When the Encyclopædia was published, this great portion of Europe was involved in the confusion created by the French Revolution; its general boundaries, as well as those of each particular state, were undefined; its policy, laws, and systems of government depended on the persons who ruled in France; and neither its forces, revenues, or constitutions, could be considered as other than ephemeral.

The general peace that now prevails has at length rendered the limits of each state certain. The contingents of troops which each is to furnish, and the degree of weight each is to have in the assembly that is to unite them into one political body, depending on the amount of the population, a census has almost universally been taken, of the accuracy of which there seems no reason to doubt.

Within the limits of Germany are portions of kingdoms, parts of whose territory are not within the sphere of the confederation; thus Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands, and Denmark, have parts only of Germany within their dominions, and, therefore, will here receive such notice as is merely necessary to give a view of the whole of Germany. Austria and Denmark have already been noticed in this Supplement, and the kingdoms of the Netherlands and of Prussia will occur in their alphabetical order.

The four kingdoms of Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Württemberg, are too important to be wholly included in a general article. Bavaria has been already treated of separately, and the other three will be noticed in their proper places.

According to its present boundaries, Germany extends from 45° to 54° 20' north latitude, and from 5° 43' to 20° 50' east longitude from London. It is bounded on the north by the German Ocean, by Denmark and the Baltic Sea; on the east, by West Prussia, Poland, Cracow, Gallicia, and Illyria; on the south, by the Adriatic Sea, Italy, and the Helvetic provinces; on the east, by France, and the kingdom of the Netherlands. Its whole extent, including rivers and lakes, is 248,832 square English miles.

The southern part of Germany is either covered or penetrated with steep mountains, one part of which extends from the Alps and the other from the Carpathian hills. These mountains gradually lose themselves in advancing northward; and from the last of them, the Hartz, upon the confines of Hanover, begins that vast plain, which extends over the north of Germany, through Prussia, and Poland, and a considerable part of Russia. This plain was probably covered by the water long after the more southern parts had emerged from the ocean, the evidences of which are apparent in the turf moors of the sandy districts, where expensive embankments and dikes are necessary to preserve the land from inundation.

The soil is generally productive. The plains in the north have indeed much arid sandy land, but Germany, nature has provided along the borders of the rivers some rich and fruitful soils, where the most abundant harvests are gathered. The south has also on its mountains much barren or slightly productive land; but the beautiful valleys and small plains between the hills rival in fertility the best alluvial lands on the banks of the northern rivers. In general, the soil in the north is heavy, and in the south light, the former most adapted for corn, and the latter for vines. The best soil is in the middle between the mountains and the sandy plains. In Bohemia, Silesia, Franconia, Saxony, and on the Rhine, the proportion of good soil is very much greater than in the north or the south.

Some of the loftiest mountains of Germany are Mountains, those springing from the great mass of the Alps, and divided into the Rhetian and the Noric; and several of the peaks of those reach the line of perpetual snow. The eastern branch of the Noric chain runs through the Austrian dominions, and loses one part of that chain in Silesia, whilst another enters Hungary. The other branch runs through Bavaria and Württemberg, to the west of the Black Forest; and is connected with the Odenwald, the Fichtelberge, and the mountains of Thuringia. It stretches to the Hartz, and the mountains through which the Weser forces its passage; soon after which it is lost. Several other chains branch from these greater ones; and some of their peaks attain a considerable elevation. The principal mountains, and their height above the level of the sea, are as follows: but, in their progress to the north, their gradual declension in height is remarkable:

<table> <tr> <th>Feet.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>The Ortel, in the Rhetian Alps,</td> <td>14,416</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Grossglockner, in the same,</td> <td>11,982</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Vichlbachhorn, in the Noric Alps,</td> <td>10,826</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Terklon, in the Carnic Alps,</td> <td>9,744</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Hochvogel, in the Alguer Alps,</td> <td>9,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Grosenberg, in the Styrian Alps,</td> <td>8,380</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Eisenhuth, in the Julian Alps,</td> <td>7,680</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Schneeberg (near Vienna), in the Noric Alps,</td> <td>6,858</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Olischer, in the Noric Alps,</td> <td>6,062</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Traunstein, in the same,</td> <td>5,365</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Schneckuppe, in the Reisenberg,</td> <td>4,950</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Feldberg, in the Schwartzen wald,</td> <td>4,610</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Rachel, in the Bohemian forest,</td> <td>4,282</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Speiglitzer, in the Macher mountains,</td> <td>4,280</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Fichtelberg, in the Erzebirge,</td> <td>3,731</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Dammersfeld, in the same,</td> <td>3,640</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Schneeburg, in the Fichtelgebirge,</td> <td>3,621</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Brocken, in the Hartz,</td> <td>3,489</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Hohe-Eule, in the Glatzgebirge,</td> <td>3,326</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Beerberg, in Thuringia,</td> <td>2,985</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Inselberg, in the same,</td> <td>2,791</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Feldberg, in the Taunus,</td> <td>2,605</td> </tr> <tr> <td>The Meissner, in the Warrageberge,</td> <td>2,180</td> </tr> </table> The Muggelsberg (the highest in Brandenburg), 340 The Rekuhl (the highest in Pomerania), 280

The mountains are generally covered with forests; to the southward, where they are the most lofty, with pines; and to the northward, with various deciduous trees. If, at the present day, the Terra sylvia horrida of Tacitus cannot be found in Germany, it is still the most abundantly wooded territory in Europe.

Germany has seven large rivers which pass through it to the sea; and, in their passage, receive the various smaller streams which issue from the mountains, and spread fertility over this well watered country. The Danube rises in the Dukedom of Baden, becomes navigable for small craft at Ulm, receives the large rivers Loch, Iser, Inn, Ens, and March; and, after a course of 430 miles, exclusive of its curvatures, waters Hungary in its way to the Black Sea. The Rhine, rising in Switzerland, and navigable from its entrance into Germany, has a course, exclusive of its windings, of 460 miles, before it enters the kingdom of the Netherlands. In its progress, it receives the navigable rivers Neckar, Lahn, Moselle, the Saar, the Roer, and the Lippe.

The Weser rises in middle Germany, from two springs which form the Fulda and the Werra, and at their junction takes the name which it carries to the ocean, and under which name it runs, without noticing its bendings, 190 miles. It becomes navigable at Minden for boats, and at Vegesach, near Bremen, for ships. The Elbe, like the Weser, from its rise to its junction with the ocean, is wholly a German river. It becomes navigable near its source, runs a course of 520 miles, and is the most considerable channel of commerce with foreign countries, through the ports of Hamburg and Altona. It receives the navigable rivers Moldau, Eger, Saale, Havel, Spree, Ilmenau, and Steckinitz, besides fifty smaller streams. The Oder becomes navigable for boats at Ratisbon, and running in the Prussian part of Germany, a course of 380 miles, empties itself into the Baltic Sea in Pomerania. It receives the rivers Bober, Neisse, and Warthe, besides many smaller streams. The Eloch is the only German river that runs to the Adriatic Sea. It passes through the Tyrol, and only becomes navigable after it has entered Italy. The Ems is a river of short course, rising in Prussia, and passing through Hanover, whence it becomes navigable, and soon enters the sea near the city of Emden in two branches.

The forming a junction between these great rivers, by means of canals, is an object of vast importance, and some progress towards effecting it has been made. The Holstein canal unites the German Ocean with the Baltic Sea from the river Eider. The Plauen canal unites the Havel with the Elbe, or rather facilitates and shortens the passage. The Finnov canal forms a communication between the Havel and the Oder. The Fredrick Williams canal unites the Spree and the Oder. The Pappenburg canal is designed to unite the Ems with the Elbe.

Lastly, the Vienna canal, of which but a small portion is yet completed, will, when finished, form a communication between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea.

The whole of Germany being in the temperate climate zone, though, with the variations of elevation and the difference of latitude, it differs in climate, is generally very healthy. The most mild and beautiful are the middle provinces, between the 48th and 51st degree. In the south, under the influence of the Alps, the air is raw and cold, whilst in the plains and open valleys, the climate of the finest parts of Italy is enjoyed. The northern provinces are colder, damper, and more ungenial, and near the stagnant lakes unwholesome. The weather changes to great extremes, and the frost is frequently seen at a late period of the year. The inhabitants there too feel the effect of heavy fogs, and sometimes of tremendous storms. No volcanoes are now in existence, and though the remains of them are to be seen in many places, they are not supposed to have been in a state of activity since the Antediluvian ages. Earthquakes are scarcely felt, and have never been injuriously experienced, and the country is free from the mosquitos, which so much annoy the people of Italy. Vines, maize, and rice, grow as far north as latitude 51. Beyond that, they do not arrive to full perfection. The olive and the silk-worm are only raised on that small portion of Germany to the south of the 46th degree.

The original German horses are of a very inferior race, and the specimens of them, where they have not been improved by the mixture of other breeds, generally bad; but from this must be excepted those of Mecklenburg, East Friesland, Holstein, and Luneburg, which, for draft or for heavy dragoons, are admirable races, and have been propagated over all Europe. Horses for pleasure, or for mounting light cavalry, must be brought from other countries, but the jennets, a light small breed, are good and quiet. Asses are not common even in the southern part of the country. Mules are to be seen in Hanover, near the Hartz forest, and in the Tyrolese portion of Germany they are the common beasts of burden.

The cows are of various breeds; but the hand-cows somest are those from East Friesland, Oldenburg, Holstein, and the other provinces on the borders of the German Ocean, though generally known under the name of East Frieslanders. The Hungarian breed prevails in many parts, but are esteemed more for the ease with which they are fattened than for the purposes of the dairy. A third sort of cows is the Swiss bred, which does not come wholly from the Alpine regions, but is furnished by Wirtemberg, and a part of Bavaria. The breed of Germany, originating from the mixture of these races, is well adapted for the dairy; but, either from want of appropriate qualities in the animals, or from the imperfect manner of fattening them, the oxen, when killed, are seldom more than 500 pounds weight, and the average of them considerably lighter. Some attempts are now making to improve the breed, by the introduction of the Tyrolese bulls; perhaps the most per- fect animal of the cow kind for meat and for draft, who, when crossed with the best milkers, produce the most complete cattle. The common practice in Germany, of killing the calves from ten to sixteen days old, produces very bad veal; but some of the beef, especially near the banks of the Elbe, is excellent.

The proper German sheep are a mixture of the original coarse-wooll'd race, crossed by a breed from Ardennes. In a part of Illyria, they have the sheep of Padua. The fine-woolled sheep of Spain have, however, been introduced by many of the Princes, and have been vastly extended, especially in Saxony, Silesia, and Brandenburg, and will probably, at no distant period, be the principal, if not the sole race. The badness of their flesh is of less consequence in Germany than in England; because, in the former country, it is not worth more than the annual clipping of the wool, which can be sent to richer countries, where they can afford to pay high prices for it; but the flesh must be consumed at home, and therefore sells for little.

Goats are common in all the States, but are only to be seen in large flocks in the more mountainous parts. Swine are the most important kind of live stock in Bavaria, Westphalia, Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania. They are of three different breeds; the long white bent in the back; the short white, or yellow, with the same kind of back; and the black, or yellow, of a short make; but these different breeds are becoming much mingled together.

