This extensive region is situated between Bengal and Thibet, and principally between the twenty-sixth and twenty-eighth degrees of north latitude, though its limits are far from being exactly defined. It is supposed to be 200 miles from east to west, and 90 from north to south. To the north it is separated from Thibet by the eastern ridges of the Himalaya range, to the south by the province of Bengal, to the east by an unexplored region north of Assam, and to the west by a country subject to the Nepalese.

Bootan is a very mountainous and rugged country. Its Aspe of mountains form part of the great Himalaya chain, and they abound in the most picturesque and sublime scenery, try. "The prospects," says Turner, "between abrupt and lofty prominences were inconceivably grand; hills clothed to their very summits with trees, dark and deep glens, and the high tops of mountains lost in the clouds, constituted altogether a scene of extraordinary magnificence and sublimity." In many parts the road, winding round the hills, becomes a narrow ledge, and hangs over depths which no eye can reach; and were not the horror of the scene in some degree softened by the trees and climbing plants which line the precipices, it would be impossible to advance on such a perilous path. The rivers that find a passage between mountains which hide their heads in the clouds are frequently precipitated in tremendous cataracts over frightful precipices, or into dark and unfathomable glens, where their imprisoned waters roar and foam like the surges of a tempestuous sea, until they issue out into the plains. Turner mentions one stream which issues from the high grounds in a collected body; but descends from so great a height, that before it reaches the thick shade below, it is nearly dissipated, and appears like the steam arising from boiling water. In so mountainous a country, abounding in torrents, bridges are frequent, and a traveller has to pass one or more in every day's journey. They are of various construction, generally of timber, at other times of iron chains, on the same plan as the chain bridges in this country. Bamboo frequently afford the material of their construction. Turner mentions one consisting of two ropes made of twisted creepers, stretched parallel to each other across the river, and encircled with a hoop, on which the traveller sits down, and seizing one rope in each hand, he slides himself along, and crosses an abyss on which it is impossible to look without shuddering. The same traveller crossed another bridge made entirely of fir, without one particle of iron about it. When the width of the river admits, the timber is laid horizontally from rock to rock. Over broader streams, a triple or quadruple row of timbers, one row projecting over the other, and inserted into the rock, sustains two sloping sides, which are united by a horizontal platform of nearly equal length. The centre is in this manner raised very much above the current, and the whole bridge forms the figure of nearly three sides of an octagon. Piers are seldom used, on account of the extreme rapidity of the rivers, and the unequal height of the opposite shores. Turner mentions that the widest river in Bootan has an iron bridge, consisting of a number of chains, which support a matted platform; and two chains are stretched above, parallel with the sides, to allow of a matted border, which is absolutely necessary to the safety of the passenger, who is never quite at his ease till he has landed from this swinging unsteady footing. Only one horse is permitted to go over this bridge at a time. Bridges for foot passengers are frequently formed of two parallel chains, round which creepers are loosely twisted, sinking very much in the middle, where suitable planks are placed, and form a very good footing.

At the foot of the mountains between Bootan and Bengal a plain extends for about thirty miles, covered with the most luxuriant vegetation, but of the most noxious atmosphere, occasioned by the exhalations from the multitude of springs that descend from the mountains, and which are collected and confined by these almost impervious woods. No traveller ever passed through this unhealthy atmosphere with impunity. A British force was sent on an expedition in 1772 against the country of Bootan, when the greater part of the troops perished in crossing this unhealthy tract. The jungles of high grass or of wood by which it is covered abound in tigers, wild buffaloes, elephants, rhinoceroses, and bears.

The climate, from the inequality of the ground, affords every degree of variation from summer heat to the freezing point. At the time the inhabitants of Punakha (the winter residence of the rajah), are afraid of exposing themselves to an almost vertical sun, those of Ghassa experience all the rigour of winter, and are chilled by perpetual snows; and both these places are within sight of each other. On the elevated mountain heights it is cold and moist, and here the clouds are intercepted and descend in rains. The rains, however, in the vicinity of Tassidun, the capital, are moderate. There are frequent showers, but nothing that can be compared to the tropical rains of Bengal. Owing to the great elevation and steepness of the mountains, dreadful tempests of winds arise among the hollows, which are often attended with fatal effects. A considerable village, situated on the brow of a lofty hill, was nearly destroyed by one of these tempests. In one night a hurricane swept nine houses down the steep, with their unfortunate inmates; and though search was afterwards made, not the slightest traces of them were ever found. Three houses still remain, and their tenants, unawed by the dismal fate of their neighbours, still retain their situations. At Wandipore, a town still farther in the interior, a perpetual hurricane prevails; and, as a proof of the violence and steadiness of the wind, the trees have their branches all pointed towards the east, on which side the branches grow with vigour, and are full of luxuriant foliage, while on the other side they are perfectly denuded and bare. This singular effect results from the peculiar conformation of the hills, which throws a constant current of wind with great fury across the corner where the trees have been planted.

