 12,000,000, and the horned cattle at 10,000,000: The live stock has greatly diminished within the last twenty-five years. The annual produce of the mines is 3846 marks of gold (the mark is about three-fourths of a pound Troy): 486 centners (hundred weights) of silver; 56,000 centners of copper; 80,000 centners of lead; 4890 centners of tin; 1,200,000 centners of iron; and 5800 centners of mercury. About 5,500,000 centners of salt are prepared, the greatest part from salt mines and springs. The annual produce of these minerals in 1802, when it was probably one-third less than the above, was valued at L. 4,700,000.*

The leading manufactures are linen, cotton, woolen, silk, leather, and works in metal and wood. The linen manufacture existing in all the provinces, but to the greatest extent in Bohemia and Moravia, is supposed to employ 1,200,000 persons; the woolen manufacture 300,000 persons; the cotton 100,000; about 18,000 or 20,000 centners of cotton were spun by machinery in 1817, which is three times the quantity spun in 1803. The silk manufacture, which is carried on chiefly in Lombardy, employs 110,000 persons. The most considerable manufactures in metal are in Styria, Carinthia, and Lower Austria. The estimate of the annual products of the Austrian manufactures, given by Crome, is too extravagant to deserve any credit. But those of Bohemia, in 1811, were valued at 158,000,000 of florins, and if we add twice as much for all the other states, the whole produce of the Austrian manufactures may, on this ground, be computed at L. 47,000,000 Sterling. Even this is probably above the truth. (Lichtenstern, p. 44. Crome, 173-176.)

The commerce of Austria is extremely trifling. She possesses but a small extent of sea-coast, which is remote from the centre of her territories, is destitute of navigable rivers, and rendered difficult of ac-

* Lichtenstern, Handbuch, der Neust Geog. des Oest, 1818, p. 33—42. Crome, Allg. Ubersicht, 1818, p. 141-154; Mentelle et Malte-Brun, IV. 419. cess by mountains. The numerous rivers that water her dominions afford few advantages to her trade, as (excepting in Italy) she does not command the outlet of any one of them. The whole exports of this large empire are only L. 3,000,000, and the imports L. 3,200,000. (Lichtenstern, p. 48.)

The population of the Austrian empire, in 1817, was 28,207,886, of which the Sclavonic race amounted to 13,182,000, the Germans to 5,342,000, the Italians to 4,926,000, the Magyars, or Hungarians, to 4,225,000, the Wallachians to 1,246,000, and the Jews to 487,000. (Lichtenstern, p. 1858.) There are besides considerable numbers of Greeks, Turks, Albanians, and Armenians, so that, except Russia, no state in Europe has such a heterogeneous population. Throughout the Austrian dominions, the nobility and clergy are numerous, and many of them very rich. In Hungary, Galicia, and indeed in the greater part of the empire, these classes are exempt from taxes, and enjoy other pernicious privileges. The Austrian clergy, exclusive of their families, are estimated at 64,000, of whom 56,000 belong to the Catholic church; the nobles of both sexes at 475,000, the civil servants of the government, with their families, at 280,000; the military, men, women, children, and servants, at 800,000; the burghers and tradesmen, with their families, at 2,333,000; the persons engaged in agriculture at 4,005,000 families, or about 20,025,000 individuals. (Lichtenstern, p. 133.) In all the provinces, especially in Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary, there has been a rapid increase in the numbers of the inhabitants. Though the people are poor and ignorant, the government has been at much pains to provide them with the means of instruction; and the numerous schools and academies established, must essentially contribute to the improvement of the country. The Catholic religion, though it predominates, nowhere enjoys that exclusive ascendancy which produces such pernicious consequences in Spain and Italy. The other sects, Greeks, Calvinists, Lutherans, form nearly one-third of the inhabitants in the provinces beyond the Alps; and this circumstance, by generating a certain freedom of thought and discussion, must prove favourable to the progress of society.

Acquisitions and Losses of Austria from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Year 1815.

Austria, in 1787, 240,000 square miles, 20,000,000 inhabitants. (Zimmermann's State of Europe, p. 150.)

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Gained 1795, In Poland,</td> <td>17,500</td> <td>1,100,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1797, The Venetian territories east of the Adige,</td> <td>13,450</td> <td>2,023,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1802-4, Trent, Brixen, Lindau, and other small territories,</td> <td>4,800</td> <td>290,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">35,750</th> <th>3,413,000</th> </tr> </table>

<table> <tr> <th>Lost ——, The Netherlands,</th> <th>10,100</th> <th>2,150,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>The Milanese,</th> <th>4,100</th> <th>1,320,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>The Brisgau,</th> <th>1,150</th> <th>140,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">15,350</th> <th>3,610,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Absolute gain of territory, and loss of population,</th> <th>20,400</th> <th>197,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Peace of Presburg, 1805.</th> <th colspan="2"></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Lost Venetian territories,</th> <th>13,450</th> <th>2,023,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>The Tirol, Burgau, Eichstaelt, Passau, Lindau, Rottenfels, and other small territories ceded to Bavaria, and seven towns to Wirtemberg,</th> <th>11,000</th> <th>815,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">24,450</th> <th>2,838,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Gained Salzburg and Bertholsgaden,</th> <th>3,610</th> <th>202,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Absolute loss,</th> <th>20,840</th> <th>2,636,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Peace of Vienna, 1809.</th> <th colspan="2"></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Lost Salzburg and Bertholsgaden,</th> <th>3,610</th> <th>202,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Part of Inviertel and Haus-ruck in Upper Austria, ceded to Bavaria,</th> <th>1,900</th> <th>224,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Carniola, two-thirds of Carinthia, Goritia, Dalmatia, and part of Croatia, ceded to France,</th> <th>14,600</th> <th>1,063,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>In Poland, Wester Galicia, the circle of Zamosc, and the district of Tarnopol,</th> <th>25,000</th> <th>1,904,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">45,100</th> <th>3,395,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Austria, in 1809, 205,000 sqr. miles, and 20,435,000 inhabitants. (Marcel. de Serres, Voyage I. 40.)</th> <th colspan="2"></th> </tr> <tr> <th>Gained 1814-15, Salzburg, Tirol, Carniola, and other districts in Austria, formerly ceded, with Dalmatia, Croatia, &c. 30,100</th> <th>30,100</th> <th>2,140,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Poland, district of Tarnopol, 3,900</th> <th>3,900</th> <th>400,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Venetian territories and Milan,</th> <th>17,000</th> <th>3,959,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">* 51,000</th> <th>6,499,000</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Austria, in 1818, 258,000 square miles, and 23,207,882 inhabitants. (Lichtenstern, p. 8. 1858.)</th> <th colspan="2"></th> </tr> </table>