The forests of Germany abound with untamed animals, which afford sport to its princes and nobles, and furnish a considerable quantity of aliment to the higher and middle classes of the people; as the noble sportsmen generally sell their prey, and are obliged to dispose of it cheap. Wild deer of various kinds, and wild swine, are very numerous in many parts of the country. With them, foxes are found in some districts in prodigious numbers. At a hunting on the estate of one nobleman in Bohemia, on three days of 1818, more than 12,000 head of game was killed; and, in Saxony, between 2000 and 3000 hares were shot in one day, and sold for about 1s. each. There are bears in the southern parts in Illyria, in the Steyermark, and the Tyrol, of the small black kind, more dangerous to the bee-hives, and the smaller animals, than to man. Wolves are few now, and only in the Trans-Rhenish provinces. In some of the mountains, the beaver is found, though now but rarely, and some other animals, principally valuable for their fur. The most annoying animal is the field-mouse, of a species called the hamster, which are found in thousands in Saxony, and do incredible injury to the productions. In the months between the 9th May and the 9th of September 1817, the corporation of the city of Gotha paid rewards for killing 89,565 of these mischievous animals.

Domesticated birds are very plentiful, but especially ducks and geese. The latter form an important portion of the food, on many of the farming establishments, especially in Pomerania, Bohemia, and the Steyermark; where most houses in the country cure from 50 to 100 for their winter consumption.

Wild birds are more numerous in Germany than in any other part of Europe. Wild geese, bustards, grouse, black-cocks, wood-cocks, wild-ducks, widgeons, teal, and snipes, are most abundant. Besides these, the smaller kinds of birds, as larks, thrushes, and sparrows, and the singing birds, especially bullfinches and canary birds, are plentiful. The latter are chiefly taken in the Hartz forest, and are circulated through all Europe.

The three seas that border on Germany abound with fish. Besides the kinds which are caught in the ocean, the Baltic Sea and the Adriatic furnish their peculiar species. Among those of the former is the Dersh and the Klipfish (Anarchichos), and the latter the Tunny, the Sardinia, and many others. The greater part of the fish consumed in Germany is, however, the produce of the rivers and lakes, which supply them in great abundance with eels, lampreys, trout, salmon, sturgeon, perch, pike, salmon-trout, barbel, carp, craw-fish, and many others. With these various kinds, the markets in the cities are most profusely supplied.

The rearing of bees in the north, and especially in Lusatia, is productive of much honey and wax, which form important articles, both for domestic use and foreign trade.

The great production of Germany, as of every other European country, is grain of various kinds. Wheat, rye, maize, rice, barley, oats, beans, peas, and buckwheat, are the most important of these. In the south, more wheat than rye is grown; but, in the north, the proportion of rye to wheat is eight to one. In the north, most oats are cultivated; in the south, more barley. Maize and rice are peculiar to the south; buck-wheat and peas are alike in every part.

The productions arising from garden culture are very great. Potatoes are sometimes cultivated with the spade, sometimes with the plough; but the increase of their growth has been very rapid of late years, and probably furnishes as much human aliment as grain. The cabbages of all the Brassica tribe receive much attention, and are raised in great quantities. Turnips are cultivated with little care merely as food for man, and are not extensively used for feeding cattle. The superior kinds of fruit are best in the middle and southern provinces; but, in the north, the apples, plums, and pears, are good and most abundant. The Pearmain apple, which has spread through all the countries of Europe from Germany, is found in the highest perfection in Stettin, Bostock, and the Tyrol. Chesnuts and almonds are almost exclusively grown in the southern parts towards Illyria and the Tyrol; and in the same vicinity the melons and other fruits, that in our climate and the north of Germany require artificial heat, are raised in the open air.

Vines were originally planted in Germany by the Romans. They are now cultivated successfully on the banks of the Rhine, the Maine, the Moselle, the Danube, the Mur, the Etsch, and the Save, where they produce wine as highly esteemed as any in Europe. The most valued of all the wines is that on the banks of the Rhine, known in England by the name of Old Hock, from the vineyards of Hockheim, where the best kind is made. The principal sorts, from the places of their growth, are denominated Johannisberg, Rüdesheim, Hockheim, Markobrunn, and Lieb-frauenmilch. The next in value are the wines of Maine, called Leisten wine, Stein wine, and Steyer wine. The wines from the Danube are next in estimation, and to them succeed those from the Tyrol and the banks of the Moselle. The other wines near the lake of Constance, and in Bohemia, are much inferior; and those produced near to Naumberg, Jena, and Meissen in Saxony, and to Zulichau in Silesia, are of very indifferent flavour, especially after a moist summer, and scarcely merit the name of wine, though, from their great abundance, they become very useful to the inhabitants.

Neither the quantity nor the quality of the oil produced from olives in Germany is material; it is confined to a small district of the south. Great quantities of rape and linseed oil are expressed, and for the more common purposes, the oil of herrings, seals, and other aquatic animals, is very abundant.

The staple production of Germany is flax, which is grown in almost every village, and is spun into yarn. The best is produced in Silesia, in Westphalia, in Hanover, in Brunswick, and in Bohemia; but even these kinds do not attain a length or fineness of fibre equal to the flax of Flanders. Hemp is raised in Baden, Wurttemberg, Westphalia, Hesse Darmstadt, and Luneburg, but scarcely produces sufficient for the consumption of the country. Tobacco has been long cultivated in Baden, on the Rhine, and near Magdeburg, and during the existence of the French continental system, had been extended very much; but the return of peace has checked its progress, and it will, in future, only be cultivated in those parts here mentioned, where, from long habit, it is become almost indigenous. Various roots have been cultivated for the production of sugar during the continuance of that system, but they now scarcely deserve notice, as they are nearly abandoned. Woad, saffron, anniseed, cumin-seed, hops, rhubarb, chamomile flowers, and Iceland-moss, are native and considerable productions. The forests of Germany, besides their abundant supply of fuel to the inhabitants, furnish much wood, both for building houses and ships; and if ever the water communication should be much extended, so as to bring the largest trees with facility to the shores of the ocean, they will become a most valuable source of wealth.

No part of Europe yields a greater variety or abundance of mineral productions, and in no part of the world are the mines worked with so much skill or so much economy. Precious stones are discovered in many parts; rock-crystal, amethysts, topazes, are found in Bavaria; calcedony, agate, petchstein, and porcelain-jasper, in Bohemia; barytes in many parts; marbles, gypsum, and alabaster, in Bohemia; alum near Toplitz; rock-salt and Glauber salts in various parts, and abundance of the earths calculated for making earthenware, from the coarsest description to the finest porcelain. Fossil coal is found in many districts, and much of it is consumed; but the cheapness of wood, and the prejudices of the people against the use of it in their houses, has operated to prevent the mines from being completely explored or worked to any thing approaching the extent of which they are capable. Gold is procured, though in small quantities, by washing, in Salzburg, in Bohemia, in the Rammelsberg, and in Silesia. Silver and cinnabar are raised from the mines of the Erzgebirge in Saxony. Iron, copper, tin, lead, calamine, bismuth, cobalt, nickel, titanium, arsenic, and almost every other mineral, is more or less raised from the mines. The abundance of mineral substances every where scattered, and which, it would be difficult to epitomise, have promoted the study of mineralogy, and given birth to the school of Freyburg, from whence, under the direction of Werner, the mineralogical knowledge of the earth has been widely extended.

The annual supply from the mines of Germany is as follows:

<table> <tr> <th>Gold</th> <th>1,456 ounces.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Silver</th> <th>984,000 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Copper</th> <th>39,000 hundreds.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Lead</th> <th>191,200 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Tin</th> <th>7,800 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Iron</th> <th>2,400,000 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Quicksilver</th> <th>6,180 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Cinnabar</th> <th>7,800 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Cobalt</th> <th>16,500 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Calamine</th> <th>82,800 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Arsenic</th> <th>10,600 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Antimony</th> <th>2,400 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Rock-salt</th> <th>5,150,000 do.</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Fossil coals</th> <th>20,000,000 do.</th> </tr> </table>

The population of Germany, given in this Volume, Population. p. 203, Art. Europe, approaches as near to accuracy as is almost ever found; and the very trifling differences between that and what is here furnished, arises from later lists having been obtained within a few months; and from the parts of the Austrian, Prussian, Danish, and Netherland dominions, that are connected with Germany by the general confederation, being combined with the other states.

Population and Extent of the States of the German Confederation.

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Square English Miles.</th> <th>Seats in the Assembly of the States.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Austria,</td> <td>9,496,853</td> <td>78,912</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Prussia,</td> <td>8,187,220</td> <td>70,549</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Bavaria,</td> <td>3,513,490</td> <td>30,997</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxony,</td> <td>1,206,034</td> <td>7,200</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hanover,</td> <td>1,314,124</td> <td>14,720</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Wurtemberg,</td> <td>1,397,451</td> <td>7,524</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Baden,</td> <td>1,001,630</td> <td>5,803</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Carry over.</th> <th>26,116,802</th> <th>215,705</th> <th>27</th> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Square English Miles.</th> <th>Seats in the Assembly of the States.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Brought over,</td> <td>26,116,802</td> <td>915,705</td> <td>27</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hesse-Cassel,</td> <td>545,208</td> <td>4,352</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hesse-Darmstadt,</td> <td>633,026</td> <td>4,117</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Holstein,</td> <td>359,985</td> <td>3,691</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Luxemburg,</td> <td>214,058</td> <td>2,847</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxe-Weimar,</td> <td>192,371</td> <td>1,408</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxe-Gotha,</td> <td>182,911</td> <td>1,152</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxe-Meiningen,</td> <td>56,269</td> <td>384</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxe-Hildburghausen,</td> <td>29,706</td> <td>213</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Saxe-Coburg,</td> <td>80,012</td> <td>471</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Brunswick,</td> <td>209,527</td> <td>1,514</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Mecklenburg Schwerin,</td> <td>351,908</td> <td>4,755</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Mecklenburg Strelitz,</td> <td>71,760</td> <td>768</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Oldenburg,</td> <td>225,349</td> <td>2,752</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Nassau,</td> <td>302,769</td> <td>2,164</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Anhalt Dessau,</td> <td>52,947</td> <td>363</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Anhalt Bernburg,</td> <td>37,046</td> <td>340</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Anhalt Kothen,</td> <td>32,454</td> <td>331</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schwartzenburg,</td> <td>45,120</td> <td>384</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sonderhausen,</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schwartzenburg,</td> <td>53,910</td> <td>448</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rudolstadt,</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hohenzollern,</td> <td>14,500</td> <td>117</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hochingen,</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hohenzollern,</td> <td>37,032</td> <td>426</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sigmaringen,</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Liechtenstein,</td> <td>5,546</td> <td>58</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Reuss, elder branch,</td> <td>29,255</td> <td>153</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Reuss, younger branch,</td> <td>52,205</td> <td>458</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Lippe-Detmold,</td> <td>69,062</td> <td>436</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schaunburg-Lippe,</td> <td>23,084</td> <td>213</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Waldeck,</td> <td>51,877</td> <td>459</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hesse Homburg,</td> <td>19,823</td> <td>138</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Frankfort,</td> <td>47,372</td> <td>113</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Lübeck,</td> <td>48,127</td> <td>122</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Bremen,</td> <td>46,270</td> <td>72</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hamburg,</td> <td>129,739</td> <td>134</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">30,355,069</td> <td>250,552</td> <td>70</td> </tr> </table>

The inhabitants are of two original races, the ancient Germans and the Sclavonians. The former are divided into High and Low Germans, speaking a language somewhat different, but possess great similarity in habits, characters, and dispositions. The Low German, or, as it is called, Platt Deutsche, prevails among all the people in Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Holstein, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania; but as the service in the churches, and the instruction in the schools, is in High German, all even of the peasantry understand that language, but prefer their own dialect. In the southern parts, where only High German is spoken, the peasantry use a patois that is scarcely more intelligible to those unaccustomed to it than the Platt Deutsche. The descendants of the Sclavonians reside all to the eastward of the Elbe. They retain their original language, with a great mixture of German words. They are far behind their neighbours in cultivation, but are an industrious and patient people. They form nearly one-sixth of the inhabitants. In the south are some few of Italian origin; and colonies of French, originally Protestant refugees, are established in many places, where they retain a connection with each other, founded upon privileges granted at the time of their emigration. The whole of these scarcely amount to more than 250,000. The Jews are 248,749 souls; of whom 83,077 are in Austria, 57,853 in Prussia, 22,000 in Bavaria, 8,319 in Wirtemberg, 8000 in Hanover, 8300 in Hesse Darmstadt, 15,079 in Hesse Cassel, 14,378 in Holstein, 16,000 in the free cities, and the remainder are scattered over all the other states.