The people are industrious, and devote themselves to agriculture. In the vicinity of the cottages, which are interspersed throughout the mountains, the land is cleared for cultivation, and produces thriving crops of barley and wheat, and a small grain from which they make a fermented liquor to drink. It is the practice of the husbandmen to level the ground which they cultivate on the sides of the hills, by cutting it in shelves, and forming beds of such a size as the slope will admit; and these beds being bordered with a low mound of earth, the water may be retained on them or let off at will. In irrigating their fields the farmers of Bootan make use of the hollow trunks of trees, by which they conduct water across the chasms of the mountains. They are generally good husbandmen, and display much industry in the management of their grounds. Their corn fields are neatly dressed; though the credit of this is due more to the women than the men, as by far the greatest share of the labour falls upon them. They plant, they weed, and they reap and thresh out the corn. They are exposed, in a variety of laborious offices, to the inclemency of the weather; while the men, living in idleness, enjoy the fruits of their toils.

Fruits are very abundant, namely, lemons, limes, citrons, oranges, and walnuts, which are exquisite; excellent pomegranates, peaches, and apricots; apples, pears, &c. which are harsh, and of a disagreeable flavour. Strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries are found growing wild in the woods. Large turnips of an excellent quality are also produced. They are free from fibres, and remarkably sweet. The climate is generally well adapted to the production both of European and Asiatic fruits and vegetables. Potatoes have been introduced; but, either from ignorance or idleness, the inhabitants have failed in the cultivation of this valuable root. The forests abound with a variety of stately trees, and the fic is often found eight or ten feet in circumference. The other trees seen in the woods are the beech, the ash, birch, maple, cypress, yew, and pine. There are no oak trees. Among these mountains, in the vicinity of Murichom, grows the cinnamon tree. Some of the roots and branches were examined by Mr Turner in the course of his journey to Thibet; but the plant being neither in blossom nor bearing fruit, it was impossible to decide whether it was the true cinnamon or an inferior kind of cassia. The leaf, however, corresponded with the description given of the true cinnamon by Linnæus. In approaching the summits of the highest mountains, the stately trees of the forest disappear, and are succeeded by that hardy and dwarfish species of vegetation which is peculiar to mountainous tracts.

Wild animals are extremely rare in Bootan; and Turner mentions, as an extraordinary circumstance, that he one day saw a multitude of monkeys playing their gambols by the road side. They are of a large and handsome kind, with black faces surrounded by a streak of white hair, and having very long slender limbs. They are held sacred by the Booteans as well as by the Hindoos. The horse, a certain species of which is indigenous to Bootan, and is used as a domestic animal, is called tangun, from Tangustan, the general appellation of that assemblage of mountains which constitutes the territory of Bootan. It is peculiar to this tract, not being found in any of the neighbouring countries of Assam, Nepaul, Thibet, or Bengal, and unites in an eminent degree the two qualities of strength and beauty, being remarkable for symmetry and just proportions. The Tangun horse is usually about thirteen hands high, short-bodied, clean-limbed, and deep in the chest, yet extremely active. Being constantly accustomed to struggle against acclivities, there is a surprising energy and vigour in all his movements; and this indomitable spirit is supposed by Europeans to proceed from a headstrong and ungovernable temper, while in reality it is only an excess of eagerness in the performance of any allotted task. The colour of this horse usually inclines to pychaid, and those of one colour are rarely to be found. Though the larger animals are scarce, the country is in some parts infested by insects. A venomous fly annoys the inhabitants of Murichom and its vicinity. It differs from the mosquito both in form and size, but fixes itself in the same manner, and draws blood with its proboscis. It leaves behind a small blister, full of black contaminated blood, which enlarges and inflames, and becomes extremely troublesome. Most of the inhabitants are so marked by wounds from this fly, that such parts as are exposed to the air are covered with scurf; and being sometimes attended with tumours, acquire a very diseased appearance.

The inhabitants of this elevated tract are of active habits and of a Herculean make, many of them being six feet high, and are entirely different from the feeble and timid natives of Bengal. A general resemblance of features pervades the whole race of these hardy mountaineers. They are fairer than their Bengal neighbours, and have generally broader faces, with high cheek-bones. They have invariably black hair, which it is their fashion to cut close to the head. The eye, which is a remarkable feature in their face, is small and black, with long pointed corners, as if stretched and extended by artificial means. Their eye-lashes are so thin as to be scarcely perceptible. Their face is rather flat, narrowing from the cheek-bones to the chin, and broadest below the eyes—a physiognomy which somewhat resembles that of the Tartars, though it is far more strongly marked among the Chinese. They have very small beards, and they generally reach an advanced age before they have the appearance of any; and in this also they resemble the Tartars. They are greatly affected with those glandular swellings in the throat to which the inhabitants of mountain districts are frequently liable, and which prevail among the natives of the Alps, and in Styria, Carinthia, the Ukraine, and the Tyrol. These swellings extend below the chin from ear to ear, and sometimes grow to such an enormous size as to hang from the throat down upon the breast.