Prussia is the smallest in extent, and enjoys the fewest natural advantages of all the European states of the first class. Her territory is not much more than two-fifths of that of Austria; it is but indifferently fertile; has few valuable mines; few resources for manufactures; she has, however, pretty large extent of sea-coast, and a considerable commerce. Her possessions are straggling and disjointed; they present an extensive frontier, with little depth, and no natural barriers; and are inhabited by people who speak different languages, and have few common ties or interests. Prussia has sustained her rank chiefly in consequence of the superiority of her internal organization. Her government, unlike those of the other monarchies of Europe, being of very recent origin, is not encumbered by those ancient establishments which the change of circumstances has converted into abuses. The frame of her public institutions was improved and completed by the Great Frederick, who availed himself of all the lights and philosophy which the age furnished. He established a complete toleration in matters of religion; curtailed the oppressive privileges of the nobles; simplified the administration of justice; and introduced order and economy into every department of the government. He left the kingdom to his successor with a large and well disciplined army, and a high reputation for policy and prowess. The population of Prussia, of whom two-thirds are Protestants, is more intelligent than that of Austria, includes a greater proportion of Germans; and altogether she is more of a German power. The large rivers that water her territories have generally a very level course, and being joined by canals, they afford a great extent of inland navigation. Of all the old provinces Silesia is the most industrious and flourishing. It doubled its population in the 73 years between 1742 and 1815.* The Westphalian and Rhenish provinces are the most populous; ancient Prussia and the Polish provinces the least. In many parts of Prussia vassalage existed lately, and perhaps still exists. It was only subsequent to the disasters of 1807, that the nobles, who amounted, in 1802, to 20,000 families, lost their monopoly of military offices of rank, and the right of holding property exempted from public burdens; and since that period also the restrictions on industry in towns have been done away by the abolition of corporation privileges. (Crome, 417; MS. Travels in Germany.)

Agriculture remains in a low state in Prussia, in consequence of the ignorance and depressed state of the peasantry, the small size of the farms, the deficiency of capital, and the want of markets for the surplus produce. Besides the common species of grain, tobacco, mulberries, vines, flax, and hemp, are cultivated. Great quantities of potatoes are also raised. Horned cattle and sheep are pretty numerous in most of the provinces. M. Krug estimates the mean rent of an arpent of corn land, for the whole Prussian states, at \( 2\frac{1}{2} \) rix-dollars (about 7s.), and the net produce of an arpent of corn land at two-fifths of the gross produce; but of pasture land at one-fourth or one-fifth only, including poultry and bees.† According to returns made from the different provinces to the government, the whole annual produce of grain in Prussia about 1802, when the population was 8,754,000, was 4,504,000 Wispel (equal to 9,600,000 quarters); of which wheat formed 9 parts in the 100, rye 40, barley 24, and oats 27; of this quantity one-tenth was exported. The Prussian silver mines yield annually about 20,000 mark of silver; the county of Manfield alone furnishes 14,588 centners of copper; and Silesia affords 7600 centners of lead, and 405,900 centners of iron. The whole mineral produce of Prussia is valued at L.1,800,000 annually. (Mentelle et Malte-Brun, IV. 428; Crome, 400.)

The principal manufactures of Prussia are linen, woollen, cotton, silk, leather, iron, and porcelain, all of which are making progress. The linen, of which the chief seat is in Silesia, is the most considerable, and, as far back as 1804, was computed to produce yearly L.2,500,000 Sterling. The produce of the woollen manufactures, in 1805, was estimated at L.900,000; that of leather at L.600,000. The whole produce of manufactures, including breweries, we find stated, in 1802, at 41,000,000 of rix-dollars, or nearly L.7,000,000 Sterling. Considering the extension of the kingdom, and the progress of domestic improvement, it must now be at least double. Of the commerce of Prussia we have no precise account for any recent period; but, in 1804, the imports of Silesia alone amounted to L.1,900,000, and the exports to L.2,100,000, exclusive of a transient trade valued at L.700,000; and, in the same year, the imports of six provinces amounted to L.4,585,000. Supposing the trade of the other five provinces, of which the kingdom now consists, to be in proportion, and allowing for the advancing state of the country, we cannot estimate the whole imports at less than L.8,000,000 or L.9,000,000 Sterling, and the exports at as much. In 1802 the exports were stated at L.7,000,000 Sterling, by Malte-Brun.‡

The public revenue of Prussia in 1817, according to Demian, was 42,000,000 dollars, or about L.7,000,000. § After the great loss of territory in 1807, it was only L.2,700,000. The public debt in 1815, including that of the new provinces, was estimated at L.40,000,000. The army is about 175,000 men, exclusive of the landwehr.‖

In proportion as the other great states of Europe improve their natural resources, the importance of Prussia must decline. The time is past when the good order of her finances, and the discipline of her armies, could raise her to an equality with France and Austria and Russia; and she can only now support her rank by cultivating still farther those moral advantages which were formerly the source of her strength. It is the king's interest to give his subjects a free constitution and a free press, for which they are better prepared than those of any other great power on the Continent, except France. This would give a new impulse to industry, and create a

* Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog. IV. 265. Hassel, Allg. Europ. Staats, I. 71. † Storch, Cours d'Economie Politique, 1815. II. 241, 273. ‡ Mentelle et Malte-Brun, II. 30. IV. 429. Crome, 423-443. § Handbuch, der neuest. Geog. des Preuss. Staats, 1818. p. 168. ‖ Hassel, Allg. Europ. Staats, I. p. 68-75. Crome, 448. spirit of improvement, which would more than counterbalance the natural disadvantages of the soil and climate. Were the king to enter cordially into the new opinions which are rapidly spreading over Germany, and to put himself at the head of those who support them, in the present temper of men's minds, it is probable he might unite a great part of northern Germany under his sway.

Acquisitions and Losses of Prussia since the commencement of the French Revolution.

