Glossology-sules or thecae, that are from one to three celled, and one to three valved, or indehiscent; the thecae are usually of two kinds, the one (fig. 154) containing a minute pulverulent matter (fig. 155, and magnified, fig. 156), and placed towards the upper ends of the shoots; the other (fig. 157) containing granules or corpuscles (fig. 157, a), of a much larger size, and situated on the lower parts of the shoots. In Isoetes, where the leaves are all radical, the outer leaves contain in their axils the granular, the inner the pulverulent organs. The pulverulent have been called by some authors; the granular, pistilla. The latter certainly do germinate, but Willdenow asserts that the former do so likewise. Gartner also supposes both to contain seeds or sporules, and that there is no difference of sex.

5. Musci. Here the organs are likewise of two kinds; the one, termed by Hedwig and many of his followers anthers, being cylindrical or fusiform stalked bags (fig. 158), that contain a pulverulent matter mixed with others that are empty and jointed; the other, capsules or thecae (fig. 159, 160, 161, 162). These latter, when young, are seated on a receptacle, which, from its being occasionally provided at the base with several small leaves, called a perichaetium, may be viewed as a deformed termination of the stem or branch. This theca is protected by a more or less membranous substance, called a calyptra (fig. 160 a, 163 b), loose from the theca, but attached around its base to the receptacle (fig. 161 a); the calyptra has by some been considered a style. The capsule or theca, at first green and small, soon begins to swell, and becomes attenuated at the base (fig. 160 b, 163 c), into a pedicel, called a seta, which is often of considerable length; but in two genera, Sphagnum (fig. 168) and Andreae (fig. 161), is entirely wanting. By this attenuation of the theca, and formation of a seta, and by the increasing magnitude of the theca itself, the calyptra is torn from its attachment to the receptacle, and may be soon perceived resting on the upper part of the theca (fig. 160). When this in maturity is split up on the one side (fig. 160), it is said to be dimidiate, and if entire, or with several short clefts (fig. 164), mitriform; in some, as in Splachnum and its affinities, it remains entire for a considerable period, but afterwards splits and appears dimidiate, when it is difficult to say under which it ought to be arranged; but notwithstanding, the nature of the calyptra is now acknowledged by all to be a good natural generic distinction. The surface of the calyptra may be smooth, or striated, or sulcate (furrowed), and may be glabrous, or clothed with hairs. In some polytricha there is in addition an outer hairy calyptra, but this is formed of abortive leaves entangled together, and scarcely attached to the inner and true one. Upon the removal or fall of the calyptra, the theca presents itself, sometimes globose, or ovate, or oblong. In some it is straight; in others, the one side is longer than the other, so that the theca inclines to one side, and is drooping or cernuous, which must not be confounded with a pendulous theca, caused by a curvature of the extremity of the seta. In a cernuous theca, the shorter or under side, instead of being uniformly contracted and smooth like the upper, has sometimes the contraction at one point at its base, and the protuberance thus caused is then called a struma. In all but Andreae, which has four valves (fig. 161), the theca is entire. Between the seta and the theca is often a fleshy expansion called apophysis (fig. 159 a), this always containing, at least when young, a pulpy mass, but no sporules, and being a mere dilatation of the top of the seta. The theca usually opens (fig. 162) horizontally near its apex; the upper part is called an operculum or lid (fig. 162 a): in some genera, however, this lid does not separate from the theca (fig. 161 b), and does not even show any indication of the suture. The operculum is of various shapes, but the terms applied are common to other plants. "The stoma, or mouth of the theca, is either naked, as in Gymnostomum and Heteria (fig. 162); or generally furnished with a series of cilia called teeth (dentes), which may be either in a single series, as in Splachnum, Grimmia, and Dicranum (fig. 165); or in a compound or double series (fig. 166), as in Hookeria, Hypnum, and Bryum. In all mosses which possess a peristome, it arises from the surface of the stoma, or springs from it within the margin and a little below the summit of the theca. In the latter case the teeth are generally more or less connected by a membrane, which not unfrequently rises to a level with the stoma, or even above it. Sometimes all vestiges of the teeth then disappear, thus presenting the aspect of a truly membranaceous peristome, as is seen in Diplophyllum (fig. 167) and Lepidothamnus; and in such as have a double peristome of regular teeth, the inner one is formed by this membrane, split into a fixed number of attenuated segments. Sometimes, though rarely, the stoma is furnished with a dense horizontal epiphyllagma, not accompanied with teeth (as is the case with the epiphyllagma of Polytrichum), an instance of which occurs in Lycellia; or, what is still more curious, is supplied with a pencil of fine capillary cilia, as is exemplified in Dawsonia." The number of teeth is always some multiple of four. Outside of the teeth, and between the edge of the theca and the operculum, is to be observed in some plants an elastic ring or annulus (fig. 165 a), the presence or absence of which, however, does not appear to be of great importance. "Within the theca (fig. 168 and 169), and attached to its sides and base by a cellular pulp intermingled with very slender filaments, is placed a membrane which forms a complete lining. Proceeding from the stoma or mouth downwards, it is continued to the base, when it is reflected upwards, forming a central column, till on a level with the mouth of the theca. This part has been generally denominated a columella (fig. 161, c), and is very different from the placentae in cotyledonous plants, to which it has been sometimes compared. A bag is thus formed between the columella, and that part of the same organ which lines the theca, in which the sporules are situated. The whole is closed by a very subtle membranous expansion, stretching between the summit of the lining and the columella, which (although in Gymnostomum it is often of a stronger texture), by the maturing of the theca, and separation of the operculum, lacerates, and in most instances becomes evanescent. On the open apex of the columella is fixed another membrane, more or less of a conical form, and of a somewhat different texture and colour, which by age often shrinks to the appearance of a mere lid to its orifice. Sometimes it is more rigid (as in Splachnum, Tayloria, and Gymnostomum Donianum), and is then not unfrequently called an exserted columella. It also in some cases adheres closely to the summit of the interior of the operculum (as in Gymnostomum Heimii, and Hypnum dendroides), which it raises or depresses according to the degree of dryness or humidity to which it is exposed. It is this part which we conceive to be the stigma of Palisot de Beauvois, but which we propose to designate by the more appropriate name of opercular membrane."

Arn. and Grev. in Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. iv. p. 121.

Ibid. vol. iv. p. 114. Glossology—minute flat leaves, and the theca itself to be the excavated distended apex of the stalk, with which we agree; but he, in addition, supposes that the cellular substance of this dilated apex separates in the form of sporules, an hypothesis started by Richard,1 and agreed in by Brown and Hooker. To this, however, there are, we conceive, many grand objections. As to the supposed anthers, whether the contained powder be imperfect pollen, or, as others say, a second kind of sporules, too little is yet known to render them even of use for the characters of genera. Meese asserts he saw them germinate like sporules; and Dr Roth presumes them to be analogous to the gemmae, or buds of other plants formed by a superabundance of juices.