By the terms of the Confederation, the three Christian sects, Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed, are on an equal footing in all the States of the Union, and the religious profession of the princes has very little influence on that of the subjects. The Catholics are the great majority in Austria, Bavaria, Baden, and Luxembourg, and form a numerous body in Prussia, in Wirtemberg, Hesse Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel, and Hanover: the whole number is 18,000,000 individuals. The Protestants of the two confessions have approached each other so nearly, as to form almost but one church; and, in many parts, they are amalgamated together. Their whole number is about 12,000,000. The smaller Christian sects, Mennonites, Hussites, Moravians, and a few of the Greek church, are not together more in number than the Jews, who were before stated at about 250,000.

The knowledge of the German people probably exceeds that of every other. They have men of eminence in every department of literature, and can enumerate those who have made discoveries or improvements in every branch of science. It is not, however, so much from the merits of their eminent men, great and useful as they have been, as from the general diffusion of knowledge, that the character of the nation must be estimated. Its literature is not the work of its princes and nobles, but arises from that general taste for reading and accumulating knowledge which so extensively prevails, and which descends lower in the scale of society than in any other country of the civilized world. Although, for two hundred years, literature has prevailed much in Germany, it was only about the middle of the last century, that, by the poets and critics, the language became polished, without diminishing its force, and was purified from many of those vulgarisms which disgusted the English, French, and Italian literati. The learned men had more sedulously studied the ancient languages of Greece and Rome, than the improvement of their own; but, in the middle of the last century, a race of authors appeared, with whom arose the commencement of the golden age of literature. Gotsched, Lessing, Adelung, and Campe, were among the first that imparted to their countrymen the knowledge of the powers and the beauty of their native tongue. Poetry soon lent its aid, and furthered what the prose writers had begun; it broke forth suddenly as from a dark cloud, and threw a radiance on almost every subject, that, in any age or country, the muse has ever attempted. With Haller, Gellert, and Hage- dorn, began that chain of poetic writers, which has continued to be extended to the present day. The poetical epistles of Michaelis, Ebert, Gotter, and Jacobi, will be ever read with delight. In descriptive poetry, Von Kleist, Thümmel, and Wolfgang, have been distinguished; but especially Goethe, whose name is known in every corner of Europe. In satire, Rabener, Musaeus, Lichtenberg, and Falk, excelled. In elegy, Höltz, Bürger, Weisse, Schmidt, and Herder. In fables, Gellert, Liessing, Willamow, and Pfeffel. In poetic tales, Wieland, Blumauer, Rost, and Nicolay. The name of Klopstock will ever be reverenced by those who venerate heroic or religious poetry. The lyric poems of Schiller, of the two Schlegels, of Bos, and Ramler, are beautiful specimens of the powers of the German language.

The theatrical productions have kept pace with the other species of poetical composition. In tragedy, Schiller, Goethe, Lessing, Collen, and Grillparzer, have distinguished themselves; whilst Iland, Kotzebue, Brand, Grossman, Schroeder, and a host of other writers, have appeared in comedy.

German writers of prose have been neither fewer nor less able, though their names have not been so far extended in other countries, as those of the poets and theatrical authors. In religious compositions, Mosheim, Sack, Jerusalem, Spalding, Zollikofer, and Teller, are destined to futurity, after having delighted and edified the existing generation. In epistolary writing, few in any language have exceeded Gellert, Winkleman, Abt, and Garve, whilst Mendelsohn has been unrivalled in his dialogues. The race of novel and romance writers has been too numerous to be recited; and the latter have displayed a power over the human passions and feelings, which has scarcely had equal examples in the writers of other nations.

In didactic writings, those of Scheibhart, Lessing, Winkelmann, Iselin, Sonnenfels, Moser, Zimmerman, Eberhard, Bötticher, and Forster, have displayed great talent; and, on subjects of education, Base- dows, Campe, Trapp, Salzman, and Pestalozzi, have discovered vast powers of mind, directed to one of the most important subjects.

In classical literature, the Germans have thoroughly imbibed the spirit of the ages when Greece and Rome were at the highest pinnacle of literary glory. The names of Ernesti, Heyne, Gesner, Camerarius, Fabri, Wytttenbach, Wolf, and Scheller, are familiar to the Latin scholars of every country; as are those of Michaelis, Hottinger, Von der Hart, Eichorn, Griesbach, and Paulus, to the Greek student.

The Germans have been ever distinguished for that diligence and patience in examination and novelty, which are the great requisites for geographical and statistical authors. None have in any country exceeded Busching, and many living authors are now following his steps with equal success.

The Germans claim the honour of having been the revivers of the Grecian mathematics, and the glory of having ascertained, by their countryman Copernicus, the true system of astronomy. Kepler is asserted to be the father of dioptrics, Tschernhausen, the inventor of burning glasses, Leibnitz, the solver of the differential calculus, and Lieberkuhn, the greatest improver of the solar microscope.

Euler was distinguished by his powers of analysis, and Kepler, Mayer, Herschel, Bode, Von Zach, and Olbers, by their skill in astronomy. Metaphysics engaged the close attention of Wolf, Leibnitz, Kant, and their scholars, Ficilte, Schelling, and Platter.

Although in natural history Germany has produced neither a Linnaeus nor a Buffon, yet Blumenbach, Zimmerman, Pallas, and Fabricius in zoology; Haller, Gleditsch, Hofman, and Sprengel in botany; and Werner in mineralogy, would not be unfit associates of those great names.

In natural philosophy, the Germans claim for Guericke the discovery of the air-pump; for Fahrenheit the thermometer; and for Hausen the invention, and for Marun the perfecting, of electrical machines; and they are proud to reckon among their chemists the names of Stahl, Hofman, Margraf, Born, Klapproth, and Humboldt. In medicine, besides Paracelsus and Stahl, they boast, with good reason, of Hofman, Tissot, Haller, Unzer, and Hüeßland, with many others of great though inferior name.

In jurisprudence, the Germans long took the lead in Europe; and, in theology, Luther and Melanchthon have, by the translation of the sacred books and by their writings, produced a mighty change through all the most enlightened nations of Europe.

It is, however, somewhat singular that, in a country of so much learning and such research, in which antiquities have been sedulously studied, where the numismatic collections are so numerous, and where ancient documents are so carefully preserved, scarcely any historian has appeared, who deserves a higher name than that of a chronicler.

The fine arts have been cultivated, especially music, with much success. No nation has produced more celebrated composers than Glüch, Handel, Haydn, Bach, and, above all, perhaps, Mozart. Statuary has been practised more by Italians in this country than by natives. Painters have risen to no very great excellence, with the exception of Albert Durer, Kranach, and Holbein; and to those of a more recent date must be added Mengs; and, in our own time, Angelica Kaufman, Hackert, and one or two others.

The circulation of books, produced from the pens of ten thousand writers, is facilitated by the two fairs of Leipsic, to which the publishers from all parts of Germany resort with the new works they have printed at their own residences. This general rendezvous becomes the focus of literary information. The publications are made known, their respective merits are discussed, and the different booksellers exchange with each other the production of their respective provinces, which are thus spread over the extensive country in which the language is used, with great regularity, and with a very trifling expense in advertising.

One evil is much complained of, the want of protection for literary property; which arises from the great number of sovereigns in whose dominions the same language is spoken. The best productions of the north are frequently pirated in the south. The King of Saxony has indeed prohibited the circulation of pirated editions at Leipsic during the fairs; but that is found insufficient to protect authors whose productions combine excellence with popularity. The average number of works published of late years at Leipsic have been about six thousand, amounting to about ten thousand volumes; which probably is more than all the other presses of Europe deliver. The press in Germany is nearly free, for though in some states there is a previous censure, yet it is conducted on liberal principles, and seldom is exercised except on small political works that display more heat than light, or on the class of periodical publications of less than twelve sheets.

No other part of Europe enjoys advantages for education equal to Germany, especially the northern parts of it. The parochial schools are so universal, that none but the wilfully ignorant, or those of imperfect faculties, can be strangers to reading, writing, and the first rules of arithmetic. The schools for classical instruction, denominated Gymnasiums, Pedagogiums, and Lyceums, are found in almost every large town, and dispense learning at a very cheap rate. The universities are sufficiently numerous and sufficiently endowed to provide instruction in the higher branches of knowledge on terms nearly if not strictly gratuitous.

<table> <tr> <th>Universities.</th> <th>When Founded.</th> <th>Religion.</th> <th>Number of Professors.</th> <th>Number of Students.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Heidelberg,</td> <td>1346</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>45</td> <td>1816</td> <td>603</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Prague,</td> <td>1348</td> <td>Catholic,</td> <td>41</td> <td>1817</td> <td>879</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Vienna,</td> <td>1361</td> <td>Catholic,</td> <td>79</td> <td>1817</td> <td>1103</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Wurtzburg,</td> <td>1403</td> <td>Catholic,</td> <td>36</td> <td>1817</td> <td>321</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Leipsic,</td> <td>1409</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>41</td> <td>1818</td> <td>888</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Landshut,</td> <td>1410, 1810</td> <td>Catholic,</td> <td>48</td> <td>1818</td> <td>640</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rostock,</td> <td>1419</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>34</td> <td>1817</td> <td>76</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Freyberg,</td> <td>1456</td> <td>Catholic,</td> <td>32</td> <td>1818</td> <td>837</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tübingen,</td> <td>1477</td> <td>Mixed,</td> <td>44</td> <td>1818</td> <td>500</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Marburg,</td> <td>1527</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>42</td> <td>1812</td> <td>197</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Jena,</td> <td>1557</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>39</td> <td>1818</td> <td>522</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Giessen,</td> <td>1607</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>37</td> <td>1816</td> <td>241</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Kiel,</td> <td>1667</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>29</td> <td>1816</td> <td>107</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Halle,</td> <td>1694</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>51</td> <td>1815</td> <td>471</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Breslau,</td> <td>1702</td> <td>Mixed,</td> <td>51</td> <td>1815</td> <td>490</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Göttingen,</td> <td>1734</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>80</td> <td>1817</td> <td>1065</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Erlangen,</td> <td>1743</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>29</td> <td>1817</td> <td>143</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Berlin,</td> <td>1808</td> <td>Protestant,</td> <td>58</td> <td>1817</td> <td>942</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Bonn,</td> <td>1818</td> <td>Mixed,</td> <td>—</td> <td>1819</td> <td>405</td> </tr> </table>

Besides these universities, there are in almost all the capitals of every state institutions for instructing pupils in the various learning of the medical, clerical, legal, and military professions; and of agriculture, mining, and the management of forest lands. There are also abundance of learned societies spread over the whole of Germany, many of whom have, in the course of years, been enabled to assemble such large collections of natural and artificial curiosities, as afforded able assistance to those engaged in the pursuit of knowledge.

