a well-known instrument, ranked by musicians among the musical instruments of percussion.

The constituent parts of a bell are the body or barrel, the clapper on the inside, and the car or cannon by which it is attached to a large beam of wood. The matter of which it is formed is a composition called *bell-metal*. The thickness of a bell's edge is usually 1-15th of the diameter, and its height is twelve times its thickness. The bell-founders have a diapason, or scale, wherewith they measure the size, thickness, weight, and tone of their bells.

The sound of a bell is conjectured to consist in a vibratory motion of its parts, somewhat like that of a musical chord. The stroke of the clapper must necessarily change the figure of the bell, and from a circle convert it into an oval or ellipse; but the metal having a great degree of elasticity, that part impinged on by the clapper, and driven farthest from the centre, will return, and even incline nearer the centre than before; so that the two parts which were extremes of the longest diameter become in turn those of the shortest; and thus the external surface of the bell undergoes alternate changes of figure, and by this means gives that tremulous motion to the air in which the sound consists. M. Perrault maintains that the sound of the same bell or chord is a compound of the sounds of the several parts thereof; so that where the parts are homogeneous, and the dimensions of the figure uniform, there is such a perfect mixture of all these sounds as constitutes one uniform, smooth, even sound; and the contrary circumstances produce harshness. This he proves from bells differing in tone according to the part impinged on, although there is a motion of all the parts wherever the blow happens to be given. He therefore considers bells as a compound of an infinite number of rings, which, according to their different dimensions, have different tones, as chords of different lengths have; and when struck, the vibrations of the parts immediately impinged determine the tone, being supported by a sufficient number of consonant tones in the other parts.

Bells are heard at a greater distance when placed on plains than on hills, and still farther in valleys than on plains; the reason of which seems to be, that the higher the sonorous body the rarer is the medium, and consequently, the less impulse it receives, and the less proper a vehicle it is to convey sound to a distance.

M. Reaumur, speaking of the shape most proper for bells, in order to give them the loudest and clearest sound, remarks, "that as pots and other vessels more immediately necessary to the service of life were doubtless made before bells, it probably happened that the observing these vessels to have a sound when struck, gave occasion to making bells, intended only for sound, in that form; but that it does not appear that this is the most eligible figure; for lead, a metal which is in its common state not at all sonorous, yet becomes greatly so on its being cast into a particular form, and that very different from the common shape of bells. In melting lead for the common occasions of casting in small quantities, it is usually done in an iron ladle; and as the whole is seldom poured out, the remainder which falls to the bottom of the ladle cools into a mass of the shape of that bottom. This is consequently a segment of a sphere, thickest in the middle, and thinner towards the edges; nor is the ladle any necessary part of the operation, since, if a mass of lead be cast in that form in a mould of earth or sand, in any of these cases it is found to be very sonorous. Now if this shape alone can give sound to a metal which in other forms is perfectly mute, how much more must it necessarily give it to other metals naturally sonorous, in whatever form? It should seem that bells would much better perform their office in this than in any other form; and that it must particularly be a thing of great advantage to the small bells of common house-clocks, which are required to have a shrill note, and yet are not allowed any great size."

The use of bells was very ancient, as well as extensive. We find them among Jews, Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Heathens, variously applied, as on the necks of men, beasts, birds, horses, sheep; but they were chiefly suspended in buildings, either religious, as in churches, temples, and monasteries; or civil, as in houses, markets, baths; or military, as in camps and frontier towns.

Among the Jews it was ordained that the lower part of the blue tunic which the high priest wore when he performed religious ceremonies should be adorned with pomegranates and gold bells, intermixed alternately and at equal distances. As to the number of the bells worn by the high priest, the Scriptures are silent, and authors are not very well agreed; but the sacred historian has let us into the use and intent of them, which was to give intimation both when he entered and came out of the holy place. The shahs of Persia are said to have the hem of their robes adorned, like the Jewish high priests, with pomegranates and gold bells.

Among the Greeks, those who went the nightly rounds in camps or garrisons, carried with them little bells, which they rung at each sentry-box, to see that the soldiers on watch were awake. A codonophorus or bellman also walked, in funeral processions, some space in advance of the corpse, not only to keep off the crowd, but to advertise the *flamen dialis* to keep out of the way, for fear of being polluted by the sight, or by the funerary music. The priest of Proserpine at Athens, called *hierophantus*, rung a bell to call the people to sacrifice. There were also bells in the houses of great men, to call up the servants in the morning. Zonaras assures us that bells were suspended along with whips on the triumphal chariots of victorious generals, in order to put them in mind that they were still liable to public justice. We are also informed that bells were put on the necks of criminals going to execution, that persons might be warned by the noise to get out of the way of so ill an omen as the sight of the hangman or the condemned criminal, who was devoted and on the point of being sacrificed to the *dii manes*.