6. Hepaticae.—The reproductive organs are here of several kinds, but bear the strongest resemblance to those of the mosses. The theca is, however, destitute of an operculum. In Jungermannia (fig. 170) it splits into four longitudinal valves, and is supported by a delicate membranous peduncle or seta (a) arising from the frond; the whole, when very young, is moreover protected by a delicate calyptra (b); but this does not loosen its attachment to the receptacle or portion of the frond, but splits at the apex to permit the elongation of the seta. This calyptra is placed within another (fig. c) either single or double cover, less delicate, and more of the texture of the frond, which may be termed a rohra, but is generally, though very improperly, called a calyx; and this, which is of different forms, however insufficient for a generic distinction, is admirably suited for specific characters. When the theca bursts, the sporules are found to be intermixed with elastic spiral filaments or elaters (fig. 170, d). But besides the theca, minute spherical cellular bodies have been discovered in many species; and these are supported by short stalks, and have been by some termed anthers. Monoclea (fig. 171) bears a very great resemblance to jungermannia; the rohra is however less distinct, but the calyptra (corolla of some) is considerably elongated (a), and tubular. The theca is borne by a seta (b); it does not burst into four valves, but splits up on one side (c), and presents a central filiform body (d), called a columella, about which are the sporules, mixed with elaters (fig. 172). In Targioniaria, the rohra arises from the under side of the frond, and of a texture between membranous and coriaceous, marked by a vertical prominent line, by which it separates into two valves: within this are several slender bodies, supposed by some to be anthers; and one spherical, covered by a calyptra, which bursts vertically. Within this, again, is the theca, upon so very short a stalk as not to be, when mature, protruded beyond the volva. The theca appears to burst irregularly, has no columella, and the sporules are mixed with elaters.

In Marchantia (fig. 173), the volva (here called usually a common receptacle) is peltate (a) and on a stalk; it is either flat or conical, and bears on its under surface, not one calyptra, as in the other genera we have noticed, but several, each of which (fig. 174, a), bursting at its apex, that is, the point nearest the frond, discloses a theca (b), which opens by eight short teeth or valves, united below, and contains sporules and elaters. Other peltate volvas or receptacles, however, occur, having merely oblong bodies imbedded vertically in the disk, and conjectured to be anthers; and besides these there are sometimes little open cups, sessile on the upper surface of the frond, that contain minute gemmae. Fimbriaria differs so very slightly from Marchantia, that we may pass it over. In Anthoceros (fig. 175) there appears to be no volva; the calyptra (often called a calyx) arises (a) from the frond, and is tubular; the theca, supported by a stalk or seta, is linear, Glossoloid, and splits (b) into two valves exhibiting a central columella (c), to which the sporules are attached by means of PL CXV very short straight filaments (fig. 176). There are no elaters. The structure of Sphacelocarpus is involved in some doubt. We have never had the opportunity of analysing good specimens, but the following seems, from a comparison of the different results of other botanists, to approach nearly to the truth. The whole upper surface of the frond is covered with ellipsoidal volvas (called in this genus follicles or calyces). These are truncated and perforated at the apex; they are said by some to split into two valves, but this arises from such botanists having only looked at Michel's figure, in which they are represented cut open by the knife. The volva contains at the bottom a very few linear bodies, the supposed anthers, and one other, the theca, which becomes swollen and spherical, and filled with sporules, destitute of elaters, according to Michel, though others of less note state that they are present; the calyptra, if present, is closely attached to the theca, and only indicated by a small point at its extremity. Riccia (fig. 177) has small excavations in the frond (fig. 178), in which the volva, often scarcely perceptible, rests, containing the theca and calyptra, similar to that of Sphacelocarpus: the sporules are unmixed with elaters. There is thus among the Hepaticae such a variety among the organs of reproduction, that no common character is almost to be derived. "The most remarkable point of structure in these plants is the spiral filament, as it is called, lying among the sporules within the theca. This consists of a single fibre, or of two, twisted spirally in opposite directions, so as to cross each other, and contained within a very delicate transparent perishable tube. They have a strong elastic force, and have been supposed to be destined to aid in the dispersion of the sporules; a most inadequate end for so curious and unusual an apparatus."

7. In the Algae, the sporules, sometimes named granules, Algæ are variously situated. In some they are contained in distinct capsules or thecae (fig. 179); in others, in what are termed tubercles or conceptacula (fig. 180), which are either free or imbedded in the frond, or in a leafy process arising from it; or a multitude of these may be collected close together, into what is then called a common receptacle (fig. 181); and these receptacles in some assume the form of a pod (silique). The sporules or granules are also often naked, and immersed in the frond (fig. 182); or very rarely external, and surrounded by an open involucre (fig. 183). Sporules with and without a covering (theca or tubercle) frequently exist in the same species, but usually in different individuals. Some genera are tubular, and have the sporular matter scattered or arranged in some determinate manner in their interior (fig. 184); others are gelatinous (fig. 185), either wholly or portions of them, containing naked sporules, which are sometimes mixed with pellucid filaments, and sometimes arranged so as to form moniliform or beaded threads (fig. 186). We, along with Agardh, unite to the Algæ the Characeæ of authors; and in these there are two kinds of organs (fig. 187). The one (fig. 188) is a nucule, capsule, or theca, sessile, oval, solitary, and unilocular, of two membranes, of which the outer is remarkably thin and transparent, and is terminated by five teeth. The inner one is opaque, and of a thicker texture, and is formed of five narrow valves twisted spirally; the interior is filled with minute granules, but whether these be distinct sporules, or only parts of one large disintegrated sporule, is not yet determined; but each nucleus, on germinating, has been observed to give

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1 Balliard, Dict. Elem. Bot. p. 67. 2 Lindl. Introd. Nat. Syst. p. 325. The second kind of organs has been termed globules. Of these the external tunic is very pellucid and indehiscent; the inner seems formed of thin triangular scales, composed of radiating tubes, including a coloured, spherical, pulverulent matter, and the interior of the globule is filled with a multitude of long, simple, crowded filaments, that are diaphanous, and marked with transverse striae, as in Oscillatoria and Lyngbya. These filaments appear to be attached to the central portion of the inside of each scale. Smith has arranged Chara in monandria monogynia, conceiving the globule to be an anther, and the tubercle a germen, and the five teeth a five-lobed stigma; but the filaments of the supposed anther show the absurdity of such an hypothesis. Walroth asserts that the globules germinate.

8. Lichens.—The organs of reproduction (see fig. 189 and 190) are chiefly of one kind, termed apothecia or shields, or partial receptacles. These are formed by nuclei of the medullary substance usually bursting through the cortical portion, which is often raised up, and forms a cup or border round the nucleus; the sporules or gonogyle are contained in these or small membranous tubes, either simple, or composed of several placed end to end; these thecae in some lie free in the nucleus, but in others are previously collected into other cases, termed aceti. The portion of the nucleus in which the thecae are inserted, by exposure to the air becomes usually harder, and of a somewhat cartilaginous nature, and then often separates from the apothecium. It is called nucleus proliferus if the whole of the nucleus becomes so, but lamina proliferica (fig. 191) is applied when only the upper stratum contains the thecae. The apothecia are either sessile on the thallus, or connected with it by a narrow neck or stalk called podetium. The podetia are in some species cup-shaped at the apex, and, instead of one, bear several apothecia on the margin. This cup is then termed a scypha, and the lichens scyphiferous (fig. 192). When the apothecia are long and linear, they are by some called lirella; and even a round apothecium may be formed by the plaiting or convoluted of a lirella. In a few genera the nucleus proliferus is not protruded beyond the thallus, but is contained within it, merely presenting a small opening or ostiole (fig. 193, 194). Independent of the apothecium, there are other parts which appear to have the power of reproduction. These are called soredia when they contain a mass of fine pulverulent bodies, usually of a whitish colour, that are scattered over various portions of the thallus; and pustules when they resemble spongy or amorphous excrescences.