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1791, Gained Principalities of Anspach and Bayreuth,</td> <td>3,500</td> <td>420,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1793, do. in Poland, 2d Partition,</td> <td>22,500</td> <td>1,136,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1795, do. do. 3d do.</td> <td>16,500</td> <td>860,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1802, Received part of the German indemnities, and gave up possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, balance in favour of Prussia,</td> <td>3,600</td> <td>420,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>46,100</td> <td>2,836,000</td> </tr> </table>

Prussia in 1803, 116,000 sqr. miles, and 9,100,000. (Mentelle Malte-Brun, IV. 202 and 428.) 1806, Prussia took possession of Hanover, but was dispossessed by the French a few months after. 1806-7, Lost all her possessions between the Elbe and the Rhine, with Anspach and Bayreuth, Cottbus in Saxony, Neufchatel, and four-fifths of her Polish territories, 56,500 4,450,000

Prussia in 1808, 59,600 square miles, and 4,559,550 inhabitants. (Hassel, Europ. Staats, I. 68.) 1814-15, Recovered a part of her losses in Poland, and all her possessions in Saxony and Westphalia, with great additions, and made some exchanges. Total gain of territory and population, 44,600 5,506,000

Absolute gains of Prussia in each province. In Poland, in 1793 and 1795, 39,000 1,996,000 Add gained in 1772 at 1st partition, 12,000 600,000 51,000 2,596,000

Lost in 1807, and not recovered in 1814, 27,000 1,575,000

Still retains, 24,000 1,703,000

Brought forward, 24,000 (The population of the Polish provinces appears to have increased one-fourth since their first conquest.) In Saxony. Gained in the Duchy of Saxony, in Lusatia, Merseburg, Eichfeld (part), Erfurt, and some towns, 7,800 920,000 In Westphalia and on the Rhine. Munster (three-fifths), Paderborn, Mark, Berg, Juliers, Electorate of Trevcs (four-fifths), Cologne, Duchy of Westphalia. Ceded East Frisia, Lingen, Hildsheim, 14,200 2,050,000 In Pomerania. Swedish Pomerania, 1,480 120,900

47,480 4,793,000

Prussia, in 1815, 105,800 square miles, and 10,315,000 inhabitants. (Demian, Geog. Preuss.) In 1817, 10,588,157 inhabitants. (Public Journals.)

Russia.

Russia occupies very nearly one-half of the surface of Europe, and yet her territories in this division of the globe are scarcely more than one-fifth of her whole dominions. Three-fourths of her Asiatic territories, however, consist of sandy deserts, or frozen plains, which yield very little for human subsistence; and her possessions in Europe are at present, and perhaps will always be, the most valuable part of the empire. European Russia consists chiefly of an elevated plain, over which numerous rivers flow with a small declivity, so as to afford a greater extent of inland navigation, probably, than exists in all the rest of Europe. Its superficial extent, including Poland, is about 1,687,000 square English miles, which is more than eight times the area of France, or fourteen times that of the British Isles. But of this surface more than one-fourth part, lying beyond the parallel of 60° is incapable of cultivation, from the rigour of the climate, or the marshy nature of the soil. In the south, also, there are vast sandy plains, the soil of which, destitute of wood and water, and impregnated with salt, is altogether useless for agriculture. The fertile part of Russia consists chiefly of the country lying between the parallels of 50° and 57°, which contains a great proportion of excellent soil, well watered with navigable streams, and comparatively populous and cultivated. The cultivation of wheat is chiefly confined to this region, and here abundant crops are procured with little labour, and by a very rude species of culture. But farther north, slender crops are obtained with so much exertion, that a single peasant cannot cultivate more than from seven to ten acres; and these crops are so precarious, that the rye sometimes will not ripen in the neighbourhood of Petersburg. The lands, however, where corn will not grow, yield pas- ture and wood. Trees are found as far as the 67th degree, beyond which there are only shrubs.*

It has been computed, that the soil incapable of cultivation in European Russia amounts to 690,000 square English miles, or 40 parts in the 100 of the whole surface. (Mentelle et Malte-Brun, II. 69.) The annual produce of corn in all Russia has been estimated at 181,000,000 techeverts, including seed, equal to 126,000,000 quarters, and valued at 371,000,000 of rubles. But this estimate is evidently a gross exaggeration. The crown forests are estimated at 44,500,000 of desiatines, equal to 240,000 square miles. Rye is the grain most extensively cultivated all over Russia; but barley, wheat, and oats, are also raised. In the southern provinces, maize, rice, vines, and even cotton succeed; and both in the southern and central parts, vast ranges of pasture ground support numerous herds of cattle, the skins and tallow of which, with the peltries of wild animals, are leading articles of exportation. These pastures are generally commons: the quantity of uncultivated lands, says Storch, is so great, that it would be useless to divide them. The number of sheep in Russia has been estimated at 60,000,000. Flax and hemp, however, are the productions in which the soil of Russia has the greatest superiority, and of these she exports great quantities. Some of the less civilized nations are almost supported by bees, and wax and honey are also among the principal articles of exportation. The annual produce of raw silk in Russia is estimated at 10,000 pounds. Russia has rich mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and salt, the best of which are in the Uralian mountains, and chiefly on the Asiatic side. They employ about half a million of persons. Their annual produce is valued at 17,147,000 silver rubles, of which the crown receives 6,463,535 rubles. It consists of 1600 pounds of gold, 52,000 pounds of silver, 81,000 centner of copper, 18,181 centner of lead, and 6,221,692 centner of iron. The salt mines yield 8,000,000 centner of salt annually. The fisheries are supposed to employ a capital of 6,657,000 rubles, and to yield an annual gain of 2,200,000. (Crome, p. 58, 64, 67.)

The manufactures of Russia are inconsiderable, though the government has made great exertions to encourage this species of industry. The principal are those of coarse woollens, flax, iron, leather, silk, glass, and brandies. The manufacturing establishments, in 1812, amounted to 2331, and employed from 600,000 to 700,000 persons. In 1815, the number was 3262, of which 181 were for cloth, 150 silk, 1348 leather, 247 soap, tallow, and wax, 184 linen, 295 cotton, 138 glass, 200 metal. (Crome, p. 70.)