Of bells on the necks of brutes, express mention is made in Phaedrus; and taking them away was construed theft by the civil law. With respect to the origin of church-bells, Mr Whitaker observes, that bells being used, among other purposes, by the Romans, to signify the times of bathing, they were naturally applied by the Christians of Italy to denote the hours of devotion, and summon the people to church. The first application of them to this purpose is ascribed by Polydore Virgil and others to Paulinus, bishop of Nola, a city of Campania, about A.D. 400. Hence, it is said, the names nola and campana were given them; the one referring to the city, the other to the country. In Britain, bells were applied to church purposes before the conclusion of the seventh century, in the monastic societies of Northumbria, and, as early as the sixth, even in those of Caledonia. They were therefore used from the first erection of parish churches. Those of France and England appear to have been furnished with several bells. These were sometimes composed of iron in France; and in England, as formerly at Rome, they were frequently made of brass. As early as the ninth century, many were cast of a large size and deep note.

Ingulphus mentions that Turketulus, abbot of Croyland, who died about A.D. 870, gave a great bell to the church of that abbey, which he named Guthlac, and afterwards six others, two of which he called Bartholomew and Bettelein, two Turketul and Taticin, and two he named Pegu and Bega. All of them rang together; and the same author says, Non erat tunc tanta consonantia campanarum in tota Anglia. Not long after, Kinseus, archbishop of York, gave two great bells to the church of St John at Beverley, and at the same time provided that other churches in his diocese should be furnished with bells. Mention is also made by St Aldhelm, and William of Malmesbury, of bells given by St Dunstan to the churches in the West. The number of bells in every church gave occasion to the curious and singular architecture which is often found in the campanile or bell-tower; an addition which is more susceptible of the grander beauties of architecture than any other part of the edifice. It was the constant appendage of every parish church belonging to the Saxons, and is distinctly mentioned as such in the laws of Athelstane.

The Greek Christians are usually said to have been unacquainted with bells till the ninth century, when the construction of these instruments was first taught them by a Venetian; but it is not true that the use of bells was entirely unknown in the ancient eastern churches, and that they called the people to church with wooden mallets. In some learned dissertations on the Greek temples, Leo Allatius proves the contrary from several ancient writers. In his opinion bells first began to be disused after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks; the latter, it seems, having prohibited them lest their sound should disturb the repose of souls wandering in the air. Father Simon, however, thinks that the Turks prohibited the Christians the use of bells from political rather than religious motives; inasmuch as the ringing of bells might serve as a signal for the execution of revolts, insurrections, or popular commotions.

In the ancient monasteries we find six kinds of bells enumerated by Durandus, namely, squilla, rung in the refectory; cymbalum, in the cloister; nola, in the choir; nodula or dupla, in the clock; campana, in the steeple; and signum, in the tower. Belethus very nearly agrees with Durandus, only for squilla he puts tintinnabulum, and places the campana in the tower, and campanella in the cloister. Others place the tintinnabulum or tintinnum in the refectory or dormitory; and add another bell, called corrigiumcula, rung at the time of giving discipline, to call the monks to be flogged. The cymbalum also is sometimes said to have been rung in the cloister, to call the monks to meals.

From the researches of a writer who has paid particular attention to this subject, we learn that bells frequently bore such inscriptions as the following:

Funera plango, Fulgura frango, Sabatta pango, Exeito leones, Dissipo ventos, Paco cruentos.

In the little sanctuary at Westminster, King Edward III. erected a clocher, and placed in it bells for the use of St Stephen's chapel, round the largest of which were cast in the metal these words:

King Edward made me thirtie thousand weight and three. Take me down and wey mee, and more you shall fynd mee. But these bells having been ordered to be taken down in the reign of King Henry VIII., some one wrote underneath with a coal:

But Henry the eight Will balt me of my weight.

This last distich alludes to a fact mentioned by Stowe in his survey of London, that near to St Paul's school stood a clocher, in which were four bells called Jesus's Bells, the greatest in all England, against which Sir Miles Partridge staked a hundred pounds, and won them of King Henry VIII. at a cast of dice. Nevertheless, in foreign countries there were bells of greater magnitude. In the steeple of the great church at Rouen, in Normandy, was a bell with this inscription:

Je suis George d'Ambois, Qui trente cinque mille pois. Mais lui qui me pesera Trente six mille me trouvera.