9. Fungi.—This tribe borders on the lichens so very closely, as that part of both have been separated into a distinct order called Hypoxyla, for which, however, there does not seem to be any necessity. Indeed Agardh remarks of many fungi, that if they had a thallus, they would be lichens. We have already said of them, that the whole plant may be considered as a mass of reproductive matter; and we shall therefore give as short a sketch of them as possible; but, on account of their diversity of structure, we shall be obliged to take them by groups. Brongniart regards the fungi as a class, and divides them into orders; but we are rather inclined to view them as one order, and will take Brongniart's sections, with a slight change of names, as sub-orders.

1. The first of these, and most nearly related to the lichens, are the Hypoxyla. Here the sporules are immersed in a hard and ligneous receptacle or peridium, which opens more or less regularly. Of these there are three tribes.

1. In the Sphaeriaceae (fig. 195) there is a terminal pore or cleft, by which the thecae escape in the form of a mucilage (fig. 196): 2. In Phacidiaceae (fig. 197 and 198) there are several clefts or valves, and the thecae remain fixed: 3. In Cytosporae their orifice is round, but the sporules appear naked, and to have no thecae.

2. Agaricoides. Here the whole plant is somewhat fleshy or corky, and called a receptacle. It is partly covered by a membrane that bears the sporules, which are rarely naked, and scattered on it, but usually inclosed in membranous thecae, and inserted in it. There are three distinct tribes. 1. The Agaraceae (fig. 199) have the membrane distinct, and limited to a particular part of the plant, with the sporules almost always inclosed in thecae; a sub-tribe of which, Clavariaceae, has straight, club-shaped, simple, or branched receptacles, with the membrane covering nearly the whole; another, the Agaricaceae, have a pileus, the lower surface of which contains the sporusiferous membrane constituting lamella or gills in Agaricaceae, and tubes in Boletaceae; and the Helvellaceae have a pileus, with the membrane on its upper surface. 2. The Tremellaceae are soft and gelatinous, and of an irregular shape; they have no thecae, and the sporules are either scattered on the surface of the membrane, or issue from below it. 3. In the Cletthrinaceae (fig. 200) the sporules are mixed with a mucilaginous substance (the sporusiferous membrane), either inclosed in the cells, or on the surface of the plant which arises from a volva.

3. Lycoperdaceae. Here the naked sporules, at least when young, are inclosed in firm, or vesicular, or filamentous thecae, that are again included in the interior of a peridium of a fleshy or membranous nature. 1. Sclerotinaceae (fig. 201 and 202). This tribe has the peridium indistinct, and filled with a compact cellular substance or agglutinated thecae, in which are the sporules very indistinct. 2. Angiogastri (fig. 203 and 204). Here the peridium, which opens sometimes by means of an operculum, incloses one or more secondary peridia or periidia (or thecae, but by no means of a membranous nature, as in many other fungi) filled with sporules. 3. Lycoperdiaceae (fig. 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211), where the peridium is usually pedicellated and of a determinate shape, opening regularly, and inclosing the sporules, which soon burst from the thecae, having the appearance of numerous filaments mixed with the sporules. 4. Fuliginaceae (fig. 212, 213), in which the peridium is sessile, irregular, readily decaying or crumbling into dust. The thecae are filamentous, few in number, and, as in the last, soon losing their sporules, which appear mixed with them.

4. Mucedines. In these there is no peridium, while the sporules are naked, and supported by filaments more or less branched and interwoven, in which it is probable they had been at some period contained in all the species. There are five tribes. 1. Isariaceae (fig. 214 and 215), where the filaments are united one with another in a regular and constant manner, and have the sporules scattered on their surface. 2. Byssaceae (fig. 216, 217, 218), where the filaments are distinct, though often entangled, opaque, without joints, and exhibiting the sporules on their exterior; or jointed, the joints breaking off and forming thecae containing sporules. In some genera of this tribe no sporules have been yet discovered, which has induced some distinguished botanists to suspect several of them to be imperfect states of other plants. 3. Mucedinaceae (fig. 219, 220, 221). Here the filaments are distinct or loosely entangled, transparent, fugacious, and often articulated; and the sporules are included in the ultimate joints of the filaments, or in small lateral branches, which afterwards separate, or even in the interior of the filaments, without joints, from which they quickly escape, and appear scattered on their surface. 4. Mucoraceae (Plate CXVI. fig. 222, 223). The filaments here are transparent, jointed, fugacious, and inflated at their extremity into a mem- Glossology. branous vesicle, inclosing the sporules. 5. Phyllerineae (224). Here the filaments are simple, without joints, and contain sporules which do not readily escape; they form tufts on the surface of living leaves, and not dead ones, as in most fungi.

5. Uredinae. In these the thecae or sporidia are formed of short, continuous, or articulated filaments, which are either free, or supported on a very short and simple stalk, thus scarcely exhibiting the least trace of the filaments observable in the last sub-order. These sporidia spring from under the epidermis or its surface, of either living or dead plants, and are frequently surrounded by a false peridium, formed by the development of the epidermis, or supported on a fleshy or fibrous base, produced by the thickening of the parenchyma of the plant, upon which it is a parasite. There are four tribes. 1. Stilbosporineae (fig. 223), where the sporidia are articulated, and arise from dead plants. 2. Bactridae. Here the sporidia are simple or unicellular, opaque, fixed or scattered, inclosing numerous extremely slender sporules, which escape towards maturity. This tribe, however, is scarcely either well understood or defined, and perhaps belongs to some other sub-order. 3. Fusidae (fig. 226, 227), in which the sporidia are not jointed, are indehiscent, and spring from the epidermis of dead vegetables. 4. Uredinea (fig. 228), where the sporidia are developed under the surface of the epidermis of living plants.

We have not given the above as a defined arrangement of fungi, but with the view of exhibiting the structure of each of the tribes into which it seems advisable, with some slight alterations, that this extensive order be divided. Much difficulty is often created to the student of these plants, by the diversity of terms to apparently the same thing. Thus, sporidia and thecae each mean sporule cases; and, on the other hand, sporidia and sporules seem confounded. Hence in one tribe it is said, "though they are called sporidia, it rarely happens that the microscope is able to detect the included sporules; the student therefore must expect the sporidia to appear without sporules." But we ourselves are by no means sure that in any instance do the sporules exist without theca. They may be at one time included in filaments, which serve them for theca; and must be viewed as filamentous thecae more or less united to each other end to end; or they may be contained in the cells of the plant, the cellules thus being theca; or the thecae may be so collected as to form a membrane—but we do not conceive the apparently naked sporules of some species to be any proof of the original absence in them of sporule cases. In this way we think, also, the whole order may be considered in two ways, either as elementary or as compound bodies; the former including such as have no receptacle, and the whole plant constituted of filamentous thecae; and the latter with a receptacle, in which light the peridium of the Hypoxylia and Lycoperdaceae must be regarded. In studying the epiphyllous tribes with the intention of describing them, much attention ought to be paid, although almost entirely hitherto neglected, to the structure of the vegetable upon which the parasite grows; for colours, of great importance in discriminating the larger fungi, may be much influenced by the action of the juices of the plant on which it is formed, and can be here of little use; and even the shape of the peridium, and sorus or cluster of plants, must depend on the texture of the leaf from under the epidermis of which it springs, and through which it bursts. Parasitical fungi may thus, by growing on different plants, assume very different aspects both in colour and form; and one cannot too much reprobate the manner in which at present many eminent mycologists describe as distinct species every different appearance that presents itself, without previously making themselves masters of the numerous laws by which cryptogamic plants are caused to vary.

