the general name of almost every literary composition, but, in a more limited sense, applied only to such compositions as are large enough to make a volume.

Several sorts of materials were formerly used in making books. Plates of lead and copper, the bark of trees, bricks, stone, and wood, were the substances anciently employed to engrave such things upon as men were willing to have transmitted to posterity. Josephus speaks of two columns, the one of stone and the other of brick, on which the children of Seth wrote their inventions and astronomical discoveries; and Porphyry mentions some pillars preserved in Crete, on which the ceremonies observed by the Corybantes in their sacrifices were recorded. Hesiod's works were originally written upon tablets of lead, and deposited in the temple of the Muses, in Boeotia; the ten commandments delivered to Moses were written upon stone; and the laws of Solon were inscribed upon wooden planks. Tables of wood, box, and ivory, were common among the ancients; but when of wood, they were latterly covered with wax, and the letters traced in the soft matter of the coating by means of a pointed style, so that writing in this fashion might be exactly executed, and as easily obliterated. The leaves of the palm-tree were afterwards used instead of wooden planks; and also the finest and thinnest part of the bark of such trees as the lime, the ash, the maple, and the elm; whence comes the word liber, which literally signifies the inner bark of a tree. And as these barks were rolled up, in order to be removed with greater ease, the rolls were called volumen, a volume; a name afterwards given to the like rolls of paper or parchment.

Thus we find books were first written on stones, as the decalogue of Moses; then on the parts of plants, as leaves, chiefly of the palm-tree, the rind and barks, especially of the tilia, or phillyrea, and the Egyptian papyrus. By degrees wax came to be used; then leather, especially the skins of goats and sheep, of which at length parchment was prepared; then lead was employed; then linen, silk, and horn; and lastly paper itself.

The first books were in the form of blocks and tablets; but when flexible matter came into use it was found more convenient to make books in the form of rolls, which were composed of several sheets fastened to each other, and rolled upon a stick, or umbilicus; the whole forming a kind of column or cylinder, which was managed by the umbilicus as a handle. The outside of the volume was called frons, and the ends of the umbilicus cornua; which were usually carved, and adorned with silver, ivory, or even gold and precious stones. The title, ευλογης, was struck on the outside; and the whole volume, when extended, might be about a yard or more in width, and fifty in length. The form which obtains among us is the square, composed of separate leaves; and it was also known, though little used, by the ancients.

To the form of books belongs also the internal economy, embracing the order and arrangement of points and letters into lines and pages, with margins and other accessories. This has undergone many varieties. At first the letters were divided only into lines; then into separate words; and these, by degrees, were noted with accents, and distributed, by points and stops, into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divisions. In some countries, as among the orientals, the direction of the lines was from right to left; in others, as among the northern and western nations, from left to right; while the early Greeks followed both directions, writing alternately from right to left and from left to right, which was called boustrophedon, from its analogy to the path of oxen in ploughing. In most countries the lines run from one side to the other; in some, particularly among the Chinese, their direction is from top to bottom. The Egyptian monumental writing, or hieroglyphics, is arranged in all these directions, and in several peculiar to itself. Sometimes we find it proceeding from right to left; sometimes from left to right; very frequently from top to bottom, in regular parallel columns; in a few instances, and but a few, boustrophedon; occasionally arranged in groups or clusters, as in anaglyphs; and, where the space was irregular, as on the sides of obelisks, disposed in an arbitrary manner, varying according to the circumstances. But this total want of system, or rather this mode of arranging the characters upon all systems and in all ways, can never be productive of any difficulty or ambiguity, as the disposition and true sequence of the writing is in every case clearly and almost intuitively indicated by the direction given to the principal figures, more especially to those which represent animals, or the human form. With regard to the other modes of writing practised by the ancient Egyptians, that called the hieratic follows to a certain extent the varieties of the hieroglyphic; but the demotic, enchorial, or civil form, is generally disposed from right to left, in the ordinary manner of oriental writing.