The exports of Russia, in 1796, including the goods carried out by land, and by the Caspian Sea, which do not appear in the customhouse returns, were estimated at 50,000,000 of rubles (Storch, II. 421); which is equal to L. 8,350,000, if the silver ruble is meant; or L. 5,870,000, if the paper ruble. In 1805, the exports were 72,400,000 rubles. The number of merchants was estimated at 97,227, and their trading capital at 308,000,000 rubles. The internal traffic between China, Siberia, and Moscow, employs 38,000 persons as carriers. (Crome, p.73.)

If confidence might be put in the lists transmitted to government, the annual mortality in Russia is only 1 in 58, the births 1 in 26, and the annual addition to the population 1 in 49, so that the period of doubling should be 35 years. (Storch, I. 282.) But these extraordinary results are irreconcilable with facts. The population in 1783, according to Storch, was 27,397,000; and the highest estimates only make it amount to 42,722,000 in 1815, excluding the kingdom of Poland. (Hassel, p. 223.) Deducting about 6,000,000, added to the empire by conquest, the real increase, in 32 years, is only 9,425,000; and the period of doubling, calculated on this basis, would be 75 years, a rate of increase not greater than was exemplified in Silesia, and in Britain during the last 40 years. Russia, however, has ample room to allow her population to expand, as her soil in Europe would easily support 100,000,000; while the increase in other countries must be confined within narrow limits. There are in Russia above 80 nations, who speak more than 40 different languages; but the Slavonic race forms seven-eighths of the whole European population. According to the official returns in 1783, the peasants, belonging to the crown and to the nobles, amounted to 83 persons in the 100 of the whole population. (Storch, I. 249.) Of the 45,500,000 of inhabitants, the Slavonic race forms 38,000,000, the Finns 2,376,000, the Tartars 1,850,000, the Caucasian tribes 1,200,000, Monguls 300,000, colonists, including Moldavians, French, Germans, &c. 800,000. About one-ninth of the people live in towns. (Hassel, p. 223; Crome, p. 61.) The army, in 1815, amounted to 621,155; the navy to 32 ships of the line, and 18 frigates; the revenue is about L. 25,000,000 Sterling. The public debt at the end of the war was about 600,000,000 rubles; the greater part, however, paper money. (Crome, 78, 80; Hassel, 226.) Of all the powers of Europe, Russia is the only one that, during the numerous changes of the last thirty years, has never lost any part of her territories; but has been continually adding to them. Her acquisitions since 1770 are as follows:

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Population.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1772, First partition of Poland,</td> <td>33,000</td> <td>1,226,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1793, Second do.</td> <td>90,000</td> <td>3,745,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1795, Third do.</td> <td>42,000</td> <td>1,407,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1774 to 1791, From the Porte,</td> <td>60,000</td> <td>204,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1807, District of Bialystock, from Prussia,</td> <td>4,200</td> <td>183,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1809, District of Tarnopol, ceded by Austria, containing 400,000 inhabitants, but restored in 1815.</td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1809, Finland and Lapmark from Sweden,</td> <td>120,000</td> <td>895,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1811, Part of Moldavia and Bessarabia from the Porte,</td> <td>13,000</td> <td>230,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1814, Duchy of Warsaw, + now the kingdom of Poland,</td> <td>47,400</td> <td>2,793,000</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Total acquisitions of Russia since 1770 in Europe,</th> <th>409,600</th> <th>10,683,000</th> </tr> </table>

* Storch, Tableau, I. 4 ; II. 209, 229, 231 ; Crome, Uebersicht, 55. † Under the French rule, the Duchy of Warsaw included Posen, and part of the district of Netz, making Sweden.

Sweden has sunk in her relative importance in consequence of the rise of Russia, but she still holds a higher place in the scale of power than any other European state with an equal population. Now that Norway is united to her dominions, she has the best military and commercial position of all the northern continental powers. But the soil is poor and rocky, so that, though her territories form one-tenth of the surface of Europe, her population amounts to less than one-fiftieth. Her principal wealth consists in her rich mines of iron and copper, and in the produce of her forests, and her fisheries.

The agricultural produce of Sweden, which does not suffice for her own consumption, consists chiefly of rye, oats, barley, and potatoes; the soil and climate not admitting of wheat, except in the southern parts. Gothland, the most fertile province, contains one-half of the population upon less than one-fifth of the surface of the kingdom. The soil actually in cultivation in Sweden in 1810 amounted only to 1,091,000 tunnas, or 1,363,838 acres; but the soil capable of cultivation was estimated at 1,818,450 acres, or one sixty-second part of the surface of the country. This is the average of the whole; but in the province of Norland only 1 acre in 915 is arable. The lakes cover one eighteenth part. The pasture ground and gardens occupy about twice the quantity of land under corn. The average size of a farm is only about 27 acres. The whole annual produce of grain is estimated at 5,702,835 spans, equal to about 1,482,500 quarters, besides 350,000 quarters of potatoes. The general produce of the crops is about 5 for 1. In Norway, the land in cultivation amounts to less than 1 acre in 100, and one-fourth of the grain used is imported. Potatoes are extensively cultivated. In times of scarcity bread is made of the bark of trees, and of the Iceland moss, on which the Reindeer feed. There were in Sweden, in 1810, about 403,700 horses, 1,475,700 black cattle of all kinds, and 1,212,700 sheep. The quantity of bar-iron manufactured in Sweden, in 1809, was 1,293,400 hundred weight, or 61,467 tons. This article forms seven-eighths of the whole Swedish exports. The annual produce of copper is 7546 skippund, or about 1000 tons ; of lead, 14 tons ; silver, 2730 marks ; of gold, 10 marks. The mines employ about 50,000 persons. Of 21 counties, the 13 which abound most in forests contain 103,000 square English miles of woodland, while the annual consumption for all purposes in Sweden is computed to require only 2600 square miles. Sweden exports wood to the value of 900,000 dollars, and Norway to the value of 5,000,000 dollars yearly. (Crome, 98, 102, 119. Thomson's Travels, 392—431.)

The manufactures of Sweden are of little importance. Sixty or seventy ships are built annually and sold to foreigners. The distillation of brandy consumes 700,000 spans of corn a-year. The manufactures of paper and glass and works in metal supply the internal consumption; those of cotton, wool, and silk, are of small extent. The whole produce of manufactures in Sweden (exclusive of Norway), in 1814, was valued, in an official statement, at 5,622,129 dollars banco, or about L. 800,000. (Crome, 123.)