We thus close what we had to say on Glossology. We have been more particular than we at first intended, in this department of botany; but it was absolutely necessary to give a lengthened view of the formation of the different parts, as well as the names applied respectively to each. For the Linnaean or artificial system such was not requisite; but the great difficulty as well as beauty of the natural system is to view plants analogically,—to consider them, not in their modified, but in their primitive state,—not in the imperfect state in which they appear to our eyes, but in that in which we should see them if fully developed; thus enabling us to exert our minds, and to trace affinities, of which the mere practical botanist can have no conception.

II.—PHYTOGRAPHY.

Under the head of Phytography, the first thing we have to notice is the

Nomenclature.

The necessity of some universally received name to each plant, and of some laws on the subject, has been acknowledged by every one who has made botany a study. Without such, every country would give a peculiar name, and the pursuit would thus become extremely intricate. This alone gives zoology and botany great advantages over mineralogy, in which not only is there no classification of genera and species according to the Linnaean rules, but every species receives a name according to the fancy of the describer, whether or not it has already received one from others.

To obviate such inconveniences, it was at first in use to give to a plant the common name by which it was known in Greece and Italy; but as the knowledge of vegetables extended, this was found to be almost impracticable, both because new plants unknown to the ancients were discovered, and because, from the prodigious number, no person could recollect them all. When, therefore, some resemblance between each other was observed, botanists began to say that one was a second genus or kind of such a plant, as kali alterum genus, or that it was a smaller, or a yellow flowered kind, as circumstances might be; and as the number of species augmented, these distinguishing phrases were of necessity made longer, so that, as we find sometimes in Pluket, a name might consist of twenty words. The inability of the memory to recollect them struck Linnaeus forcibly, till at length he proposed that the name of every plant should consist of two words; the one analogous to the name of a family among mankind, the other to the baptismal name of an individual; the former he called the generic, the last the specific. This ingenious method has been termed the Linnaean nomenclature, and has been admitted by almost all botanists ever since it was first published in 1753. By it, not only is the memory aided, and enabled to retain the names of many thousands of plants; but, by the same generic name being applied to such as have a certain affinity with each other, that name must suggest to the mind a relationship of which we could not otherwise have an idea. Two inconveniences, no doubt, attend this method; first, it holds out,

1 Grev. Flor. Ed. p. xxv. from its simplicity, a temptation to a young botanist to acquire merely the names of plants, without knowing anything of their character; secondly, from every botanist not viewing the affinity of a plant in the same way, it often happens that the same individual has been placed in different genera, and consequently may have possibly received four or five different generic names. Various plans have been proposed to remove these difficulties; but they have been each, one after another, abandoned.

With regard to what is a species or genus, an order or a class, perhaps no two botanists of the present day are at one; and our limits do not permit us to investigate this point with the attention that some may think it merits. All that nature presents to our eyes consists of individuals; but when we assert that one individual is the same, or so similar to another that we think them the same, we give way to our own thoughts, for others may form a different opinion. At the same time many resemblances are so striking as to be obvious to almost all; and when these are confirmed by their seed producing others bearing the same resemblance, we have the idea of what is termed a species. A species, therefore, is a collection of all those individuals which have a greater resemblance between themselves than to other plants, and which may by fecundation, one by another, produce fertile individuals, which in their turn reproduce others; and by reversing this procedure, we may infer that all these have arisen at one time from one individual. Varieties, again, are departures from the common appearance of the species, and may arise from the seed growing in different climates, subjected to greater or less humidity or heat; or various other causes may be assigned, some of which seem even to produce a permanent effect on the plant, so that after several generations scarcely one seed will reproduce the type of the species. Some botanists most unadvisedly have amused themselves of late years by raising these to the rank of species; but "this eternal splitting of hairs is the bane of natural history, is unworthy of science, and its advocates will one day have to lament that they stood sponsors to such a spurious and equivocal offspring." One tithe of the sagacity they discover in the infinitesimal division of species, directed to other points, would pile up a mountain of knowledge for future use, and immortalize their own names, which, under this present puerile system, will perish with the ephemeral names they are imposing upon undistinguishable things.¹

For long it was considered that a hybrid, or cross between two species, could not reproduce a plant, or rather, we ought to say, perfect a seed capable of vegetation; and this test was considered of importance as to the limit of species. But it is now supposed to be of little or no use; the hybrid Pelargoniums, or cape-geraniums, perfecting seed, and multiplying as easily as the parent plants. These plants ought never to be acknowledged by botanical writers. They are contrary to nature, and ought not to be received into any system of nature. They are only fit to amuse the eye and taste of the vulgar and uninitiated. And even if a florist wishes to gain any credit, it were well that he sedulously observed from what the hybrid was obtained; and instead of giving to it an absurd name, as is too often the case, or even a name as if it were a species, he ought to give one that is compounded of those of the two parents. Linnæus, however, laid it down as a maxim, that no hybrid produced perfect seed; and he supported this by many proofs. Those naturalists, therefore, who still adhere to this law, are forced to draw the conclusion, that the supposed hybrid Pelargoniums and heaths are mere cross variations of varieties of one species; but whichever be the true theory (and we ourselves, if our physiological ideas on the subject be correct, can see no cause why a perfecting hybrid may not be formed between any two plants which have the same anatomical structure of anthers and pistils), whether these be hybrids or variations, no one has any right to expect space to be occupied by them in a botanical treatise. In so far only as they tend to improve our knowledge of anatomy and physiology, the man of science has to do with them.

Having formed some conception of a species, we may define a genus to be a collection of those species which have among themselves a more striking resemblance in their organs, than they have to the organs of others; it therefore bears the same relation towards species as a species does towards individuals. But as it is impossible for all the species of a genus to agree in every organ, so a selection must be made from those that may be considered of more importance than others. But no certain rule can be laid down, farther than that the organs of reproduction being found least liable to variation, are those alone admitted into a generic character. In some genera the stamens, in others the petals, calyx, pistils, or the fruit, are found to be most convenient for the character; but upon the relative value of these, even in the same genus, different opinions are frequently entertained. A genus may therefore be limited by one in a different way from that adopted by another; and hence we cannot be surprised to find that one botanist places a species in one genus, others in another, according as each thinks it suits best with the collective character. A genus may be also divided into sections, according to some difference of structure in its organs; so that when this difference has been thought of importance, other botanists have raised each of the sections to be a new genus. Thus every day we find that plants, though still retaining their specific names, being married, as it were, into another house, receive new generic appellations. Such is no doubt of great disadvantage to the science, but is unavoidable, from the increasing number of known plants. Nor does it appear that the number of genera is increased in proportion to the discovery of new species. Thus Linnæus, by distributing 7549 species in 1260 genera, ranked on an average only six to each; but notwithstanding the modern subdivisions in the catalogue of Persoon in 1807, there are about ten to each, and this only contains the phanerogamous vegetables; and in Steudel's Nomenclator Botanicus, published in 1821–24, there are of the phanerogamous 3376 genera, and 39,684 species, or about eleven to each; and if we add to these 557 genera, and 10,965 species of cryptogamia, we shall have an average of upwards of thirteen to each genus.