The public libraries, collected in the different cities, far exceed any thing that has been known in other countries. These valuable collections are managed with the greatest liberality; all of them are open for inspection and perusal at all proper seasons; and from most of them the readers may be supplied at their own residence. They thus become active and efficient fountains of knowledge. It would be tiresome to give a list which should comprehend all those, the number of whose volumes exceed 10,000; but we shall present one of those whose volumes are not less than 50,000: viz. Vienna, 550,000 volumes, including manuscripts and local and temporary works; Munich, 400,000 volumes in the royal central library; Göttingen, 280,000 volumes, including some thousand valuable manuscripts; Dresden, 250,000 printed volumes, and 104,000 manuscripts and small works; Wolfenbuttle, 190,000 printed volumes, 44,000 manuscripts, and 6000 Bibles; Stuttgart, 170,000 volumes, besides 12,000 Bibles, of all languages and editions; Berlin, 300,000 volumes, in seven public libraries; Weimar, 110,000 volumes and 20,000 smaller works; Prague, 110,000 volumes; Frankfort, 100,000 volumes, in several public libraries; Hamburg and Breslau have 100,000 each in their public libraries; Mentz, 90,000; Darmstadt, 85,000; Cassel, 70,000; Gratz, 70,000; Gotha, 60,000; Marburg, 55,000; Jena, 50,000. The number of books in all Germany, in such libraries and other institutions as are open to the public, has been estimated at 5,000,000 volumes.

The collections of pictures and of antiquities are correspondent in extent and excellence to the public libraries. The gallery of Dresden, now that those pictures plundered by France have been sent from the Louvre to the places from whence they had been taken, is the first in Europe. The collections at Berlin, Brunswick, Cassel, and Augsburg, are very fine; and many private assemblages of pictures, particularly those of the Princes Liechtenstein, Kaunitz, Esterhazy, and of Count Schönbrun, are of the first class. The antique cabinets of Dresden, Munich, and Cassel, are filled with curiosities from remote ages and distant nations; and the cabinets of natural history at Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, Cassel, Mannheim, Jena, Munich, and Gotha, are most richly filled.

The greater part of the land in Germany is held by those ancient feudal tenures, which formerly prevailed in every part of Europe. The possessors of the soil, of whom, in every state, the sovereign is by far the greatest, have under them a species of customary tenants, called subjects (Untertaner), who have the cultivation of common fields divided into small portions, without the intervention of fences. As soon as the corn is removed from the field, the lord has the right of pasture; and from these circumstances, it is impossible to deviate from an ancient practice, by which the different portions of the common land must be devoted to particular kinds of crops at specific periods. The rotation almost universally prescribed, known by the name of drey feld Germany.—Landwirthschaft, consists of a fallow, succeeded by two crops of grain. The fallow, however, generally bears a crop, which is usually either flax, peas, or (very commonly of late) potatoes; in consequence of a crop on the fallow, the land is seldom properly cleaned of weeds. To this fallow crop generally succeeds winter corn, either wheat or rye; but, in the north, the proportion of the latter to the former is as four to one, and in many parts, especially in Pomerania, ten to one. In the southern states, the two kinds of grain are nearly equally cultivated. To the winter corn succeeds barley or oats, as the land is better adapted for one or the other; or as may have been settled between the ancestors of the present lords, and their tenants in remote periods. By this mode of cultivation, the earth yields but a small increase. The tenants can keep but little live stock, and therefore make but little manure. The live stock they do keep is generally fed through the winter with straw, and the addition recently of potatoes, with a small portion of corn, and what dung they do produce is consequently of a very weak quality. These tenants are commonly holders of small portions of land, and that, in many instances, is necessarily divided at their decease among all their children; thus, the evil of the cottage system of small farms is clearly experienced. The villages are crowded with little proprietors, who have not either the conventional or the pecuniary power to improve the soil, who live in a state inferior to labourers, and who, from the smallness of their farms, can only obtain subsistence, by living on the cheapest diet, which of late, as in Ireland, is principally potatoes. Upon this system, the number of husbandmen increases with considerable rapidity; they form soldiers, and when called out by the military conscriptions of their princes, are placed in a better situation than when living on their farms.

In this condition of the community, the only land that can be well cultivated is the small portion of demesne which is in the hands of the lords, who, from their stock of cattle, could make manure to dress and improve the soil. These demesne lands are, however, though cultivated for the lords, ploughed by the tenants, who are bound by their tenures to do certain stipulated work for their superiors. The consequence of this is, that the work is badly performed, and at such seasons as best suits the tenant's own labour. The demesnes too feel the want of capital; for the lords have little besides their estates and the cattle upon them, and these being too generally left to the care of managers, who are less thrifty than as proprietors they would be, suffer considerably from that circumstance.

The foregoing sketch is a description of the practice on the far greater portion of the land in Germany; and, in consequence of it, the soil, though superior in original fecundity to the greater part of England, is gradually deteriorating, and does not at present yield more than five-eighths of what we raise on the same quantity of land. From the poorer classes eating nothing but rye or potatoes, and from having three-fourths of its population employed in agriculture, Germany is enabled to export corn in most years; but when an unpropitious season occurs the distress is dreadful, and is increased by the smallness of the different states, and the power being restricted of circulating grain freely from one to another; an evil which was severely felt and lamentably deplored in the calamitous year 1817.

The land of Germany produces but little beyond the absolute and indispensable wants of its inhabitants except in wine, flax, and wool. The culture of the vines is much less attended to than in France, and wine is the production but of a very small portion when compared with the whole extent of the country, whereas in France almost every part yields it. The quantity made in Germany is not calculated to be more than one-sixth of what France supplies; the whole is computed to be about two million pipes of one hundred gallons each; but a very small part of this finds its way to foreign countries.

The flax frequently forming, as before stated, the fallow crop, is important by the employment it affords, during the long and cold nights of their severe winter, to the female members of the peasants' families, and by the trade it creates in the export of its productions in the form of yarn or of linen cloth.

Wool is generally the property of the lord, and its annual clip is frequently the principal revenue derived from extensive possessions. This has induced many to pay great attention to the improvement of the wool, and much of it, especially from Saxony, is superior to any that the Merino flocks of Spain afford. It is within the few years that have elapsed since the expulsion of the French, that the great extension of the breed of fine woollen sheep has taken place. The implements of husbandry are in a very imperfect state, and as much so from want of information as from want of capital in Germany. The ploughs are generally small, light, and without a due curvature in the mould-board. The harrows are frequently of wood. That useful implement the roller is rarely seen, the waggons and carts are badly constructed, and the harness of all, either of ropes or twisted straw.

There are exceptions to these observations on the agriculture of Germany, but they are too few to merit any particular notice.

Germany is generally a manufacturing country, and can supply itself with, by far, the greater part of all the commodities that it needs. The manufacturers of that country are not placed in different districts, but in the same towns; and in almost every town of a moderate population, woollen, linen, cotton, silk, and iron wares are made. Thus their establishments are mostly upon a small scale, and they cannot avail themselves of those minute divisions of labour which are essential to the perfecting and to the cheapness of the goods. Linens are the most valuable article, and are made, from the coarse ones of Westphalia, which are used for negro clothing, to the finest shirting and table linen of Silesia and Saxony, and of all the intermediate qualities. Woollens, of all kinds, are made, and sufficient for the consumption; so that those of England and France are scarcely needed; nor do the Germans allow that any foreign fine cloth is equal, either in quality or price, to those manufactured in Saxony, Silesia, and the newly acquired Prussian provinces on the Rhine, from wool of native growth. The Cassimeres and Vigonia cloths, in that last mentioned district in the towns of Eupen, Machren, and Aachen, are preferred to any that are brought from other countries. The fabrics of cotton had much increased during the continental system of exclusion, and had arrived at a considerable degree of perfection, but the return of tranquillity has checked the progress of all, and annihilated many. The most considerable districts for these kinds of goods are the kingdom of Saxony, the Prussian provinces of Juliers, Berg, and Cleeves, and on the banks of the Ens, in the Austrian dominions. The silk manufactures have never been considerable; some goods of the kind are made in many of the cities, but the principal establishments are in Vienna, at Roveredo, in the Tyrol, at Creveldt, at Cologne, and Berlin. Leather, iron, steel, and the wares prepared from them, are made at home. Porcelain and common earthenware are well made, and the two great royal manufactories of the first at Berlin and Dresden, equal any from Seve, from Worcester, or Etruria. The glass-ware of Bohemia, though of a very bad quality, is universally diffused, not only through Germany, but in most other parts of the world. Paper is a considerable article among the German manufacturies. That for printing is coarse, and of a bad colour, and the writing paper is very imperfectly made. There are 506 mills, which deliver annually about 60,000 bales, but none of it goes to other countries. Chemical preparations are made upon an extensive scale, and comprehend alum, vitriol, smalts, white-lead, Prussian blue, sal-ammoniac, and verdigrease. Salt and sugar are refined for home consumption. Tobacco, snuff, wax, oils from plants, are also supplied from domestic manufactories. The quantity of beer furnished by the breweries in every town in the north is very great, and the distilleries of ardent spirits from grain is a most extensive manufactory, as is vinegar, mostly from grapes in those districts where they do not ripen sufficiently to be made into wine. The minuter articles, such as musical, mathematical, surgical, and optical instruments, with watches and clocks, are well and cheaply made. Wooden toys and plaited straw are important objects of employment to many of the inhabitants. Most of the fabrics of Germany are fettered by the laws of the guilds, or corporations, to which the masters are obliged to belong, and this acts as an impediment to their arriving at a high degree of perfection.

The commerce of Germany, conducted by means of shipping, centers principally in the Prussian ports, or in the free cities, and may be best treated of under each of them. The commerce with France, Italy, Turkey, Poland, and Russia, is by no means great. The articles produced on the borders of each are too similar to cause a necessity for an interchange; and the heavier articles, that are produced at a distance from the respective boundaries, will, in few instances, bear the expence of land carriage. The trade that is purely internal, or among the different states, is much less than might be expected, and much less than it would be if there existed less of a monopolizing spirit among the cities, and less jealousy among the several sovereigns. The greater part of the internal trade consists in the sale of wines, and of foreign colonial produce, which the capitalists in the cities collect and sell in smaller quantities to the shops in the provincial towns.