The exports of Sweden, in 1816, were estimated at seven millions of dollars, (exclusive of Norway), and the imports at no less than twenty millions. The supposed national loss arising from this disproportion, led to a prohibition of the importation of wine, rum, cotton stuffs, and other articles considered as luxuries. In 1816, Sweden had 1107 merchant ships, amounting to more than 64,000 lasts, or 120,000 tons of tonnage. (Crome, 122, 125.)

The population of Sweden was estimated at 2,615,800 in 1818; that of Norway, in 1863, was 910,000, and from the probable rate of increase there, may now amount to nearly one million. In Sweden about one-ninth and in Norway about one-twelfth of the people live in towns. This increase in numbers has been attended with an improvement in the condition of the inhabitants. The annual mortality in Sweden, which Malthus, in 1796, estimated at 1 in 37, was, in 1811, according to Akrell, 1 in 40 for the southern parts, 1 in 47 for the northern, and 1 in 43 for the whole kingdom. In Norway the mortality has always been smaller than in any other European country. In 1815 the nobles amounted to 1641 families, or 9525 persons, the clergy, including their families, to 15,202, the burghers to 64,755, and the peasants to 1,763,897. Besides these classes, who are represented in the diet, there are about 500,000 persons not represented, consisting of civil and military officers, miners, mechanics, servants, &c. 153,797, or about one-fourth of the peasants who are householders, farm their own lands. The established religion is Lutheran, and the number of parochial clergymen in Sweden is 1094, besides 170 prebends, 11 bishops, and 1 archbishop; and the tithes amount to 283,232 spans, or about 72,500 quarters of corn. Norway has 467 clergymen, including 5 bishops. (Crome, 96, 116. Thomson's Travels, 418.)

Subsequent to the revolution in 1809, some improvements have been made in the constitution, by enlarging the powers of the diet. The four estates of nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants, who sit in separate houses, meet necessarily at the end of five years, or oftener if convoked by the king. The consent of three of these houses, with that of the king, gives a proposition the force of law. No taxes can be raised without the authority of the diet, and the persons of the members are inviolable during the session. The conscription, which was introduced in 1809, subjects all males between 20 and 25 to military service; and the nobles have been deprived of the exemption they formerly enjoyed from this service and from taxes. The press is declared by the constitution to be free, but is in fact under the control of the police. The revenue of Sweden and Norway

its extent 65,000 square miles, and its population 3,800,000. The total acquisitions of Russia in Poland amount to about four-fifths of the country, and three-fourths of the population. (Hassel, Allg. Europ. Staats, Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog. et Atlas; Storch, Tableau.) is about L. 1,500,000. The debt of Sweden, in 1816, was 10,209,611 dollars banco, or about L. 1,480,000, and Norway also owes a considerable sum. The army for both countries, in 1817, consisted of 53,560 men: the navy about 29 ships of the line, and 16 frigates. (Crome, p. 131-137. James's Travels, I. 281.)

The acquisitions and losses of Sweden, since 1789, may be stated thus:

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1809. Lost Finland and Lapmark, conquered by Russia,</td> <td>120,000</td> <td>895,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Pomerania,</td> <td>1,480</td> <td>120,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>121,480</td> <td>1,015,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1813. Acquired Norway by cession from Denmark,</td> <td>148,000</td> <td>950,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Absolute gain of territory and loss of population,</td> <td>26,520</td> <td>65,000</td> </tr> </table>

SPAIN.

The vast natural resources of this country present a striking contrast with its political imbecility. It is nearly as large as France, but contains little more than a third of the population, though its fertile soil and delicious climate yield in abundance the productions both of the temperate and warm regions of the globe. With its great extent of sea-coast, numerous rivers, and excellent position for trade, and its rich and extensive colonies, nothing but extreme misgovernment could have prevented it from becoming the first commercial state in the world.

In addition to silk, tobacco, vines, olives, and all the agricultural productions of France and Germany, Spain produces the orange, citron, sugar-cane, cork tree, dates, figs, and cotton. Wheat is the grain most extensively cultivated. Barley and rye are next in quantity. Very few oats or potatoes are raised, but considerable quantities of maize and rice. Hemp to the value of a million of piastres is raised yearly; and flax is cultivated on a smaller scale. The vineyards, besides supplying the internal consumption, furnish 3,000,000 or 4,000,000, or, according to other accounts, 10,000,000 or 11,000,000 gallons of wine for exportation, and half as much brandy. Olive oil is exported to the value of L.600,000 a-year. The annual produce of raw silk is valued at L.300,000. Bat wool is the produce for which Spain is most celebrated. The number of merinos or migratory sheep, which furnish the finest wool, is estimated at 5,000,000; those that are stationary at 8,000,000; and these 13,000,000 of sheep are supposed to afford yearly 45,000,000 of pounds of wool. The right of pasture which the migratory flocks have over whole provinces, is one great obstacle to agricultural improvement. From this and other causes, one-third or one-half of the kingdom is left entirely waste, and the part in cultivation is wretchedly managed. Nearly the whole land in the kingdom is locked up by entails in the hands of the nobles and the clergy, and the small portions brought into the market sell so high as not to afford more than one and a half per cent. upon their price. Agriculture is entirely in the hands of the peasantry, who are poor and ignorant; men of capital never engage in it; and the grandees, who should support and encourage improvements, all reside in the large towns. In the whole of Spain, there is scarcely to be seen a villa or gentleman's seat, except a few that are in ruins. The mines of Spain, like her agriculture, are neglected; but she still derives from her own soil a considerable supply of iron, copper, lead, and mercury. About 5,000,000 centners of salt are annually obtained from mines, springs, or the sea.*

The greatest number of the Spanish manufactures are in Catalonia, but a few are scattered through the other provinces. The most considerable are the woollen, silk, linen, cotton, hemp, leather, paper, and metal, but none of them are sufficient for the internal consumption of the country, and all of them are fettered by vexatious taxes, absurd regulations, and the difficulty of intercourse between the provinces. The manufacture of tobacco is a royal monopoly. (Laborde, IV. 320.)

We have no accurate accounts of the commerce of Spain for a recent period. The exports in 1788 were L.6,951,000, of which rather more than the half went to America. (Laborde, IV. 410.) In 1802, the exports were estimated by Malte-Brun* at 240,000,000 francs, or nearly L.10,000,000 Sterling. (Mentelle et Malte-Brun, Geog. II. 31.)