What has been said of genera is applicable to natural Orders. Families or orders, these containing such genera as have a great resemblance to each other, and are either so closely connected that they cannot be removed, or are separated into groups only for the greater convenience of study. When, however, two or more of these orders bear a closer affinity respectively to each other than to the others to which they are also allied, it has been found useful to term them tribes of one order; but it is then difficult to distinguish between a compound order of this kind and a class. The number of genera in each order is of no importance. There may be hundreds, and there may be but one, solitary but forming a connection between other orders. In general, however, from the consideration that nature forms one continuous chain, we may ex-

¹ Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 65. pect that links remain to be discovered between such isolated genera and the others; and indeed, if the whole of nature were laid open to us, we might infer, notwithstanding all our present labours, that the machinery of orders and genera will be found entirely artificial, and existing only in our own conceptions. Not that it is of no value; for it is of the greatest use, to enable us to bring together in our mind plants resembling each other; and therefore that system must be preferred which tends most to this end.

Classes. When several natural orders are collected together, having many similarities of structure and appearance, they form what are called classes. But very little has hitherto been done as to giving us a knowledge of these. The Geraniaceae (as defined by S. Hilaire), Rutaceae (as collected by Ad. Jussieu), Tiliaceae, and some others, may be adduced as examples. But in botanical systems, where the order must be placed in a linear series, and cannot be described, each at their several points of connection, classes, unless in one or two instances, have been disregarded, and merely the constituent orders themselves introduced.

Language. As it is essential to natural history that the nomenclature be universal, so it is indispensable that the names be written in some language adopted by all nations. The Greek has been rejected for many reasons, but particularly that the letters are so very different from those now used in the civilized world. To the Latin there are no objections; on the contrary, until within these very few years, it was the general language among scientific and learned men. The names, therefore, as well as the terms of the science of botany, are written in that language; and when such names and terms are translated to give them a more modern appearance, it appears advisable to adhere as much as possible to the Latin words by giving them an English termination. This however is often, but improperly, departed from. In framing names there is a maxim that is deservedly recognized, that they ought to be according to the rules of general grammar. Thus, if the name denotes a property, as thorny-fruited, it is not permitted to derive half of it from the Greek, while the other is Latin; aculeatoarpa cannot therefore be retained, but may be changed into acanthocarpa.

Priority of names must be strictly attended to, or, if names be changed, this must not be done in an arbitrary manner, and without good reasons. But while all agree to this, a difficulty is sometimes started as to what ought to give priority. And here we ought to observe that no manuscript one need be adopted. Farther, no mere name, though published, is of any consequence, unless accompanied by a sufficient character by which the plant may be recognized by others. Names, therefore, in a gardener's catalogue, are of no more importance than manuscript names, although, when made known to botanists by a distribution of specimens, politeness sometimes admits them; but the mere circulation of living plants among horticulturists and florists, not botanists, is not even entitled to this courtesy. Printed names, accompanying collections of dried plants, are always adopted by those who receive them; but it seems doubtful how far such might claim priority, if they were to be first described by others who had not an opportunity of seeing them. It has been argued that plates, without written characters, whether of genera or species, are sufficient to give a priority of name. But this cannot be admitted by the rules of common sense. In those few cases in which the figures of the plant are accompanied with admirably exact and minute dissections, this is sometimes permitted; but it even then appears questionable, plates not being intended to characterize a species, but as auxiliaries to the character. A character may be sufficient without a plate, but a plate is of no use without a character.

Generic names, giving the idea of a group, have been by all permitted to stand first, and then the specific name. For the same reason they ought to be substantive; Mirabilis, Gloriosa, and some others, being adjectives, may therefore be changed. No name ought to be allowed that gives a false idea of the character of the genus; but, on the other hand, such names are always to be preferred as express this character in a precise way; and as it is extremely difficult to express the whole character, the most remarkable points ought to be chosen as contrasted with other allied genera; care being taken that they apply to all the species of the genus. No generic name ought to be derived from the names of places; a few such, however, though faulty, have been admitted. Metaphorical names, derived from ancient history and mythology, have been sometimes bestowed on plants; but great care must then be taken that the allusion is perfect. Linnaeus has succeeded very happily in one or two instances, particularly in that of Andromeda; his reasons for so naming which we shall give in the author's own words, from the Flora Lapponica. Comparing her with the plant in question, he says, "virgo hec lectissima pulcherrimaque collo superbit alto et vividissimo (pedunculus), cujus facies roeis suis labellis (corolla) vel optimum veneris fucum longe superat; juncea haec in genua projecta pedibus alligata (caulis inferior incumbeus), aqua (ternati) cincta, rupi (monticula) adfixa, horribus draconibus (amphibiiis) exposita, terram versus inclinat moestam faciem (flore), innocentissimaque brachia (ramos) oculum versus erigit, meliori sede fatuo dignissima, donec gratissimus Perseus (astas) monstris devictis, cum ex aqua eduxit e virgine factam fecundam matrem, quem tum faciem (fructum) erectam extollit. Si Ovidio fabulam de Andromeda conscribenti hec ante oculos poetae fuisse planta, vix melius quadrarent attributa, qui more poetico ex humili tumulo produxisset Olympum."

The ancients were in the habit of giving plants the names of persons, and this custom has been retained; but care must be taken to select those celebrated in the science, or as having paid great attention to some branch of it. Thus their names will be engraved on our memory so long as the plants are known; and this honour has been therefore considered as one of the greatest that can be conferred on a naturalist. But this is liable to abuse, particularly when princes and others of rank are concerned; plants being often named after persons, who never in any way contributed to the advance of the study. To one person no more than one genus must be dedicated, however great be their services, for if this were to be allowed confusion would soon prevail; thus Lessoria and Delesseria cannot both remain. As a similarity of sound between two generic names is attended with bad effects, so it ought not to be tolerated, even in the case where we wish to honour a friend. Thus Bellis cannot be suffered, there being a Bellis; nor Crypthea, on account of a previous Crypthea; so neither can Eschscholtzia, nor Koniga, there being already an Eschscholtzia, and Koniga. When a person has different names, that must be preferred which is best known; but when such is pre-occupied, another may be selected. Great care ought to be taken to preserve rigidly the spelling of names, whatever be the pronunciation. Thus Czackia ought not to be written Tschatshka, nor Grahamia, Gramia; nor even is Brunonia strictly admissible, although this alteration was made because there

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1 Linn. Fl. Lapp. 2d edit. p. 131. See also Linnæus's Lapland Tour, vol. i. p. 163. was another Browne, to whom was dedicated the genus *Brownea*. Though by following this rule names are often given not entirely according with the genius of the Latin tongue; yet the end being to perpetuate a particular individual, if the proper orthography were not kept up, a pretext would soon be given for changing the name.