The Booteans are not a warlike people, and in the brief contest which took place in 1772 with the British, though they displayed great personal courage, they were unable to withstand the effects of musketry and cannon. Their military accoutrements are extremely cumbrous. As a defence against the weapons of their opponents, they cover their bodies with a prodigious deal of clothing, wearing under the common mantle a blanket or thick quilted jacket. On the arm is carried a large corner shield of painted cane, and a long straight sword is worn across the body. To these is added a bow, six feet long, made of bamboo, remarkable for its elasticity and strength. The arrow is headed by a flattened barb of pointed iron, the sides of which are sometimes grooved to admit the lodgment of poison, with which deadly substance it is frequently charged. The plant which affords this poison is described as growing to the height of three or four feet, with a hollow stalk. The juice is inspissated, and laid as a paste on their arrows; but it has not all the effect intended, as the wound thus inflicted seldom proves fatal. Some of them are armed with matchlocks, which are in general badly made, and in wretched order. In the management of the sword and shield they are very dexterous, and are excellent archers. They have no cannon.

The Booteans have made no great advances in the arts and improvements of life, though in the construction of public works, such as bridges, aqueducts, &c., they display both perseverance and ingenuity. The nature of the bridges which they construct has been already described. The aqueducts which they contrive are for the purpose of diffusing the water that issues from the mountain springs over the valleys, which are thus irrigated and rendered fit for agriculture. These conduits, although composed of the hollowed trunks of large trees, forced in the soil which covers the rock, or sustained by beams inserted in it, convey the waters across deep dells and along the sides of precipices, and exhibit in a very favourable view the ingenuity and industry of the people, especially when it is considered that, being surrounded and shut up on every side by impervious mountains, they are left to their own resources, and cannot borrow aid from the inventions of more improved nations. Their houses are in general of one story, and not commodious. They have no fireplaces; and when the cold forces them to have recourse to a fire, one is kindled in the middle of the room on a large flat stone; and the inmates, ranging themselves round it, are enveloped in volumes of pure smoke, which has no other exit but the windows, and never fails by its pungency to annoy all who are present.

The Booteans are social and cheerful in their manners. The women and the men mix freely together; and they are frequently seen sitting under the cavities of the rocks or other sheltered places, chatting together in great good humour, and occasionally indulging in obstreperous laughter. They generally exhibit a picture of rosy health; the women in particular, with their jet black hair, and clear, brisk, black eyes, possess a ruddiness which, according to Turner, the most florid English rustic would in vain attempt to rival. Yet they are far from being cleanly in their habits; nor are their manners and amusements of a refined cast. A bull fight is a favourite exhibition, for which purpose they train the largest and fiercest animals of the species that can be procured. They are led to the ground well secured with strong ropes fastened to them, struggling violently as if impatient of restraint, and rolling their prominent eyes with fury as if instructed in the fierce purpose for which they are brought together. Being released for the conflict, they do not rush instantly together, but advance cautiously, eyeing each other askance, until being within a short distance, they rush together with a dreadful concussion; and the contest continues until one or other is overpowered by the superior strength of his antagonist, when they are separated.

The temperature, from the elevation of the country, is so cold that the inhabitants require warm covering; and hence their clothing consists of thick woollen cloths. Their mode of living is simple; their food consisting of fruits, vegetables, and roots. Tea is as common a refreshment as in China, but the mode of preparation is extremely different. It is not merely an infusion which is here used. The tea itself is beat up with water, flour, butter, salt, and other ingredients, which are all mixed together. This is a regale not much suited to a European palate, yet it is said by those who have visited the country to become more acceptable by habit, and by a little practice even to be esteemed a luxury. Having finished the cup, they lick it in order to make it clean, when it is wrapt up, to be preserved, in a piece of scarlet silk. They extract a spirit from rice, wheat, barley, or other kinds of grain, which they call chong, and which is prepared by the infusion of a mass of grain when in a state of fermentation. It is a slightly acid and spirituous liquor, and is a most grateful beverage, especially when warm, and when fatigue and heat induce intemperate thirst. From this preparation of fermented grain an ardent spirit is obtained by distillation, here termed arra, which is fiery and powerfully inebriating.