But it was probably destroyed when the greater part of the magnificent edifice containing it was consumed by fire, several years ago. It is a common tradition that the bells of King's College Chapel, in the university of Cambridge, were brought by Henry V. from some church in France soon after the battle of Agincourt. They were taken down many years ago, and sold to a bell-founder in Whitechapel, who melted them down.

The various uses of bells were cleverly summed up in the following distich:

Laude Deum verum, plebem voco, conjugo clerum, Defunctos ploro, pestem fugio, festa decoro.

Matthew Pars observes, that anciently the use of bells was prohibited in time of mourning; at present, however, the tolling of them makes one of the principal ceremonies of interment. Mabillon adds, that it was an ancient custom to ring bells for persons about to expire, to advertise the people to pray for them. The passing bell, indeed, was anciently rung for two purposes; one, to bespeak the prayers of all good Christians for a soul just departing; the other, to drive away the evil spirits who were supposed to stand near the bed of the dying, or about the house, ready to seize their prey, or at least to molest and terrify the soul in its passage. By the ringing of the bell,—for Durandus informs us that evil spirits are desperately afraid of bells,—they were kept aloof; and the soul, like a hunted hare, gained the start, or had what is by sportsmen called lye. This dislike of spirits to bells is mentioned in the Golden Legend by Wynken de Worde. "It is said, the evil spirytes that ben in the regyon of thyre, doubte moche when they here the belles rongen: and this is the cause why the belles ben rongen when it thondreth, and whan grete tempestes and outrages of wether happen, to the ende that the feinds and wycked spirytes shold be abashed and fle, and cease of the movynge of tempestes." Lobeineau observes, that the custom of ringing bells at the approach of thunder is of some antiquity; but that the design was not so much to shake the air, and so dissipate the thunder, as to call the people to church to pray that the parish might be preserved from that terrible meteor.

In Roman Catholic times bells were baptized and anoint- Electrical Bells are used in a variety of entertaining experiments by electricians. The apparatus, which is originally of German invention, consists of three small bells suspended from a narrow plate of metal, the two outermost by chains, and that in the middle, from which a chain passes to the floor, by a silken string. Two small knobs of brass are also suspended by silken strings, one on each side of the bell in the middle, which serve for clappers. When this apparatus is connected with an electrified conductor, the outermost bells suspended by the chains will be charged, attract the clappers, and be struck by them. The clappers, becoming electrified, will likewise be repelled by these bells, and attracted by the middle bell, and discharge themselves upon it by means of the chain extending to the floor. After this they will be again attracted by the outermost bells, and thus, by striking the bells alternately, occasion a ringing, which may be continued at pleasure. Flashes of light will be seen in the dark between the bells and clappers, and if the electrification be strong, the discharge will be made without actual contact, and the ringing will cease. An apparatus of this kind, connected with one of those conductors which are erected for securing buildings from lightning, will serve to give notice of the approach and passage of an electrical cloud.

Bella, Stefano de la, an eminent engraver, was born at Florence A.D. 1610. His father was a goldsmith, and he himself began to work at his father's business. But whilst he was learning to draw, in order to perfect himself in that profession, there fell by accident into his hands some of the prints of Callot, with which he was so delighted, that he prevailed upon his father to permit him to apply himself to engraving; and he became the disciple of Canta Gallina, who had also been the instructor of Callot. De la Bella at first imitated the manner of Callot. But his abilities soon began to manifest themselves; and as he acquired by degrees a facility in the handling of the burin, he quitted the style in which he only shone as an imitator, and adopted one entirely his own, which in freedom and spirit is said even to have surpassed that of his fellow-disciple. In 1642 he went to Paris, where Cardinal Richelieu engaged him to go to Arras, and make drawings of the siege and taking of that town by the royal army. He also went to Holland, where, it is reported, he saw some of the prints of Rembrandt Gerritsz, and attempted to imitate them; but finding he did not succeed to his expectation, he dropped that design, and continued to pursue his own manner, as more suitable to his genius. After residing a considerable time at Paris, his family affairs obliged him to return to Florence, where he obtained a pension from the grand duke, and was appointed to instruct the prince Cosmo his son in the art of design. But being subject to violent pains in the head, his life was rendered miserable, and at last terminated, by this cruel disorder, which carried him off in the year 1664, at the age of fifty-four.