Of the scarcity and value of books during the seventh and subsequent centuries, the following curious account is given by Mr Warton:

"Towards the close of the seventh century," says this writer, "even in the papal library at Rome, the number of books was so inconsiderable, that Pope Saint Martin requested Sanctamund, bishop of Maestricht, if possible, to supply this defect from the remotest parts of Germany. In the year 855 Lupus, abbot of Ferrières, in France, sent two of his monks to Pope Benedict III. to beg a copy of Cicero de Oratore, and Quintilian's Institutes, and some other books: 'for,' says the abbot, 'although we have part of these books, yet there is no whole or complete copy of them in all France.' Albert, abbot of Gemblours, who with incredible labour and immense expense had collected a hundred volumes on theological, and fifty on profane subjects, imagined he had formed a splendid library. About the year 790 Charlemagne granted an unlimited right of hunting to the abbot and monks of Sithin, for making their gloves and girdles of the skins of the deer they killed, and covers for their books. We may imagine that these religious were more fond of hunting than reading. It is certain that they were obliged to hunt before they could read; and at least it is probable that, under these circumstances, and of such materials, they did not manufacture many volumes. At the beginning of the tenth century books were so scarce in Spain, that one and the same copy of the bible, Saint Jerome's Epistles, and some volumes of ecclesiastical offices and martyrologies, often served several different monasteries. Among the constitutions given to the monks of England by Archbishop Lanfranc, in the year 1072, the following injunction occurs. At the beginning of Lent the librarian is ordered to deliver a book to each of the religious: a whole year was allowed for the perusal of this book, and at the returning Lent those monks who had neglected to read the books they had respectively received are commanded to prostrate themselves before the abbot, and to supplicate his indulgence. This regulation was partly occasioned by the low state of literature which Lanfranc found in the English monasteries. But at the same time it was a matter of necessity, and is in a great measure to be referred to the scarcity of copies of useful and suitable authors. In an inventory of the goods of John de Pontissara, bishop of Winchester, contained in his capital palace of Wulvesy, all the books which appear are nothing more than Septendecim species librorum de diversis scientiis. This was in the year 1294. The same prelate, in the year 1299, borrows of his cathedral convent of St Swithin at Winchester, Bibliam bene glossatam; that is, the bible with marginal annotations, in two large folio volumes; but gives a bond for due return of the loan, drawn up with great solemnity. This bible had been bequeathed to the convent the same year by Pontissara's predecessor, Bishop Nicholas de Ely; and in consideration of so important a bequest, that is, pro bona Bibliia dicti episcopi bene glossata, and one hundred merks in money, the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor. When a single book was bequeathed to a friend or relation, it was seldom without many restrictions and stipulations. If any person gave a book to a religious house, he believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation; and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony. The most formidable anathemas were peremptorily denounced against those who should dare to alienate a book presented to the cloister or library of a religious house. The prior and convent of Rochester declare that they will every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who shall purloin or conceal a Latin translation of Aristotle's Physics, or even obliterate the title. Sometimes a book was given to a monastery on condition that the donor should have the use of it during his life; and sometimes to a private person, with the reservation that he who receives it should pray for the soul of his benefactor. The gift of a book to Lincoln Cathedral by Bishop Repingdon, in the year 1422, occurs in this form, and under these curious circumstances. The memorial is written in Latin with the bishop's own hand, which I will give in English, at the beginning of Peter's Breviary of the Bible. 'I Philip of Repyndon, late bishop of Lincoln, give this book, called Peter de Areolis, to the new library to be built within the church of Lincoln; reserv- ing the use and possession of it to Richard Trysely, clerk, canon, and prebendary, of Mitton, in fee, and to the term of his life; and afterwards to be given up and restored to the said library, or the keepers of the same, for the time being, faithfully, and without delay. Written with my own hand, A.D. 1422.' When a book was bought, the affair was of so much importance, that it was customary to assemble persons of consequence and character, and to make a formal record that they were present on this occasion. Among the royal manuscripts in the book of the Sentences of Peter Lombard, an archdeacon of Lincoln has left this entry: 'This book of the Sentences belongs to master Robert archdeacon of Lincoln, which he bought of Geoffrey the chaplain, brother of Henry vicar of Northelkington; in the presence of master Robert de Lee, master John of Lirling, Richard of Luda clerk, Richard the almoner, the said Henry the vicar, and his clerk, and others; and the said archdeacon gave the said book to God and St Oswald, and to Peter abbot of Barton, and the convent of Barden.' The disputed property of a book often occasioned the most violent altercations. Many claims appear to have been made to a manuscript of Matthew Paris, belonging to the last-mentioned library; in which John Russel, bishop of Lincoln, thus conditionally defends or explains his right of possession. 'If this book can be proved to be or to have been the property of the exempt monastery of St Albans, in the diocese of Lincoln, I declare this to be my mind, that in that case I use it at present as a loan under favour of those monks who belong to the said monastery. Otherwise, according to the condition under which this book came into my possession, I will that it shall belong to the college of the blessed Winchester Mary at Oxford, of the foundation of William Wykham.' Written with my own hand at Buckdane, 1st Jan., A.D. 1488. Jo. Lincoln. Whoever shall obliterate or destroy this writing, let him be anathema.'