The governments of Germany, with the exception of the four free cities, are all of the monarchical form, with some slight restraints from their states, as is narrated under each division. The whole is governed by an assembly of delegates from the various sovereigns, who have published a constitution, which is, however, so indistinct, and leaves such room for explanation, that it can scarcely be said to be in operation. The smaller powers, too, have from it little or no security against the invasion of their rights, or the aggressions on its interests that may be attempted. The principal object of the constitution, the Bundes verfassung, as stated by the confederates, is, to secure the internal and external tranquillity, and the independence and inviolability of each state. The details of it decide, that no member of the confederation shall make war on another, but defer to the decision of the assembly; that, in case of attack from without, no state shall make a separate peace or truce with the enemy; that no one shall enter into any engagements which can compromise the security of the confederation, or of any of its members; and that they shall always have ready an army, in the proportion of one to each hundred inhabitants, to defend the general confederation. By a special article, the three religious sects that divide Germany, the Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed, are to be on equal footing in all the states.

Baden, a grand duchy, is the first of the German principalities. It is in the southern part of Germany, is bounded, on the north-east, by Bavaria, on the east by Wirtemberg and Hohenzollern, on the south-east by the Lake of Constance, on the south by Switzerland, on the west and north-west by France.

It is governed by the successors of the Margraves of Baden, with a constitution decreed in 1817, by which an assembly of nobles, and another chosen by the cities, divide the legislative power with the grand duke. The debt of the state amounts to about L2,000,000 Sterling, the annual revenue L.550,000, the greatest part of which arises from the sovereigns' domains and royalties, and the remainder from the taxes paid by his subjects. The annual expenditure, including the interest of the debt, somewhat exceeds the income; and it is difficult to increase the taxation. The standing army in peace is about 8000 men, but is undergoing reduction; and the militia or landsturm, all of whom are regimented, is 92,000. The face of the country is generally irregular, with lofty hills, covered with woods, and rich and luxurious valleys between, that present the most picturesque prospects. The highest points of these mountains is Feldberg, 4610 feet above the level of the sea; and, with many others, is covered with snow eight months in the year. In the intervals between the mountains, the air is mild, and the spring and autumn both delightful and healthy.

The agriculture is generally on the three course rotation, but vines, almonds, and other fruits, are cultivated. The land under the plough is about 1,300,000 acres; the pasture land, 385,000 acres; the vineyards, 74,000; woods, 1,558,000; and the uncultivated parts, about 200,000 acres. Wheat is more cultivated than rye. Maize and rice are considerable productions, but being well supplied with wine, there is but little barley produced to make malt for beer and spirits. Potatoes are a very material article of subsistence, and are grown now even in many parts of the Black Forest. Hemp and tobacco are considerable productions. By the latest surveys, the number of horses of all kinds were 82,717; the number of animals of the cow kind were 201,576; the sheep, including their lambs, 179,986; goats, 22,047; and swine, 869,207.

The mining concerns are numerous but not large, and yield commonly 4750 ounces of silver, 400 quintals of copper, and 2000 of lead, 320 of cobalt, besides a large quantity of iron, the amount of which is not ascertained, but estimated at 20,000 quintals.

Baden is a manufacturing country for many articles, the value of which arise almost wholly from the labour employed on them. In some years 110,000 wooden-clocks have been made, and 50,000 dozen of pewter spoons. These are only a part of the numerous smaller kinds of ware which the ingenuity of the inhabitants prepare; besides these, they have manufactures of linen and woollen cloth upon a small scale.

The inhabitants, 1,101,630, consist of 469,472 males, and 532,158 females. The Catholics are 663,000; the Lutherans, 248,000; the Reformed, 82,000; the Jews, 15,000; and the Mennonites, 1200; all religions are equally established.

It has two universities, several public schools, and abundant institutions for the education of the lower classes of the people.

The divisions are six circles, viz.

<table> <tr> <th>Circles.</th> <th>Extent in English Acres.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Capital.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Murg and Psintz,</td> <td>737,280</td> <td>189,786</td> <td>Karlsruhe.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Kinzig,</td> <td>664,960</td> <td>164,811</td> <td>Offenburg.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Treisam,</td> <td>825,600</td> <td>242,321</td> <td>Freyburg.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Seekries,</td> <td>755,840</td> <td>145,602</td> <td>Constance.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Neckar,</td> <td>485,400</td> <td>166,818</td> <td>Manheim.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Mayne and Tauber,</td> <td>949,720</td> <td>92,182</td> <td>Mertheim.</td> </tr> </table>

The cities with their inhabitants are, Manheim, 20,628; Karlsruhe, 15,789; Freyburg, 10,108; Heidelberg, 9826; Pforzheim, 5301; Constance, 4503; Rastadt, 4204; Weinheim, 4089; Mertheim, 3227; and Baden, 3085; the smaller cities which bear that name, because they have or have had fortifications, amount to one hundred, averaging not more than 1000 inhabitants each.

Hesse Cassel, a duchy in the middle of Germany, is very much divided by the intervening territories of Prussia, Hanover, Saxe-Weimar, Bavaria, and Hesse Darmstadt. The government is in the hands of the successor of the Landgrave, whose territory was merged in the kingdom of Westphalia, established by Bonaparte. The states, consisting of the nobles, the prelates, and the representatives of the cities, are some, though but a feeble, check on the sovereign, and their power is not accurately defined.

The income of the duchy is L 380,000 Sterling, the expenses somewhat exceed it. The debt is about L 400,000, which was a novelty in Hesse Cassel before the occupation of it by France. The army is reduced, and, at present, consists of only 2000 men in constant pay, and 16,000 that exercise fourteen days in the year, and are paid during that term. The general face of the country is hilly, in some parts approaching to mountainous; but none even of the peaks exceed 3100 feet in height, and few of them 2100. The valleys between them are beautifully picturesque and highly fertile. All the provinces except Fulda and Hanau have been surveyed and measured. The land, under the plough, is 1,558,988; fruits and gardens, 393,906; meadows and pasture, 520,271; woods, 1,020,824; and wastes, waters, and the scites of towns and villages, 811,226 Hessian morgens (about eleven-sixteenths of an English acre). The two provinces that have not been surveyed are nearly three parts in twenty of the whole. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and beans, are the grain produced, of which rye is equal to all the others. At the last enumeration of the cattle, there were 39,572 horses; 475 asses; 159,278 cows; 363,397 sheep; 25,438 goats; and 139,173 swine. The principal mineral is iron, of which about 64,000 quintals are produced; there are many parts abounding in fossil coal. The principal manufactory is that of linen, the coarser kinds of which have given the name of this duchy to most of the coarse unbleached linen of Europe. The other articles that are necessary for domestic use are made in the country, but few are exported. The religious enumerations are about 320,000; Reformed, 140,000; Lutherans, 90,000; Catholics, 8500; Jews, and a few Mennonites. It is divided into ten provinces, viz.

<table> <tr> <th>Provinces.</th> <th>Extent in English Acres.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Capitals.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Lower Hesse,</td> <td>1,187,840</td> <td>245,621</td> <td>Cassel.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Upper Hesse,</td> <td>354,540</td> <td>61,200</td> <td>Marburg.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hersfeld,</td> <td>102,400</td> <td>18,560</td> <td>Hersfeld.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Ziegenhain,</td> <td>138,340</td> <td>27,922</td> <td>Ziegenhain.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Fritzlar,</td> <td>83,880</td> <td>15,928</td> <td>Fritzlar.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schmalkalde,</td> <td>70,400</td> <td>23,000</td> <td>Schmalkalde.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Fulda,</td> <td>397,000</td> <td>67,765</td> <td>Fulda.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Isenburg,</td> <td>58,800</td> <td>47,457</td> <td>Birstein.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hanau,</td> <td>279,680</td> <td>62,666</td> <td>Hanau.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schauenburg,</td> <td>129,280</td> <td>26,911</td> <td>Rintelen.</td> </tr> </table>

The principal cities and their population are, Cassel, 19,000; Hanau, 11,997; Fulda, 7468; Marburg, 6470; Hersfeld, 5222; Schmalkalde, 4697; Rintelen, 2666; and Fritzlar, 2266; the smaller cities and market towns are about eighty, but the far greater part of the inhabitants live in the villages.

Hesse Darmstadt, a grand duchy on the banks of the Rhine, which runs through the southern part of it, and is its principal boundary on the western side in the northern part. The sole government is, at pre- sent, in the Grand Duke, but he has pledged himself to convene the states this year (1820), and to form a free constitution. The revenues amount to about L. 500,000 Sterling, but are insufficient to meet the expenditure. The taxes are higher than in any other part of Germany, and the debt very heavy. The military forces, though reduced, still reach to nearly 7000 men, and a militia of the whole population. As a whole, the duchy may be termed hilly rather than mountainous, though some of the hills are near 2000 feet in height. In the northern part, on the hills the land is stony, in the valleys a heavy soil. In the southern part, the soil is generally sandy, and some of it totally destitute of vegetative power. More corn is grown than is generally consumed, but that arises from the lower classes being subsisted principally on potatoes. Some of the best wines are made in this state. It supplies other countries with fruit, nuts, madder, clover-seed, potash, honey, and wax, and with manufactures of yarn and linen. The religious denominations, and their numbers, are, 366,000 Lutherans, 140,000 Catholics, 98,000 Reformed, 15,000 Jews, and 1000 Mennonites. There are more nobles with extensive estates than in the other parts of Germany, and the peasants were in a state of slavery till they were liberated in the year 1813.

Hesse Darmstadt is divided into three provinces, viz.

<table> <tr> <th>Provinces.</th> <th>Extent in English Acres.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Capitals.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Starkenburg,</td> <td>698,520</td> <td>220,268</td> <td>Darmstadt.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rhenish Hesse,</td> <td>365,440</td> <td>161,701</td> <td>Mentz.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Upper Hesse,</td> <td>1,233,520</td> <td>248,674</td> <td>Giessen.</td> </tr> </table>

The principal cities and their population is as follow: Mentz, 25,251; Darmstadt, 15,450; Offenbach, 6584; Worms, 6236; Geissen, 5500; Bingen, 3293; Alsfeld, 3019; Lauterbach, 2836; Biedenkopf, 2566; and Friedburg, 2548.