When it is found necessary to divide a genus into two or more, the old name ought to be retained for the group which includes the greater number of species, or to that for which the genus was originally constituted. The last is preferable, but *Erica* and *Ixia* both form exceptions, on account of the great inconvenience of changing the names of so many, when only one would remain unaltered.

As to generic names derived from the vernacular appellations of plants, botanists are not yet agreed. Linnæus, and others after him, wish to refuse all such, although they admit that they may be employed specifically; yet having laid down the rule, the genera *Thea*, *Coffea*, *Gincho*, &c. are almost universally admitted by them; and therefore, in the present day, these and similar ones are generally adopted if their sound be not too barbarous. Schreber, following the maxims of Linnæus, altered nearly all Aublet's names for the Guiana plants, which De Candolle and others now restore. However little desirable it may be to give these names, yet when once given and recognized, it can serve no good purpose, but lead to confusion, to change them.

The older botanists were in the practice of marking allied genera by analogous names, but with a change of termination; thus *Valeriana*, *Valerianella*; *Linonium*, *Limoniumstrum*; *Bellis*, *Bellidoides*: all so similar were rejected by Linnæus, who allowed of comparative terms among species alone. As to the termination *oides*, it ought undoubtedly to be laid aside, being an adjective; but the same reason does not apply with equal force to the two other instances; and although we would prefer not to employ them in framing a name, we would hesitate about making a change if already given by others. An anagram, or transposition of the letters of an existing name, is quite contemptible and undignified, and can on no account be permitted. Hence *Galpinia*, made by Cavanilles, and derived from *Malpigia*, is quite unsuitable: in the same way Cassini has amused himself, to the detriment of the science, by splitting *Filago* into as many genera as he could form anagrams of that word, *Filago*, *Gifola*, *Ifogoa*, *Logfia*, and *Ofilga*, than which nothing can be more absurd.

Specific names are less difficult to establish than the generic, because they are meant to apply to an individual, and not collectively; and the chief consideration is not to give one already applied in the genus, or one that has no relation to the plant itself. Almost no change ought therefore to be tolerated, unless when one of these rules be broken through. Thus *Astragalus Monopessulanus*, though found not at Montpellier alone, but throughout all the south of Europe, and even in the western parts of Asia, cannot be altered, because it is actually found at Montpellier; and the name even tends to record the fact of its having been first observed there. But *Potentilla Monspeliaca* is a manifest absurdity, being a native of North America, and merits a change; thus also *Scilla Pervicina* is inadmissible, being a native of Portugal. *Lunaria annua* may also in the same way be changed to *L. biennis*, the plant being not annual, but biennial. There are some botanists, however, who even dislike a change for these reasons; contending, that while in the human race the name George, or *Ivanov*, is not applied only to one who is a husbandman, so neither among plants ought we to care what be the name, provided it suffice to distinguish the species; but this is inept, for the above is not a specific name, nor even that of a variety or variations but the appellative of an individual.

In general the names derived from countries ought to be given with great circumspection; and from want of due consideration on that point, we have accordingly many absurdities. Thus *Linum Gallicum* is actually found in all the four quarters of the globe. *Ajuga Genevensis*, *Circeo Latitiana*, are not found at Geneva or at Paris alone, but throughout the rest of Europe; still they cannot be now altered. *Agave Americana* is not the only *Agave* found wild in America, for many inhabit also that country. Names taken from stations of plants, as *maritimam*, *palustre*, or *montanum*, being very indefinite, ought to be avoided as much as possible.

Specific names may be either substantives or adjectives. The former has been usually given when the plant had received a peculiar appellation from old botanists, as *Doria*, *Jacobea*, *Parfara*; and then the initial letter must be a capital. A substantive is often used in the genitive case when a reference is made to some other genus, as *Pomme-ruellia cornucopiae*, and then the initial letter is small; or when it is named after some person, as *Ramunculus Gouani*, and then the letter is large. As to adjectives, they must agree in gender with the generic names, and ought to indicate something remarkable in the species. They ought always to commence by a small letter, but of late years botanists have got into a habit of employing a capital when the adjective is derived from the name of a place or person. Adjectives of colour ought to be used sparingly, because the colour of flowers is of very little importance to the species, the same often exhibiting two or more colours. Adjectives of size and qualities are preferable, although these are gradually rendered less applicable by the discovery of new species. Those taken from the agreeable aspect of certain flowers, as *pulcher*, *formosus*, or *amorus*, are quite absurd, and ought never to be used. Names after botanists may either be substantives in the genitive case, or have an adjective termination. *Lyco-podium Hookeri* is an example of the one, *Tulipa Celsiana* of the other.

Specific names may be taken from either Greek or Latin, but they ought to form one word; whence *pes-caprae*, *noli-tangere*, and still worse *noli-me-tangere*, ought never to have been given; and though some of these from courtesy may be permitted to stand, they are not to be imitated.

Varieties are usually indicated by the letters of the Greek alphabet; but when they prove more than usually varieties important, a name is attached to them similar to a specific name, as *Crataegus Aria longifolia*. Care ought, however, to be taken never to give such, unless the varieties be nearly as permanent as the species itself. Of late, however, by cultivation, so many varieties have been made, and each offering subvarieties or variations, that it were more dignified for botanical writers to omit them altogether, and hand them over for the amusement of florists and horticulturists.

By those who study the natural system, the names of families, or orders and tribes, must be also attended to. Orders. The former have been subjected at different times to different principles. Linnæus and others, seeking general and characteristic features, as in the *Umbelliferae*, *Cruciferae*, *Leguminose*, and *Lobates*; and these, if they could be always obtained with accuracy, are preferable to any others. But even to the few that are admitted, exceptions are found; thus, in some *Umbelliferae* the umbel is so reduced as to appear no longer an umbel; and in some *Leguminose* the fruit resembles a nut. Jussieu and Adamson have therefore usually selected some genus, which is the type of the family, and derived the name from it, as *Rosaceae*. from the genus *Rosa*; and this method is now generally adopted. Care, however, must be taken that the genus be not only one of the best known and most numerous in species, but one which is to give an idea of the general aspect and structure. Thus *Bixia* is almost inadmissible, being derived from *Bixa*, a genus that rather forms a connecting link between the above order and the *Tiliaceae*, and consequently improperly taken as the type. When once the genus is chosen, we must attend to the terminating syllables, for it would not do to adopt simply the plural, as *Rosea*, without some change. The common way is to form an adjective ending in *ceae* or *acea*, as *Tiliaeae*, *Ericiae*; those in *idea*, meaning a family analogous to, and not a family including, are obviously to be rejected. Sometimes, when a difficulty is experienced in transforming the generic names into an adjective, some old well-known name of the principal genus may be taken, as *Thymelaeae*, *Salicariae*, and then the termination may be the mere plural of the substantive.

When a family is divided into several remarkable groups, these also receive names in the same way as the orders themselves. But a difficulty is often experienced in bestowing names so as not to interfere with that of the family, and therefore a rule has of late been laid down, that the names of orders or families be made adjectives by prolonging the generic name one syllable, as *Ranunculus*, *Ranunculaceae*, but that the names of tribes be formed of an adjective without prolongation, as *Ranunculus*, *Ranunculeae*; and this law is now generally followed.