It is now pretty well ascertained, that the apparent decline of Spain has been the consequence of the rapid progress of her neighbours; and that, down to the end of the eighteenth century, she was advancing both in industry and population. From a combination of circumstances, the causes which check the progress of society have operated more powerfully there than in any other country of Europe except Turkey. Among the greatest evils in the state of the country may be reckoned the excessive number of the nobility and clergy, with their oppressive privileges, and their pernicious influence upon the other classes. In 1788, when the population amounted to 10,500,000, the number of the secular and regular clergy was 147,722, of the nobles 478,716, of peasants and labourers 1,847,010, of manufacturers and handicrafts 302,000, servants 276,090, merchants 34,030. The Spanish army, in 1806, consisted of 153,840 men in Europe, and 129,059 in America; the navy consisted of 42 ships of the line, and 30 frigates. In 1804, the revenue, according to Humboldt, was 43,000,000 piastres, or L.9,150,000. In the Budget for 1818, it is estimated at L.8,248,000, and the expenditure at L.9,611,000. The debt in 1809 was stated to amount to L. 43,100,000, and in 1817 to L.127,852,000.†

GERMANY.

In the early part of the eighteenth century, Germany consisted of about 300 Sovereign States, great and small, which were united into one empire by

* Laborde's View, I. 102, 116, IV. 51, 83. Crome, 271-276. † Laborde, IV. 25; Hassel, Allg. Europ. Staats, 313; Crome, 295; Humboldt's New Spain, IV. 240. EUROPE

English Miles.

Published May 1820 by A. Constable & Co. Edinburgh. Engraved by S. Hall. Map by R. Blaikie. a very complicated constitution. From time to time some of the smaller principalities have been suppressed and incorporated with the larger states; but the first radical change in the composition of the Germanic body was made by the treaty of Luneville, 9th February 1801, when a vast number of bishoprics, abbeys, and free towns, were deprived of their rights of sovereignty, and given as indemnities to princes who had lost their possessions in Belgium and Italy by the French conquests. In 1806, the Emperor Francis formally renounced the dignity of head of the empire; the ancient constitution of the empire was dissolved, and a new league formed with France at its head (see CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE), comprehending the most considerable states in the south, to which those in the north were afterwards added. This confederation fell to pieces on the overthrow of the French power in 1813, but it has served as the foundation of the new constitution of the Germanic body. The number of states is now reduced to 39, including Austria, Prussia, Denmark, and the Netherlands; but these four powers rank as members only for a part of their dominions. The ecclesiastical principalities are entirely abolished; and the free towns, of which there were 47 or more in 1800 (Hoeck's Tables), are now reduced to four. The princes who have lost their sovereignty have been reduced to the rank of nobles, and no longer holding immediately of the empire, are said to be mediatised. The titles of royalty conferred by Bonaparte upon Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Saxony, have been confirmed, and Hanover has since been raised to the same rank. The common concerns of this confederacy are managed by a diet, consisting of deputies from thirty-eight states (Hesse Homberg having no vote), who meet at Frankfort. The pecuniary contributions, fixed in proportion to the population of each state, are voted for a period of five years. The military contingents, which are regulated on the same principle, amount to 120,000 men in time of peace, and 301,000 in time of war, the latter being at the rate of 1 in the 100 of the population. The German states, including 2/5ths of Austria, 2/5ths of Prussia, besides Holstein and Luxemburgh, embrace an era of about 237,000 English square miles, with 30,095,050 inhabitants; of whom about 15,500,000 are Catholics; 12,000,000 Lutherans; 2,100,000 Reformed; 25,000 Moravians; 14,000 Greeks; and 182,000 Jews. The new Germanic constitution, though less complicated than the old, can scarcely be expected to produce any of the effects of a solid union in such a heterogeneous mass. The states are too unequal in strength to have a proper reciprocal influence, and there is not weight enough in the minor members to control the rival interests and jealousies of Austria and Prussia. The confederation may be considered as recognizing, and in some degree regulating, the influence which the greatest states must necessarily exercise indirectly over the smaller. (Hassel, I. 17. Public Journals.)

The following Table exhibits the result of the various changes since the commencement of the French Revolution, upon the principal members of the Confederation; but to enter into particulars would carry us beyond the proper limits of this article. Most of them (except Saxony) have been enriched by the breaking up of the ecclesiastical principalities.

<table> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Before the Revolution.</th> <th colspan="2">In 1816.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Population.</th> <th>Square Miles.</th> <th>Population.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Bavaria,</td> <td>22,000</td> <td>2,183,000</td> <td>30,000</td> <td>3,560,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxony,</td> <td>14,500</td> <td>1,041,000</td> <td>7,200</td> <td>1,200,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hanover,</td> <td>10,900</td> <td>787,000</td> <td>14,400</td> <td>1,305,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Wirtemberg,</td> <td>3,200</td> <td>605,000</td> <td>8,200</td> <td>1,395,463</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Baden,</td> <td>1,370</td> <td>177,000</td> <td>5,800</td> <td>1,001,700</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hesse Cassel,</td> <td>3,340</td> <td>443,500</td> <td>4,300</td> <td>540,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hesse Darmstadt,</td> <td>2,180</td> <td>243,700</td> <td>4,100</td> <td>619,500</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Oidenburgh,</td> <td>960</td> <td>95,000</td> <td>2,500</td> <td>217,000</td> </tr> </table>

(Hoeck, Apercu.—Hassel, Europ. Staats, 1816.)

Since the Congress of Vienna, many political changes of much importance have taken place in Germany; and, from the state of the public mind, it is evident that many more are in progress; but it does not belong to the objects of the present article to enter upon these subjects.

The most important details regarding the smaller States will be found in the subjoined Table, which exhibits a view of the extent, population, revenue, military force, and religion, of all the sovereign states of Europe.