Mecklenburg Schwerin, a grand duchy in the north, is bounded on that side by the Baltic, on the east by Prussia, on the south by Prussia and Hanover, and on the west by the Danish dominions. The sovereign has his power divided by an assembly of the states, who meet to adjust the finances, and to sanction, but not to originate laws. The revenues amount to about L. 210,000 annually, and nearly equals the expenditure; the debts of the duchy are not more than L. 300,000, and are diminishing, and the taxes are light. In 1817, the army was reduced to 3600 men, which is the contingent to the army of the confederation. The whole of the country is a part of that vast plain which extends along the shores of the Baltic Sea. The agricultural productions are wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and beans. Wheat is about equal in quantity to rye. Barley is much more than oats. The corn exported in some years has amounted to L. 260,000 Sterling. The scarcity of wheat in England, during some years of the late war, gave a great stimulus to the cultivation of that grain, and has tended to improve its agriculture. When the ports of England are closed against foreign grain, a certain, though a lower, market is found in Sweden, where there is always a deficiency. The duchy is rather celebrated for its breed of horses; the cows produce butter beyond the consumption; and the sheep, whose race is becoming mixed by Merinos, is improving in the fineness of the wool. The trade of Mecklenburg is benefited by the river Elbe, which runs on its southern border, and by the ports of Rostock and Wismar, on the shores of the Baltic; the principal part of its corn is, however, sent through the free cities of Hamburg and Lübeck. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants are of the Lutheran confession; the other sects are, Catholics, 800; Reformed, 200; and the Jews, 2650. In Rostock is a university, and there are many public institutions adapted for all classes of the inhabitants in the duchy.

The divisions are as follow:

<table> <tr> <th>Provinces.</th> <th>Extent in English Acres.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Capitals.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Mecklenburg,</td> <td>1,206,581</td> <td>167,400</td> <td>Schwerin.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gustrow,</td> <td>830,650</td> <td>140,800</td> <td>Gustrow.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schwerin,</td> <td>79,067</td> <td>24,800</td> <td>Bützow.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Wismar,</td> <td>23,680</td> <td>11,400</td> <td>Wismar.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rostock,</td> <td>only the city</td> <td>14,334</td> <td>Rostock.</td> </tr> </table>

The cities and their population are, Rostock, 14,334; Schwerin, 10,103; Gustrow, 7074; Wismar, 6692; Parchem, 3993; Ludwigslust (the residence of the Grand Duke), 3160; Bützow, 2659; and Botzenburg, 2317.

Nassau, a duchy which is surrounded by the Prussian dominions, except on the east, where it is bounded by Hesse Cassel, and a part of the south, where it joins the territory of Frankfort. The duke was an absolute sovereign till 1817, when a constitution was promulgated, by which his authority is divided with the states, but the operation of this new constitution is yet very doubtful. The revenue is about L. 180,000; the expenditure not quite equal to it; and the surplus is carried to a sinking fund to extinguish a debt amounting to L. 500,000. The military establishment is now reduced to 1688 regulars, and the remainder for the contingent must be drawn from the militia, which comprehends all between nineteen and twenty-five, with some few exceptions.

The country is generally hilly, in some places mountainous, and abounds with mineral springs, which, at Wiesbaden, Longenschwalbach, and especially Seltzer, have obtained great celebrity. From the last, 3,000,000 stone bottles are annually filled for distant consumption. The land is thus appropriated; under the plough 491,718 morgens; in meadows 139,350; vineyards 11,587; woods 525,305; the barren and waste land 108,930 Nassau morgens, which are to English acres as 27 is to 28. The best wines of Germany, the Johannisberg, with some other exquisite kinds, are produced in the duchy. It seldom raises sufficient corn for the consumption, but pays for what it requires in its wines. Its wheat is of excellent quality. The three course rotation is generally practised, and the land is usually ploughed with oxen. In the year 1818, the number of horses was 9735; asses and mules, 606; cows, 175,680; sheep, 172,737; swine, 64,103; and goats, 10,979. The manufactures are very inconsiderable; and though there are mines of silver, lead, and iron worked, their produce is but trifling. The two denominations of Protestants, now united in what is called the Evangelical Church, are 161,165; the Catholics are 135,041; the Jews, 5529; and a few scattered Mennonite families amount to about 850. There is no university, but the youths of good families generally study at Göttinger.

The duchy is divided into twenty-eight portions, called Justice and Domain Bailiwick, in the capital of each of which is an inferior court of law. The whole population, when enumerated in 1817, was 302,796.

Wiesbaden, the capital of the dukedom, contains 5138 resident inhabitants; and in the season of the bathing, in some years, sees between 9000 and 10,000 visitors. The other cities are very small. Dillenberg has 2502; Limburg, 2303; Weilburg, 2171; and Rüdesheim, 2035. There are 55 smaller cities and market towns; 806 villages; and 1186 noblemen's seats and isolated farms.

Oldenburg, a duchy bounded by the territories of Hanover on every side, except towards the north, where it terminates on the shores of the German Ocean. It has, besides, two small portions of territory on the north side of the Elbe in Holstein, from whence it is called the Duchy of Holstein-Oldenburg. The duke is an absolute sovereign, uncontrolled by an assembly of the states, though a constitution is in contemplation to establish their meeting. The revenue is calculated at L. 120,000 Sterling, and the expenditure at something less; the debt is very trifling. The army is reduced to 1650 regulars; and if the confederation should demand the contingent, they may be made to reach 2180 by draughts or enlistment from the militia. The whole land is a plain mostly of barren sands, but with some rich meadows on which oxen are fattened, and much butter and cheese is made. The dams to prevent inundations on the richest land are numerous and expensive. The larger portion of the farms are not in villages, but at a distance from each other in the centre of the lands. The principal productions from the ploughed land are rape-seed and flax from the marshes. The upper land produces only rye and potatoes, and the crops of them are very scanty. A scarcity of wood is compensated by turf for fuel. The salted beef, bacon, hams, and sausages, are the means, by the sale of which, the inhabitants procure clothing and other comforts. The number of inhabitants is 225,889; the distinction of religions is not ascertained; the far greater part are Lutherans, who have 91 churches; the Catholics, 31; and the Reformed, 9. Education is more neglected than in any other part of Germany. The whole extent of the surface is 2630 English miles, or 1,488,320 acres. The capital city, Oldenburg, contains 5222 inhabitants; the others are, Jever, 3400; Hammelwarden, 3262; Elsfleth, 2808; Varrel, 2614; and Euten in Holstein, 2341. The population is, except Mecklenburg, the least dense of any state in Germany.

Brunswick, a duchy, is surrounded by the Prussian dominions on every side, except the northwest, where it joins to the kingdom of Hanover. The sovereign is assisted by the states, who have the power of originating laws. The revenue amounts to about L. 380,000 Sterling; but more than half of it arises from the patrimonial domains of the duke. The expenditure is reduced below the income, and the debt left by Jerome Bonaparte of L. 1,000,000 Sterling is already considerably reduced, and is expected to be extinguished by the time the minority of the duke, who was born in 1804, expires. The regular troops are now reduced below 1400 men, and the remainder of the contingent, when needed, must be supplied by draughts from the militia. The country is generally very pleasant, well cultivated, and fruitful. The ploughed land is 291,575; gardens are 16,752; meadows, 42,059; inferior pasture, 207,751; woods, 284,423; fish-ponds and lakes, 2217 acres. The stock of live cattle, when last enumerated, consisted of 50,300 horses; 86,400 cows and calves; 258,965 sheep; 8291 goats; 116 asses and mules; and 8450 hives of bees. The situation, near the Weser and the Elbe, is favourable to commerce. The exports of linen yarn, linen cloth, fine wool, wheat, and rye, are computed at L. 250,000 Sterling; and those of rape-seed, oil, and oil-cake, of hops, madder, vitriol, sulphur, arsenic, zinc, cobalt, and some smaller wares, at L. 120,000 Sterling. A part of the Hartz forest is in Brunswick, which supplies these minerals. The divisions are,

<table> <tr> <th>Districts.</th> <th>Extent in English Acres.</th> <th>Inhabitants.</th> <th>Capitals.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Wolfenbuttle,</td> <td>291,840</td> <td>56,593</td> <td>Wolfenbuttle.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schönningen,</td> <td>189,160</td> <td>32,880</td> <td>Helmstadt.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hartz,</td> <td>133,760</td> <td>19,841</td> <td>Langelshiem.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Line,</td> <td>60,800</td> <td>13,748</td> <td>Gandersehien.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Weser,</td> <td>161,280</td> <td>31,468</td> <td>Stadtoldendorf.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Blackenburg,</td> <td>92,140</td> <td>16,317</td> <td>Blankenburg.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>City of Brunswick,</td> <td></td> <td>29,050</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>City of Wolfenbuttle,</td> <td></td> <td>6,800</td> <td></td> </tr> </table>

The population of the other cities, besides the two noticed, is thus, Helmstadt, 5259; Holzminden, 3304; Blankenburg, 2768; Königslutter, 2493; Scheppenstedt, 2030; and Leesen, 2011. The religion is Lutheran, which is professed by all the inhabitants except 2072 Reformed, 1046 Catholics, and 1048 Jews. All religions are, however, upon an equal footing with regard to all civil rights. The only university, that of Helmstadt, has been lately suppressed from motives of economy. There are several public schools, and the superior education is received from Göttingen. The Duke of Brunswick has also the Dukedom of Oels in the centre of the Prussian province of Silesia. It contains 508,800 acres, with nine towns, 334 villages, and 87,800 inhabitants. The revenues are about L. 22,000 Ster- ling, but it is involved in debt, and produces no income, but the same wise administration is extended to it, and is expected to clear the incumbrances.

Saxe Weimar, a grand duchy, divided into two distinct portions by the intervention of the Prussian district of Erfurt, and the duchy of Saxe Gotha. The sovereign is assisted by an assembly of the states, by whom new laws must be sanctioned and new taxes imposed. The revenue is about L.150,000 Sterling, and so far exceeds the expenditure as to be enabled to apply L.9000 per annum to the extinction of the debt incurred by expelling the French, which, in 1818, was L.600,000 Sterling. The taxes are very light, and the standing army, with the exception of three companies which are not full, is abolished. The militia will form the contingent if it should be required. The eastern part of the dukedom is light sandy land, cultivated on the three course rotation, and producing much more rye than wheat. The western part is mountainous, and, in the valleys, contains some excellent land. The manufactures are but trifling, barely enough for domestic consumption.

It has long been the most favoured seat of learning and genius, and has produced so many great names, that the capital Weimar is considered the Athens of Germany. At one period, three of the greatest literary men were living there, Schiller, Goethe, and Herder, and of the inferior ranks of authors Musaeus, Falk, Kotzebue, and many others, and now the number of men of superior abilities is considerable. The establishment for writing and printing books, and for composing, engraving, and printing maps, is perhaps the largest literary undertaking in Europe.

The religion is Lutheran, but other sects have equal rights; they are, 6100 Reformed, 100 Catholics, 1100 Jews, and a few Mennonites. It is divided into two principalities, Weimar and Eisenach. Weimar contains 600,320 acres, and 137,000 inhabitants. Eisenach contains 286,720 acres, and 65,549 inhabitants. The University of Jena is in this duchy, and was formerly very celebrated, but late events have diminished it much. The cities and population of them are, Weimar, 8232 ; Eisenach, 8258 ; Jena, 4459, besides the university; Neustadt, 3319 ; Apolda, 3036 ; Beyda, 2236 ; Ostheim, 2187 ; and Ilmenau, 2140.

Saxe Gotha, a duchy divided by the dominions of Prussia and Saxe Weimar. The duke governs with the intervention of the states; the revenues amount to about L.150,000 Sterling; some secrecy is observed, but the revenue is supposed to exceed the expenditure, and nearly to extinguish the debt of the general government. The regular troops are 1960 men, being more than the contingent. It is a beautiful, fertile, and well cultivated country, yielding every thing necessary for subsistence and much for commerce. In the province of Altenburg the cultivators are the richest and most skilful in Germany. In every part are manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen, and various other articles, and, besides what is consumed at home, much fine wool is exported.