**Synonyms.**

If nomenclature be indispensable for communicating our ideas to others, synonyms, or a list of synonyms, are no less necessary for recognizing the name that ought to be preferred to every other, and for reading the works of older writers, or of those who lived before a systematic nomenclature was adopted. By this means we are enabled to have recourse at once to the different authors whom we ought to consult, and from whom we may derive instruction; and without such help we might spend days or weeks in seeking for the information we require, and, after all our labour, would not be able to impart it to others. The number of synonyms quoted must vary much, according to the size of the work. When there is sufficient room, not one ought to be omitted; but if, on the other hand, it be an elementary work within a narrow compass, only the principal synonyms need be brought forward; and under these we of course allude to the fullest descriptions, and best figures, that can be most readily consulted by the readers. A reference to the original describer of the species ought in almost no case to be omitted: thus, Linnaeus, Biebristien, Gunner, and Pallas, have each of them made a *Gentiana ciliata*; and it is important to the reader to know of whom the *G. ciliata* is. In quoting synonyms, very little attention is paid to accuracy; and the consequence is that more confusion is created than if all had been omitted. None indeed ought to be cited, unless the writer has the strongest reason for thinking himself correct; otherwise the reference must be made with doubt (?). De Candolle has recommended, and with great propriety, that, in every one which the author has had it in his power to verify by the inspection of an authentic specimen in an herbarium, the sign (!) be placed after the synonym, indicating that such are most worthy of attention, the others being supposed to be taken from descriptions, which, however good, are not to be always confided in. Old figures, being usually executed by artists not botanists, are of little use except to give a very general idea of the plant; and even among modern figures, when there is a difference, as often happens, between them and the description, greater reliance is to be placed on the latter than on the former.

**Botanical Style.**

Botanical style is the art of characterizing and describing plants, so that they may be ascertained by others. Before Linnaeus there were no fixed rules, each person adopting what to himself seemed best; but in reforming other points, that distinguished naturalist directed his attention also to this; and although, by following his views, one was restricted to a peculiar form of words, yet the advantages were very readily perceived, inasmuch as his plan put a stop at once to the many vague and insignificant descriptions which were too often indulged in by those of a flowery or poetical genius.

A character in natural history is that peculiar mark by which one being, or one collection of beings, may be distinguished from all others. When this is employed to distinguish a species, it is said to be specific; when belonging to a genus, generic; to an order, ordinal; and so on. The principal merit of characters is to bring together what can be most easily compared, and therefore such as are found in one and not in another are the best.

The characters of classes and orders are very different. Of classes according as an artificial or a natural arrangement has been adopted. In the former case they are very simple; in the latter, each being as it were one great genus, they must be still more extended than the character of a genus. Adanson and Linnaeus, therefore, thought it impossible to give characters to a natural order; but they erred in seeking one by itself, and not a combination of several. Jussieu made the attempt, and the example or method which he set to others is still called the Jussieuan system, in opposition to the strictly artificial one founded by Linnaeus. It is strange that the latter botanist, when he discovered that natural genera could not be defined in few words, did not apply the same train of thought to natural orders. Had he made the attempt, he must have succeeded, and another wreath would have been added to his crown, which has shed immortal honour on that of another. The characters of orders, when complete, must embrace a full description of all the organs of reproduction found in them; but as this is too long for common use, they are usually presented in a much abridged form. But even an abridged character may often be much shortened, and it is then called by Mr Lindley a diagnosis, comprehending only the distinctive characters of the orders, reduced to their briefest form, and without reference to the anomalies or exceptions which are often met with. For a character in full we may refer to *Cruciferae* in De Candolle's *Systema Regni Vegetabilis*, vol. ii. p. 139, which it is unnecessary here to cite. The abridged characters we shall have occasion ourselves to use.

The characters of genera vary also according to whether of the artificial or the natural system be adopted. Linnaeus, following the former, found the necessity of giving two kinds of character. The one, which he named the essential, contained no more than what was needful to distinguish the genus from others in the same order. The other, which he termed the natural, contained a short description of all the parts connected with the flower, and was necessary for the complete understanding of the genus; for without it one could not have the slightest idea of its true form, nature, appearance, or relations; and indeed his *Genera Plantarum*, written soon after his return from a visit to Jussieu at Paris, and containing natural characters, seems written in an entirely different spirit from that in which he had executed his *Species*. We do not mean that any improper inference should be drawn from this, but merely mention it as a very striking circumstance. In the natural system there is no occasion for these double characters; most of the lengthened character, as given by Linnaeus, being contained in that of the order which in- includes the genus. But, on the other hand, if a genus have a number of peculiar characters, every one must be mentioned; so that here the generic characters, though not so long as the natural ones of Linnaeus, must almost always be a little longer than his essential characters. To the generic character ought to be added a short account of the fundamental organs, remarks on its natural affinities when necessary, or any of its peculiarities, and the derivation of the name.

Specific characters ought to be the same, whatever be the system; but in general, those who adopt the artificial content themselves with making them, as Linnaeus prescribed, so very short as to contain only the distinctive marks, and on no account to exceed twelve words. Many of those who follow the natural method introduce as many of the peculiarities of the species as they can, so that it may exhibit a very short description. But, perhaps, without limiting ourselves to any particular number of words, it may always be preferable to make the specific characters, or phrases as they are called, as abridged as possible, without being indistinct, and then, when necessary, to add what may be denominated the natural character or description of the species. In this way it is advisable, as was recommended by Linnaeus, that in the phrase, all that follows the name, when in Latin, should be in the ablative case; that it ought to be strictly comparative, and the more contradictory terms employed in two species the better; that the characters derived from the different organs should follow each other in a certain order, beginning with those that apply to most species of the genus, and ending with such as may be nearly peculiar to itself. There can therefore be no such phrase when there is but one species of a genus. Descriptions may be either abridged or complete. In the latter case they may contain an account of the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, &c., in the order we have followed under Glossology. When in Latin, the nominative case is to be employed; after a substantive comes the epithets in adjectives or participles; but, for brevity, no connecting verbs are allowed, unless in very peculiar cases, where they cannot be dispensed with without creating great ambiguity. M. de St Hilaire, in a late report given in to the French Institute, on a work by M. Moquin on the family of Chenopodiaceae, seems to think that when the characters of the genus have been given with care, specific descriptions are quite unnecessary. "Après avoir indiqué les caractères de cette tribu, M. Moquin décrit en termes techniques les plantes qui la composent. Il trace avec détail les caractères des genres et se borne pour les espèces à de simples phrases. Nous ne pouvons qu'applaudir à cette méthode. Les descriptions spécifiques complètes sont fort utiles, sans doute, dans plusieurs circonstances; mais lorsqu'un genre se compose de plantes régulières,—lorsque, dans des dissertations générales, on a soumis leurs organes à un examen scrupuleux,—nous pensons, avec un de nos savans confrères (M. de Cassini), qu'il est superflu de redire à peu près autant de fois les mêmes choses qu'on a des espèces à faire connaître." To this we subscribe in the case of a monograph, or of a system of plants, because then we have the opportunity of reforming the generic character to our own ideas; but in giving an account of a new or isolated species, we do not see that, for the satisfaction of other writers, a detailed description can be uniformly dispensed with.