With respect to the authorities for this Table we may mention generally, that the extent assigned to Russia was ascertained, by measurement, on Arrowsmith's Map, and the other numerical statements respecting that country are taken from Hassel and Crome. All those relating to Austria are taken from Lichtenstern; those relating to Prussia from Demian and Hassel; those relating to France from Chaptal, Hassel, and Public Journals; those relating to Britain from Colquhoun, Sinclair, and Parliamentary documents, except the amount of the population, which is calculated on the basis of the returns in 1801 and 1811. Most of the others are from Hassel and Crome; except the statements of the population and military force of the small German States (No. 23), which are taken from a paper published by the Diet in 1818, fixing the military contingents of each state. These contingents are for a period of war, whereas the numbers given in the preceding part of the table represent the military peace establishments of the respective states. But as most of the German States keep up a greater number of troops than required by the act of the Diet, the numbers given in the table will not actually exceed the military force of these states in time of peace.

(E. B. B.) <table> <tr> <th>STATES.</th> <th>Extent in English Square Miles.</th> <th>Population.</th> <th>Inhabit. to each Sq. Mile.</th> <th>Revenue in Pounds Sterling.</th> <th>Military Force.</th> <th>Religion.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Europe,</td> <td>3,431,953</td> <td>184,060,500</td> <td>54</td> <td>182,868,550</td> <td>1,715,794</td> <td rowspan="2">In the whole empire. 34,000,000 Greek Church. 5,300,000 Catholics. 2,500,000 Lutherans. 33,000 Reformed. 70,000 Armenians. 1,800,000 Mahometans. 210,000 Jews. 800,000 Lama worshipers. 25,633,000 Catholics. 2,300,000 Reformed. 1,100,000 Lutherans. 60,000 Jews.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1 Russia in Europe, (Asiatic Russia, 5,820,000 sq. miles, with 8,376,000 of inhab.)</td> <td>1,640,000</td> <td>34,400,000</td> <td>21</td> <td>25,000,000</td> <td>450,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom of Poland,</td> <td>47,400</td> <td>2,793,000</td> <td>59</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>2 France with Corsica,</td> <td>204,000</td> <td>29,327,000 (1817)</td> <td>143</td> <td>37,568,000 (1819)</td> <td>140,000</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>3 Austria. Austria Proper, 4,457,692 Bohemia, 3,236,140 Moravia and Silesia, 1,733,319 Galicia, 3,716,692 Hungary, 10,974,743 Lombardy, 4,089,294</td> <td>258,000</td> <td>28,207,880</td> <td>109</td> <td>22,000,000</td> <td>290,000</td> <td>21,631,000 Catholics. 3,421,000 Greek Church. 1,364,000 Reformed. 1,332,000 Lutherans. Besides Jews, Turks, Armenians, Mennonites, &c.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>4 Britain. England (1811), 10,180,615 Scotland, 1,805,688 Ireland, 4,500,000 Army and Navy, 640,000</td> <td>118,000</td> <td>18,740,000 (1819)</td> <td>158</td> <td>55,741,000 (1818)</td> <td>104,369</td> <td>Episcopalians. Catholics. Presbyterians. Methodists. Baptists, Quakers, &c. 6,242,000 Lutherans. 3,500,000 Catholics. 250,000 Reformed. 75,000 Jews.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>5 Prussia,</td> <td>105,800</td> <td>10,815,000 (1815)</td> <td>97</td> <td>7,000,000</td> <td>175,000</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>6 Spain,</td> <td>190,000</td> <td>10,500,000</td> <td>55</td> <td>6,000,000</td> <td>117,000</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>7 Turkey in Europe, (In Asia and Africa, 14,590,000)</td> <td>197,000</td> <td>6,700,000</td> <td>34</td> <td>3,000,000</td> <td>110,000</td> <td>Mahometans. Greek Christians. Armenians, &c.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8 Naples. Naples Proper, 4,963,502 Sicily, 1,655,536</td> <td>43,500</td> <td>6,619,036 (1815)</td> <td>152</td> <td>2,400,000</td> <td>24,000</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>9 Netherlands. Dutch provinces, 2,016,159 Belgie ditto, 3,249,841</td> <td>24,800</td> <td>5,266,000 (1818)</td> <td>212</td> <td>6,728,000</td> <td>40,000</td> <td>In Dutch provinces chiefly Reformed. In Belgian chiefly Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>10 Sardinia,</td> <td>27,200</td> <td>3,974,000</td> <td>147</td> <td>2,200,000</td> <td>15,000</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>11 Portugal,</td> <td>41,000</td> <td>3,683,000</td> <td>90</td> <td>2,500,000</td> <td>16,000</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>12 Sweden and Norway,</td> <td>340,000</td> <td>3,600,000</td> <td>10</td> <td>1,500,000</td> <td>53,560</td> <td>Lutherans, with a few Reformed, Jews, &c.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>13 States of the Church,</td> <td>16,200</td> <td>2,425,000</td> <td>149</td> <td>930,000</td> <td>2,000</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>14 Switzerland—22 Cantons,</td> <td>19,000</td> <td>1,745,750</td> <td>91</td> <td>430,000</td> <td>15,000</td> <td>Reformed. Catholic. Chiefly Lutheran. A few Reformed.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>15 Denmark, Iceland and Feroe,</td> <td>21,000 30,000</td> <td>1,205,110 53,300</td> <td>57 1 1/2</td> <td>1,120,000</td> <td>28,000</td> <td>Ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>16 Tuscany, Grand Duchy,</td> <td>8,400</td> <td>1,195,000</td> <td>142</td> <td>500,000</td> <td>6,000</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>17 Modena, Duchy,</td> <td>2,050</td> <td>396,000</td> <td>193</td> <td>120,000</td> <td>2,400</td> <td>Ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>18 Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, Duchy,</td> <td>2,260</td> <td>376,500</td> <td>166</td> <td>150,000</td> <td>2,400</td> <td>Ditto.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>19 Ionian Islands, Republic,</td> <td>980</td> <td>230,000</td> <td>234</td> <td>96,550</td> <td>4,000</td> <td>Greek Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>20 Lucca, Duchy,</td> <td>430</td> <td>124,000</td> <td>288</td> <td>65,000</td> <td>800</td> <td>Catholic. Lutherans. Jews.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>21 Cracow, Free Town,</td> <td>406</td> <td>61,000</td> <td>—</td> <td>20,000</td> <td>—</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>22 St Marino, Republic,</td> <td>42</td> <td>6,000</td> <td>—</td> <td>5,000</td> <td>—</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th>STATES.