About the year 1295, Roger de Insula, dean of York, gave several Latin bibles to the university of Oxford, with a condition that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge. The library of that university, before the year 1300, consisted only of a few tracts, chained or kept in chests in the choir of St Mary's church. In the year 1327 the scholars and citizens of Oxford assaulted and entirely pillaged the opulent Benedictine abbey of the neighbouring town of Abingdon. Among the books they found there were one hundred psalters, as many grayles, and forty missals, which undoubtedly belonged to the choir of the church; but besides these there were only twenty-two codices, which I interpret books on common subjects. And although the invention of paper at the close of the eleventh century contributed to multiply manuscripts, and consequently to facilitate knowledge, yet, even so late as the reign of our Henry VI. I have discovered the following remarkable instance of the inconveniences and impediments to study, which must have been produced by a scarcity of books. It is in the statutes of St Mary's College at Oxford, founded as a seminary to Osney Abbey in the year 1446: 'Let no scholar occupy a book in the library above one hour, or two hours at most, so that others be hindered from the use of the same.' The famous library established in the university of Oxford by that munificent patron of literature Humphrey duke of Gloucester, contained only 600 volumes. About the commencement of the fourteenth century there were only four classics in the royal library of Paris. These were one copy of Cicero, Ovid, Lucan, and Boethius. The rest were chiefly books of devotion, which included but few of the fathers; many treatises of astrology, geomancy, chiromancy, and medicine, originally written in Arabic, and translated into Latin or French; pandects, chronicles, and romances. This collection was principally made by Charles V., who began his reign in 1365. This monarch was passionately fond of reading; and it was the fashion to send him presents of books from every part of the kingdom of France. These he ordered to be elegantly transcribed and richly illuminated; and he placed them in a tower of the Louvre, from thence called La Tour de la Libraire. The whole consisted of 900 volumes. They were deposited in three chambers, which on this occasion were wainscotted with Irish oak, and ceiled with cypress curiously carved. The windows were of painted glass, fenced with iron bars and copper wire. The English became masters of Paris in the year 1425, on which event the duke of Bedford, regent of France, sent the whole library, then consisting of only 853 volumes, and valued at 2223 livres, into England, where perhaps they became the ground-work of Duke Humphrey's library just mentioned. Even so late as the year 1471, when Louis XI. of France borrowed the works of the Arabian physician Rhasis from the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only deposited, by way of pledge, a quantity of valuable plate, but was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a deed, by which he bound himself to return it under a considerable forfeiture. Of the expensive prices of books in the middle ages there are numerous and curious proofs. I will mention a few only. In the year 1174 Walter, prior of St Swithin's at Winchester, afterwards elected abbot of Westminster, a writer in Latin of the lives of the bishops who were his patrons, purchased of the monks' of Dorchester in Oxfordshire, Bede's Homilies and St Austin's Psalter, for twelve measures of barley, and a pall, on which was embroidered in silver the history of St Birinus converting a Saxon king. Among the royal manuscripts in the British Museum there is Comestor's Scholastic History in French, which, as it is recorded in a blank page at the beginning, was taken from the king of France at the battle of Poictiers; and being purchased by William Montague, earl of Salisbury, for 100 marcs, was ordered to be sold by the last will of his Countess Elizabeth for forty livres. About the year 1400 a copy of John of Meun's Roman de la Rose, was sold at Paris for forty crowns, or L.33. 6s. 6d." (Warton's History of English Poetry, vol. i.) For further information regarding books, see Bibliography.