The whole of Saxe Gotha is that fine corn bearing land, known in Germany by the name of the Golden Mountains of Thuringia. It is mostly very elevated land; and the city of Gotha, the capital, by the measurement of Baron Zach, is ascertained to be 1200 feet above the level of the sea. It is divided into two principalities, that of Gotha and of Altenburg. Gotha extends over 409,360 acres, and has 105,201 inhabitants. Altenburg is 348,160 acres, and contains 81,936 inhabitants. The religion of the duchy is Lutheran, and almost all the inhabitants are of that profession. There are no sufficient numbers of the Catholics or Reformed churches to have establishments, but the Herunhaters or Moravians have a considerable community.

The cities and their population are, Gotha, 11,080; Altenburg, 10,164; Römhild, 5984; Ronneburg, 4178; Eisenberg, 3943; Ohrdruff, 3372; and Waltershausen, 2310.

Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a duchy adjoining to Saxe Gotha. The duke is sovereign, and as yet without assembling the states. The revenue is about L.60,000 sterling. The expenditure is nearly equal, the debt uncertain. The forces are reduced to 250 men. The ancient possessions are hilly; the new acquisitions are more level. The rotation of crops is almost universally a fallow crop, winter corn, and then summer corn; but a clean fallow is occasionally introduced. The cows are the most important live stock; but the sheep are numerous, and all of the fine wool kind. The only large manufactories are of linen. Some copper and a little silver is produced from the mines. The prevailing religion is Lutheran, of which there are 76 churches. The Catholics have 13, and the Reformed 3. It is divided into three principalities, viz. Coburg, Saalfeld, and Lichtenberg. Coburg is 129,280 acres, and contains 35,327 inhabitants. Saalfeld is 115,840 acres, and has 21,392 inhabitants. Lichtenberg is 152,320 acres, and contains 26,315 inhabitants. The cities are, Coburg, with 8154 inhabitants; Saalfeld, with 3497; and Wendell, with 2003, besides some smaller ones.

Saxe-Meiningen, a duchy, divided, like all these smaller independencies, by the intervention of the dominions of other sovereigns. The duke is checked by the assembly of the states in financial matters. The revenues amount to about L.35,000 per annum, of which L.15,000 arises from the hereditary domains. Of this income from the domains, the forest forms two-fifths. The contingent of troops is 544 men; but there is no army, and the militia, in case of need, must form that part of the defence of Germany. The country is very mountainous, especially the Unterland, which displays scenery of the most beautiful and picturesque kind. The three course system of husbandry is generally followed; but, in many parts of the hills, it is too cold for wheat or even rye, and little besides oats is grown. Notwithstanding the growth of potatoes is very extensive, the duchy is compelled every year to draw supplies of corn from Bavaria. In spite of the general coldness of the country, in some of the sheltered deep valleys, grass comes to perfection, and wine is made. Flax, tobacco, and wood, are the principal productions. The latter is cut into those thin plates used for sword-sheaths, backs of looking-glasses, and binding common books, which are distributed over the continent. Many toys for children are made, and some other wooden wares, which more than pay for what few commodities are wanted from other countries. The religion of the country is almost exclusively Lutheran, for there are no churches belonging to any other sect of Christians. A community of 600 Jews live by themselves in Unterland. It is divided into two portions. Unterland contains 180,480 acres, and 40,643 inhabitants; Oberland contains 68,480 acres, and 15,626 inhabitants. The only city is Meiningen, where the duke has a superb palace, and an open library of 24,000 volumes. The inhabitants of it are 4200.

Saxe Hildburghausen, a small duchy, separated from the dominions of Saxe Coburg, and governed by a duke of a younger branch of that family. It lies upon and on the declivity of the Thuringian mountains. It does not grow all the corn it needs, though potatoes are much cultivated, and its stock of cattle is very small. It contains coal mines, rock salt, and salt springs. The religion is Lutheran, but there is one reformed church. The revenue is about L.20,000 Sterling, and its expences nearly equal. It has no regular troops. It contains 180,480 acres, and the inhabitants are 30,629. The city of Hildburghausen contains 3529 inhabitants, and Eislef 2414.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, a grand duchy. It is in some degree in the legislative bond with Mecklenburg-Schwerin, as the states of both duchies assemble together. The revenues are about L.45,000 Sterling, and the expenditure is nearly as much. The debts are very trifling. The troops are reduced to 136 men, and the contingent, of 717, must, if needed, be made up from the militia. The country is mostly sandy land, intermixed with lakes and woods. The three course rotation of husbandry prevails in some parts, but in others the convertible system is followed, and is extending. The principal productions are corn, potatoes, flax, hemp, hops, and wood. The manufactures are linen, and some woollen cloth. Almost the whole population is of the Lutheran confession; what few Catholics and Reformed there are, are supplied with occasional clergymen from Prussia, but they have no church. It is divided into two provinces, Strelitz and Ratzeburg. Strelitz is 423,000 acres, and contains 60,035 inhabitants; and Ratzeburg 107,520 acres, and contains 11,734 inhabitants. The cities are, New Strelitz, with 4525; New Brandenburgh, with 5145; and Old Strelitz, with 3031 inhabitants.

Lippe Ditmold, a principality between the Prussian province of Westphalia and Hesse Cassel. The revenue is about L.48,000 Sterling, the expenditure nearly the same; the debt trifling; and the standing forces are reduced to a single battalion of 300 men. The country, though mountainous, is fruitful, and produces much corn, potatoes; and the forests yield much wood. The breeding and fattening of cattle is a large part of its husbandry. Flax is grown in large quantities, and making linen is the principal manufactory. The inhabitants are, 63,400 Reformed, 5100 Lutheran, and 600 Catholics. The extent is 277,120 acres. The cities are, Lemgo, Germany, with 3372, and Detmold, with 2370 inhabitants.

Schwartzburg-Sondershausen, a principality in the Schwartz-Thuringian mountains. Its revenues are estimated at L.20,000 Sterling annually, but are not very accurately known. It has no regular forces, but must supply its contingent of 451 from the militia. All the inhabitants are Lutherans, except a very few Catholics, and amount to 45,120. The extent of the land is 245,760 acres. It has two cities, Arnstadt, with 4300, and Sonderhausen, with 3100 inhabitants.

Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, a principality adjoining to Sonderhausen. It is a fruitful country, rather hilly, not mountainous. It yields much corn, potatoes, flax, and cattle. It has some valuable mines of iron, lead, cobalt, and rock salt. The revenue is about L.25,000 yearly. The only regular force is a single company. The inhabitants, 53,940, are all of the Lutheran confession, except a few Catholics, who are found in the capital. The extent is 197,568 acres. The cities are, Rudolstadt, with 4100, and Frankenhausen, with 3000 inhabitants.

Anhalt-Dessau, a duchy on the left bank of the Elbe, and on both sides of the river Moldau. On the left bank of the latter river it is cultivated like a garden, and is highly productive, yielding good crops of corn, abundance of fruit, with rape-seed and oil, flax, madder, and tobacco. The only manufacture, that of linen, is very small. The revenue is about L.70,000 per annum; and the state has no debts. The military is nominally 600 men, but not more than an eighth of them are in service at the same time. The inhabitants are, 52,947, partly Lutherans, partly Reformed; the former have 21, the latter 32 churches. The Jews are about 1200. The extent is 232,820 acres. Dessau contains 9800 inhabitants; no other place has 2000.

Anhalt-Bernburg, a duchy extending from the Elbe to the Hartz forest, and through which the Saale runs. One part of the territory is very productive of corn, the other portion abounds in mines of lead, iron, and coal, and has one silver mine, which produces annually about 5000 ounces of that metal. The inhabitants are 37,046, nearly equal in Lutherans and Reformed. The revenue is about L.45,000, the taxes low, and the regular army not more than 120 men. The extent is 219,568 acres. The cities and their inhabitants are, Bernburg, 4850; Wallenstedt, 2500; and Harzgerode, 2193.

Anhalt-Kothen, a duchy lying in four portions, on both sides the river Elbe. The whole is a level plain, then with scarcely any elevated land. On the left bank of the river it is poor and sandy; on the right bank, productive in corn and flax. Some of the fields yield the greatest increase of any soils in Saxony. The income is about L.23,000 Sterling; but it is burdened with a heavy debt of L.140,000. Both are under a commission, who regulate the expences, and apply the savings to diminish the debt. It has no regular troops. The extent is 207,160 acres. The inhabitants are Lutherans and Reformed. The former have 19, the latter 28 parish priests. The only city is Kothen, which contains 5500 inhabitants. Reus, younger branch, a principality divided into several districts, and much separated by the intervention of other states. It is generally an agricultural country, producing corn, potatoes, and flax. It breeds many sheep, the race of which has been improved by a mixture with those that yield the finer kinds of wool. There are some mines of iron. A considerable portion of cotton goods were manufactured, and some hosiery; the former has diminished much since the peace. The inhabitants are 52,205; the extent is 293,640 acres. The revenue is about L.23,000 Sterling. The national debt is liquidating fast, and does not amount to quite L.6000. It has no regular troops; but the militia, which is organized, must supply the contingent of 522 men, whenever they are required. The cities are, Gera, with 7378 inhabitants; Schleis (the capital), with 4620; and Lobenstein, with 2716.

Waldeck, a principality surrounded by Prussia and Hanover. It is a very mountainous country, filled with mines, the geology of which is less known than that of any other part of Germany. The land is generally poor, and much encumbered with stones. Even in very fruitful years, it scarcely grows sufficient corn for its consumption, but must be supplied from the neighbouring states. Its poorer population subsist almost wholly on potatoes. In a beautiful valley, surrounded with lofty hills, the springs of Pyrmont rise, from which salts are made; and the place, in the summer, is crowded with visitors. The extent of the dominion is 293,970 acres; the inhabitants are 51,877; the revenue is about L.40,000 Sterling, but it is very deeply involved in debt. It has no regular troops, but a militia of 11,000 men, from whom the contingent of 518 must be supplied when wanted. The capital is Arolsen, a town of 1600 inhabitants. There is no city. Pyrmont has 1600 residents; but, in the season, has frequently from 2000 to 3000 who repair to the waters. From 300,000 to 350,000 bottles of the water are annually sent away.

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a duchy on the banks of the Danube, which runs through it. The country is generally poor, and produces little corn. The breeding of cattle is the principal husbandry. There are some iron mines, and some small manufactories of toys, yarn, potash, glass, and iron-ware. The extent is 293,120 acres; the inhabitants 37,032. They are all Catholics. The revenue is about L.30,000 Sterling. It has no regular troops, but some militia: its contingent is 370 men. Sigmaringen, the capital, has only 777 inhabitants; all the other towns are small.

Hohenzollern-Hechingen, a principality on the Swabian mountains. In the valleys, it is very fertile, and produces more corn than the consumption requires. The extent is 68,480 acres; the inhabitants are 14,500, all Catholics. The revenue is about L.12,000 Sterling; the debt is annihilated, and the taxes are light. There are no troops, but militia; the contingent is 145 men. Hechingen, the capital, contains 2600 inhabitants.