</th> <th>Extent in English Square Miles.</th> <th>Population.</th> <th>Inhabit. to the Sq. Mile.</th> <th>Revenue in Pounds Sterling.</th> <th>Military Force.</th> <th>Religion.</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">23. German States, exclusive of Austria, Prussia, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Kingdoms.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1. Bavaria,</td> <td>30,000</td> <td>3,560,000</td> <td>118</td> <td>1,900,000</td> <td>35,600</td> <td>Majority Catholics. 780,000 Lutherans. 5,000 Reformed. 16,000 Jews.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2 Wirtemberg,</td> <td>8,200</td> <td>1,395,463</td> <td>170</td> <td>1,000,000</td> <td>13,955</td> <td>Chiefly Lutherans. Some Catholics. Majority Lutherans. 152,000 Catholics. 38,000 Reformed. Chiefly Lutherans.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3. Hanover,</td> <td>14,400</td> <td>1,305,000</td> <td>90</td> <td>950,000</td> <td>13,050</td> <td>Chiefly Lutherans. A few Catholics. Royal Family Catholic. 620,000 Catholics. 305,000 Lutherans. 61,000 Reformed. 15,000 Jews. Prince's family Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>4. Saxony,</td> <td>7,200</td> <td>1,200,000</td> <td>169</td> <td>900,000</td> <td>12,000</td> <td>4th Lutherans. Catholics. Reformed. 324,870 Reformed. 143,800 Lutherans. 72,800 Catholics. 8,300 Jews. Chiefly Lutheran. Lutheran. Catholic, Reformed, pretty equally. Chiefly Lutheran. 205,262 Lutherans. 2,072 Catholics. 1,046 Reformed. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>5. Baden,</td> <td>5,800</td> <td>1,001,700</td> <td>169</td> <td>550,000</td> <td>10,000</td> <td>do. do. do. do. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>6. Hesse Darmstadt,</td> <td>4,100</td> <td>619,500</td> <td>151</td> <td>369,000</td> <td>6,195</td> <td>Reformed.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>7. Hesse Cassel,</td> <td>4,300</td> <td>540,000</td> <td>125</td> <td>380,000</td> <td>5,400</td> <td>Reformed.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8. Mecklenburg, Schwerin,</td> <td>4,800</td> <td>358,000</td> <td>75</td> <td>175,000</td> <td>3,580</td> <td>Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>9. Nassau,</td> <td>2,200</td> <td>302,767</td> <td>137</td> <td>176,000</td> <td>3,028</td> <td>Catholic, Reformed, pretty equally.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>10. Oldenburg,</td> <td>2,500</td> <td>217,769</td> <td>85</td> <td>126,000</td> <td>2,178</td> <td>Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>11. Brunswick,</td> <td>1,540</td> <td>209,600</td> <td>137</td> <td>167,000</td> <td>2,096</td> <td>205,262 Lutherans. 2,072 Catholics. 1,046 Reformed. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>12. Saxe Weimar,</td> <td>1,430</td> <td>201,000</td> <td>140</td> <td>150,000</td> <td>2,010</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>13. Saxe Gotha,</td> <td>1,170</td> <td>185,682</td> <td>159</td> <td>150,000</td> <td>1,875</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>14. Saxe Coburg,</td> <td>580</td> <td>80,012</td> <td>145</td> <td>52,500</td> <td>800</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>15. Mecklenburg Strelitz,</td> <td>875</td> <td>71,769</td> <td>82</td> <td>70,000</td> <td>718</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>16. Lippe Ditmold,</td> <td>510</td> <td>69,062</td> <td>135</td> <td>46,500</td> <td>691</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>17. Saxe Meiningen,</td> <td>385</td> <td>54,400</td> <td>141</td> <td>35,000</td> <td>544</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>18. Schwartzburg Rudolstadt,</td> <td>365</td> <td>54,647</td> <td>145</td> <td>22,000</td> <td>529</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>19. Anhalt Dessau,</td> <td>470</td> <td>53,937</td> <td>115</td> <td>51,000</td> <td>539</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Catholic. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>20. Reuss, younger branch,</td> <td>430</td> <td>52,205</td> <td>121</td> <td>42,000</td> <td>522</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>21. Waldeck,</td> <td>450</td> <td>51,877</td> <td>115</td> <td>48,000</td> <td>519</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>22. Schwartzburg Sondershausen,</td> <td>490</td> <td>45,117</td> <td>90</td> <td>27,500</td> <td>451</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>23. Anhalt Bernburg,</td> <td>345</td> <td>37,046</td> <td>107</td> <td>39,000</td> <td>370</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Catholic. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>24. Hohenzollern Sigmarigen,</td> <td>428</td> <td>35,360</td> <td>82</td> <td>24,000</td> <td>353</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>25. Anhalt Kothen,</td> <td>320</td> <td>32,454</td> <td>101</td> <td>23,000</td> <td>325</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>26. Saxe Hilburgauzen,</td> <td>235</td> <td>29,706</td> <td>126</td> <td>15,000</td> <td>297</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>27. Lippe Schaumburg,</td> <td>214</td> <td>24,000</td> <td>112</td> <td>21,500</td> <td>240</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>28. Reuss, elder branch,</td> <td>150</td> <td>22,255</td> <td>148</td> <td>13,000</td> <td>923</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran. Reformed. Lutheran. Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>29. Hesse Homberg,</td> <td>—</td> <td>20,000</td> <td>—</td> <td>17,000</td> <td>200</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>30. Hohenzollern Hehingen,</td> <td>107</td> <td>14,500</td> <td>135</td> <td>8,000</td> <td>145</td> <td>Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>31. Lichtenstein,</td> <td>54</td> <td>5,546</td> <td>103</td> <td>5,000</td> <td>55</td> <td>Catholic.</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">Free Towns.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>32. Hamburg,</td> <td>134</td> <td>129,800</td> <td>—</td> <td>100,000</td> <td>1298</td> <td>Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>33. Bremen,</td> <td>75</td> <td>48,500</td> <td>—</td> <td>40,000</td> <td>485</td> <td>Reformed. Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>34. Frankfort,</td> <td>107</td> <td>47,850</td> <td>—</td> <td>62,500</td> <td>479</td> <td>Chiefly Lutheran.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>35. Luebeck,</td> <td>118</td> <td>40,650</td> <td>—</td> <td>37,500</td> <td>407</td> <td>do.</td> </tr> </table>