The Bootean have scarcely any manufactures. They have a class of workmen who are employed in forging brazen gods, and various other ornaments disposed about religious buildings. They also manufacture paper from the bark of a tree which grows on the mountains in the interior, and which is of so strong a texture that it is capable of being woven, when cut by way of ornament, into the texture of silks and satins.

We know little of the commerce of Bootan. The general policy of the people seems to resemble that of the Chinese in excluding strangers from their dominions. It is certain that a decided aversion to all intercourse with the natives of Hindostan has always prevailed among the natives of its northern frontier. The district of Ringpore in Bengal is no doubt annually visited by a caravan from Bootan, which brings with it oranges, walnuts, and the coarse woollen manufactures of the country, with the horses which carry them, for sale; and it returns after a month's stay with the cotton cloths, salt, and other articles, the produce of Bengal. But the inhabitants of the latter country have never been allowed the same privilege of free access to Bootan. The people evince an extreme jealousy of strangers, from a dread that, if once admitted into the country, and knowing all its paths, they might attempt its conquest. The presents sent by the ruler of Bootan to the Bengal presidency in 1772 consisted of sheets of gilt leather stamped with the black eagle of the Russian armorial, talents of gold and silver, bulbes of gold dust, bags of genuine musk, narrow woollen cloths of Thibet manufacture, and Chinese silk. The chests which contained them were of good workmanship, and joined together by dove-tail work.

The supreme ruler of Bootan is called the Deb Raja. He resides at Tassissudon, and possesses unlimited sway over his subjects, who show him unbounded veneration, prostrating themselves nine times in his presence, after the eastern fashion. He appears, however, to exercise his authority with mildness and moderation; and the conversation which he had with the British embassy was replete with moral and religious maxims, and with sentiments of enlightened humanity. The people follow the religion of Buddha; and the priests form a distinct class, who are called gylongs, and are bound by the most rigid vows of celibacy. They are dispersed throughout the country in monasteries, and other buildings appropriated to their use. About 1500 of them inhabit the palace at Tassissudon. They are entirely exempted from labour, and their sole occupation consists in performing the duties of their faith; and, along with chastity, they are enjoined to observe temperance and sobriety. This establishment is recruited by voluntary members; yet a custom prevails, by which every family which has more than four boys is bound to contribute one of them to the priestly order. At the age of ten they commence their noviciate, which continues until twenty. They enjoy great distinction, and from them are selected the public functionaries of the state. It is their practice to assemble at day-break in their chapels for the performance of their orisons, which are chanted to the clamorous noise of numerous instruments; and the same thing takes place at noon, and also in the evening, when the day is closed with prayer. They are then inclosed within the gates of their residence, as well for the sake of tranquillity and safety, as to prevent a violation of their rigid rules of chastity.

The principal towns of Bootan are Tassissudon the capital, Poonakha, Wandipore, Ghassa, and Murichom. Our knowledge of the country is very imperfect, and reaches very little beyond the line traversed by Europeans. We have no data for forming any estimate of the population, which, from the remotely-scattered towns and villages, we may conjecture to be very scanty.

The Deb Raja has always manifested the strongest inclination to extend his territories by encroaching on those of his neighbours; and as they are not divided by any distinctly marked boundary line from those of the East India Company, the respective dominions of the two powers being, on the contrary, intermixed in the most irregular manner, it is extremely difficult to detect encroachments. In 1772, as already mentioned, he suddenly invaded the principality of Cooch Bahar, and, meeting with little opposition, took possession of the country. But the vigorous advance of Captain Jones with two battalions of native infantry, and the capture by storm of the fortress of Delamcottia, struck terror into the Raja, and compelled him to sue for peace. Since this period, the same persevering desire has always been displayed by the Booteans to encroach on the British possessions along the whole frontier line from the Sutledge to the Brahmaputra; and though in many instances their crafty policy has been thwarted, it has frequently proved successful. The Bidyangong zemindary, which was bound to furnish 400 elephants annually to the British government, was taken possession of by the troops of the Deb Raja while the attention of the British presidency was directed to other objects; and it was finally determined afterwards, when the circumstance was brought under the consideration of the British authorities in India, to relinquish all claim to these lands, which were judged to be of trivial importance. In 1815 a native agent was deputed to Lassa by the Bengal government to fix some questions concerning the boundaries; but his progress was stopt at Bootan, where he remained above a year; and on his return he gave in a report of his journey, which, however, contained no satisfactory information on the state of the country which he visited. In 1816 the advance of the Chinese forces towards Nepaul occasioned great alarm to the temporal ruler of Bootan, between whom and the spiritual ruler on the Dharma there existed a serious difference, which, it was supposed, would terminate in the deposition of the former. In the event of a civil war between the two claimants of the supreme power, one of them would probably seek the friendship of the British, and the other of the Chinese, who will probably succeed in establishing their authority in Bootan, as they have already done in Thibet.