Schauenburg-Lippe, a beautiful principality between Minden and Hanover. It is very fertile and well cultivated. There are some valuable mines of coal in it, which are extensively worked. The extent is 138,880 acres. The inhabitants are 23,684, the greater part of whom are Lutherans; but in two of the towns, the Reformed is the prevailing party. The revenue is about L.22,000 Sterling, which is principally derived from the sovereign domains. There is one company of regular troops in a small fortress on the Stein-huder lake. The capital, Bückeburg, has 2060 inhabitants, and another place, Stadthagen, 1461.

Reus, elder branch, or Reus-Plauen, a principality between Prussian Saxony, Saxe Gotha, and Saxe Plauen. Weimar. It is fruitful in corn, and abounds with cattle. Iron mines are wrought, as those of silver, lead, and copper formerly were, though now abandoned. The extent is 95,360 acres; the inhabitants are 22 255, all of the Lutheran confession. The revenue is about L.13,000 Sterling. There is no army. The capital city, Greiz, has 6195 inhabitants, and Zeulenrode 3615.

Hesse-Homburg, a landgraviate between the dominions of Hesse Cassel, Bavaria, and Prussia, in detached portions; some part of it is very mountainous, but the vallies are fruitful, producing corn, and very good wine. The extent is 84,480 acres. The inhabitants 20,000, equally Lutherans and Reformed; but there are a few Catholics and Jews. The revenue is about L.20,000. There are no regular troops; the contingent is 200 men. The capital, Homburg, contains 2964 inhabitants, and Meisenheim 1730.

Liechtenstein, a principality, and the smallest sovereign state in Europe. It is a beautiful small valley, between Switzerland, the Tyrol Mountains, and the Rhine. It is a highly picturesque country. The principal employment is cotton-spinning, and making various wooden toys. It contains 5465 inhabitants. The extent is 38,920 acres. The revenue L.4500. Its contingent is 55 men. There is but one town, Badutz, in which is the palace of the prince, and the inhabitants are 1800. The Prince of Liechtenstein possesses estates within the Austrian territories, that are no part of his sovereignty, but which produce him a very large income.

During the late war, all the free or imperial cities of Germany had been involved in the calamities that attended it, and were ultimately merged in the French empire. The Congress of Vienna has, however, resuscitated four of those cities, the only ones which were adapted for independence, and formed them into republican governments. They may thus become useful points of union betwixt the different states of Germany, and connect those states by commercial relations with the more distant portions of the globe.

Frankfort on the Maine. This city has been declared by Congress the head of the free cities, for which, from its position, extent, and accommodations, it is well adapted. Having been formerly the seat of the imperial government of Germany, many of the princes of the empire had palaces within it, which have since been converted into hotels, or private dwellings, competent for the reception of the numerous diplomatists, and the concourse they attract, who must in future take up their residence in this city. Ambassadors from each of the states re- side in Frankfort; and, besides those of Germany, the other European potentates have envoys to transact their affairs with the general representatives of the country. Thus, Frankfort may now, in some measure, be considered as the metropolis of Germany. It is finely situated, has a navigable river, and a fertile district around it, and is one of the most magnificent looking cities on the Continent. Its power extends over two towns and six large villages. The government is an aristocracy founded on the amount of property; but the Jews, who are both rich and numerous, are not allowed to partake of it, or to live indiscriminately, but are all confined to a particular quarter. The trade of Frankfort is not considerable, nor are its manufactures, though numerous, extensive. A great many very large money transactions centre here; and it is one of the points from which the exchanges of the currency of many countries is very much influenced. The inhabitants are 47,850, including the whole territory. The Lutherans are the most numerous sect, and have gained possession of all the public offices. The churches are, seven Lutheran, three Catholic, and two Reformed; and the Jews, who are 10,000, have two synagogues. The revenues of the state are between L. 70,000 and L. 80,000 Sterling. The military force is one battalion of 300 men. The fortifications are levelled, and converted into most prolific gardens. Education is well provided for by schools of the higher order within the city, and parochial schools in all the villages. The whole extent of land, including the site of the city, towns, and villages, is 65,480 acres, the greater part of which is admirably cultivated on the garden principle, and produces the best of fruits and culinary vegetables.

Hamburg, the largest of the free cities, and, at one period, next to London, the greatest commercial city of Europe. Although it suffered most dreadful evils during the predominance of France, it has recovered in some degree from its depression, and is again a place of vast importance. The city contains 105,000 inhabitants; the whole territory, some towns of which are very distant from it, 129,850. The constitution is an aristocracy, founded on property; but the Jews are excluded from power, and restricted to residence in particular parts of the city. The whole government is by management, rather than by law, vested in the Lutherans, who form a very great majority of the inhabitants. The dissidents are 6000 Jews, 4000 Reformed, 2000 Catholics, and 500 Mennonites and Moravians. The commerce of Hamburg consists in the export of the productions of the various countries bordering on the Elbe, or the navigable streams that empty themselves into that river. Its imports comprise all those foreign luxuries which are furnished by the various countries of the globe, and which habit has rendered almost indispensable to many of the nations of Europe. It has some large public and private buildings, but all have a heaviness of appearance; and the streets are generally narrow and gloomy. In 1817, the number of ships that entered the port were 2320. The imports and exports are too various to be here enumerated. Vessels that draw more than fifteen feet water cannot come within the city, but must anchor in the stream. The whole extent of the territory, including the site of the city and towns, is 83,840 acres; that portion of the land that is not in gardens is sandy and poor. The revenue amounts to about L. 100,000 Sterling. The public debt was large, nearly L. 5,000,000, incurred when under the French; but a portion since the peace of 1815, has been diminished by the contribution which France was compelled to pay. The regular military are 1450 men. The other towns are, Bergedorf with 2000, and Ritzebüttel, with Cruxhaven, 1819 inhabitants.

Bremen, an ancient city, with a small territory round it. The city contains 36,630 inhabitants, the rest of the dominion 11,900. The constitution is of a democratic kind, and the magistrates are changed every six months. Its situation on the banks of the Weser is favourable for foreign trade, and for transmitting and receiving productions that descend from the point at Minden, where that river ceases to be navigable. The greater part of the inhabitants are of the Reformed sect, and have four churches; all the magistrates must be of that confession. The Lutherans have one church. The revenue is about L. 40,000 Sterling, and exceeds the expenditure. The surplus is applied to the liquidation of the state debt, the amount of which is not made public. The military force is only militia, the contingent 385 men. The other towns are Vegesack, with 1534, and Borgefeldt, with 1417 inhabitants.

Lübeck, a free city, with a small territory around it on the river Trave, which runs into the Baltic Sea. In former periods it was the head of the Hanseatic League, and, in that capacity, with its powerful fleets, was enabled to give law to the powers on the shores of the Baltic. It is now much reduced, having within the city only 29,060 inhabitants, and in the surrounding dependencies 11,590. The religion is Lutheran, but the Reformed have a church, though without the walls. The Jews are forbidden to live within the city, and reside at the village of Israelsdorf. It has some trade, and possesses between eighty and ninety ships. The income of the state is about L. 37,500 Sterling, and its debts are heavy. The only military are the militia. The extent of territory is 96,000 acres. The other towns are Travemunde, with 941, and Genen with 609 inhabitants.

As the events which produced the deliverance of Germany from the yoke of France belong to the recent history of that country as much as to this, our notices of it here must be brief. After the destruction of that vast army which penetrated into Russia, almost all the states of the north of Germany, with Prussia at their head, declared war against France. An army was quickly collected from the French conscription, and, with a wonderful celerity, Bonaparte at its head, was enabled to penetrate into Saxony, to threaten Prussia, and exhibit a force which he supposed would overawe Austria. The battles of Lutzen and Dresden, in 1813, produced an armistice, during whose continuance, negotiations for peace between Russia and Prussia on one side, and France on the other, were carried on under the mediation of the Emperor of Austria. As peace could Germany not be concluded, Austria was induced to join the allies against France. During these periods, a spirit had risen in Germany which animated all classes of its inhabitants, so that those powers which still clung to the interests of France, could place no reliance on the support of their subjects. Bonaparte, overpowered by numbers, with an army of raw troops from his own dominions, and with troops of doubtful fidelity from the dominions of his allies, was surrounded, and, after being compelled to retreat from Dresden, fought the important battle of Leipsic against the armies of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden. The issue of that battle was not considered to be doubtful from its commencement, but, during the contest, the Saxon division of the army marched from their station in the French line, and took up their position with the Prussians. The result of the battle was a hurried retreat from Leipsic to the frontier of France, which was then the river Rhine. On the retreat to the Rhine, the shattered remains of the French army were interrupted by the forces of Bavaria. A battle was fought at Hanau, about twelve miles from Frankfort, which, though gained by the French, tended only to hasten their flight, and to the loss of much that remained of their stores, arms, and ammunition.

By the end of the year 1813, the French were totally expelled from every part of Germany, and the occupation of Paris by the allies, early in 1814, led to general tranquillity. The Congress of Vienna soon after met, and never was a body of plenipotentiaries plunged into such a labyrinth of difficulties. The great extent of country that had been delivered, and was without any government, the number of claims urged either from previous possession, or from active service in effecting the deliverance, were such as to perplex with difficulties that appeared to be nearly insuperable, and, in whatever way they were terminated, must necessarily leave great dissatisfaction. They were, however, so settled as to leave Germany in the state described in the preceding pages, and whether they could have been adjusted with more regard to the principles of equity is not for us to decide.

The return of Bonaparte from Elba produced most gigantic efforts on the part of all those smaller sovereigns who had been reinstated in their dominions by his downfall. The number of troops actually mustered and prepared to march when the battle of Waterloo took place and suspended them, amounted to more than 1,200,000 men. They were not indeed all armed, but many more men could have been raised if arms for them could have been procured. These efforts, added to the costly exertions made in the war of the deliverance, have encumbered with debts almost every state, as is noticed in the detailed account of them. These debts, however, have not been solely created by those events. The ephemeral kingdom of Westphalia, formed for Jerome Bonaparte, extended over Hanover, Brunswick, and Cassel, as well as the circle from which it was denominated. During his government, all the different portions of his kingdom had incurred vast debts in executing his projects. These debts were owing to individuals or corporate bodies within the dominions attached by the Congress to their new sovereigns, and those princes, for the sake of the people, were compelled to assume the debts and provide means for their liquidation, and the payment in the meantime of the interest. Thus the ungrateful task of providing for the expenditure attending the subjection of their states, as well as for their liberation, has become one of the first duties on their resumption of power. This odious consequence of former circumstances has been industriously improved by the enemies of tranquillity, and has created considerable discontent. It has indeed been attended with no violence, and recently the people have appeared to be convinced that the taxes which are imposed are necessarily owing to circumstances over which their rulers had no control.

The best account of the present state of Germany is the large work produced from the joint labours of Gaspari, Hassel, Cannabich, and Gutsmuth, printed at Weimar, 1819; but every state, besides, has its local history, description, and statistics, which will not admit of enumeration in this place. Many of the preceding statements were collected by the compiler of this article, from various sources, whilst recently in Germany.

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