With regard to species, the order usually followed is, first the name, then the specific character or phrase, next the synonyms, then the locality or habitat, the duration of the plant, the time of flowering, &c.; after which the description may be given, with the culture and use; and, lastly, any critical observations that may present themselves.

We shall here give the following, as illustrations of the plates, and in some degree of what we have said.

GEN. I.—CALANDRINIA. KUNTZ.

Cosmia, Domb. Juss.

Calyx of two persistent, concave, nearly equal sepals. Petals 3-5; hypogynous, equal. Stamens 4-15, inserted on the base of the calyx or petals; filaments free; anthers bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovarium superior or unicellular; ovules many, attached to the bottom of the ovary by linear pseudoperns. Style 1. Stigma clavate-capitate, tripartite. Capsule oblongo-elliptical, covered by the persistent calyx, unicellular, three-valved, many-seeded. Seeds lenticular; testa crustaceous, brittle; tegmen thin and membranaceous; embryo surrounding a farinaceous albumen.—Herbs succulent; leaves very entire, alternate in those with stems; peduncles one-flowered, axillary or opposite to the leaves, without bracteas; in those without a stem bibracteated.

1. C. pilosissimula; stem nearly erect angled, and the leaves linear spatulate, slightly hairy; peduncles axillary, somewhat united to the bractea, constituting a terminal raceme; stamens 10-15.

C. pilosissimula. De Cand. Prod. vol. iii. p. 359; Hook. and Arn. in Botany of Beechey's Voyage, p. 24.—Talium latiatum.—Hook. Ecot. Fl. t. 82 (not Ruiz, and Pav.)—Tutucá. Feuill. Chil. vol. iii. t. 41.

Hab. Chili. Fl. Flowers during the whole of summer.

Descr. Stem about a foot or a foot and a half high, erect or decumbent, weak, angular, reddish, and branched below, above greenish, scarcely, and only here and there pilose. Leaves scattered, from one and a half to three inches long, linear, frequently inclining to spatulate, acute, more or less patent; the extremities often recurved, the upper surface channelled, the lower subincarnate, especially near the base, the margin distinctly ciliated. Flowers at first in terminal leafy corymbs, at length racemose, of a bright purplish red colour, pedicellated. Pedicels about half an inch long, thickened upwards, subpilose at their base, which is decurrent, having a large leaf-like bractea, and near that generally another much smaller and appressed one. Calyx of two triangular, thickish, green, subpilose, waved leaflets, with their margins more or less incurved, which are erect in the bud, somewhat spread in the flower, and which at length persist, enlarge, and inclose the fruit. Corolla of five broadly ovate and slightly notched petals. Stamens from ten to fifteen in number. Filaments subulate, purplish, hairy, shorter than the petals. Anthers extrorse, ovate, bilocular, pale purplish. Pollen yellow. Pistil almost entirely surrounded and concealed by the stamens. Ovarium roundish, green, glabrous. Style capitate, with three or four deep purple, velvety, obtuse, spreading rays or stigmas. Capsule ovate, inclosed in the calyx, opening with three obtuse valves. Seeds numerous, ovato-lenticular, dotted, black, shining, collected into the centre, and fixed to the base by as many distinct filaments, incrassated upwards, as there are seeds. Embryo cylindrical, curved, and inclosing the mealy albumen in its centre.

No particular culture is required for this plant. It is quite a hardy annual, and, like others of the same kind, may be sown in spring as soon as there is little probability

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1 In Latin, C. pilosissimula; caule suberecto angulato, foliisque lineari-spathulatis pilosissimis, pedicellis axillaribus folio florali sub-adnatis racemum terminalem constituentibus, staminibus 10-15. of the germination being injured by the frost. It has been hitherto applied to no use either in medicine or the arts.

The genus belongs to Dodecandra monogynia of Linnæus, and, like many others referred to it, has no certain number of stamens. This is even more exceptionable than some others, for the stamens are in several species as few as four or five; and, therefore, the artificial system entirely fails. In the natural method its place is obviously among the Portulaceae, and next to Talinum, with which some botanists unite it; but from that genus it is distinguished by the persistent petals (in Talinum deciduous), and ovules attached to the bottom of the ovary by long filiform funiculi (in Talinum fixed to a central placenta).

As a species its nearest affinity is with Talinum ciliatum, Ruiz, and Pav., another species of Calandrinia, but there the stamens do not exceed five in number. The Tal. adscendens, Hort. Berol., seems identical, and even Cal. compressa may be a variety with fewer stamens.

Plate CXVI. Calandrinia pilosissima. Fig. 1. Plant, natural size. Fig. 2. Petal. Fig. 3. Calyx and stamens. Fig. 4. Stamen magnified. Fig. 5. Calyx and capsule. Fig. 6. Germen, style, stigma, and detached pollen, magnified. Fig. 7. Capsule burst open. Fig. 8. Cluster of seeds on their podospermas. Fig. 9. Seed and pedosperm magnified. Fig. 10. Seed cut open longitudinally, exhibiting the embryo and albumen.

Gen. II.—Viola. Tourn.

Sepals five, auricled at their base. Petals unequal, the lower one spurred. Stamens five, approximated; filaments distinct; anthers connate; the two lower ones with processes at their back. Capsule one-celled, three-valved, opening elastically.—Herbs for the most part perennial, very rarely annual, some with a very short stem, others caulescent, and even suffrutescent; leaves alternate; peduncles solitary, axillary, one-flowered, bibracteolate; flowers cernuous.

Sect. Leptidium.

Stigma resembling a proboscis, with a minute foramen at the apex; style flexuous.

1. V. hederacea; stem short, stoloniferous; leaves fasciculate, reniform, slightly toothed, on long petioles; stipules subulate; sepals scarcely produced at the base; lower petal, oval, bifid, gibbous at the base beneath.

V. hederacea. La Bill. Fl. Nor. Holl. vol. i. p. 66, t. 91; De Cand. Prod. vol. i. p. 305; Hook. Exot. Flor. t. 225. Hab. New Holland. Φ. Flowers in May in the greenhouse.

Descr. Glabrous. Stem, or point from which the leaves spring, scarcely any, and apparently constituted by the united bases of the petioles throwing out long filiform stolones, which again produce clusters of leaves at various distances, and always at the base of each cluster send forth a rather strong fibrous branching root. Leaves fasciculated, from 3-6 in a cluster, an inch broad, when young almost cuneate and their sides rolled inwards, afterwards reniform and plane, or even convex on the upper surface, obscurely nerved, the margin denticulated, placed upon slender grooved petioles from two to four inches long. Peduncles or scapes from the axis of the leaves erect, longer than the leaves, with an indistinct groove, and two subulate bracteas near the middle. Calyx shorter than the corollis, cut into five spreading, ovato-lanceolate segments, scarcely all produced at the base. Flowers scentless, purple, marked with deeper stains, white at the tips. Two upper petals reflexed; two lateral ones obliquely twisted, gibbous or bulging near the base, and pubescent; lower petal oval, bifid, striated, the base gibbous only on the under side, convex on the upper, green, with a white margin. Stamens five; anthers nearly sessile, large, yellow-brown, appended at the extremity. Ovarium obovate. Style one, bent at the base, filiform. Stigma white, tapering from the style, acute. Capsule oval, three-valved, loculicidal; placenta parietal. Seeds numerous, with a raphe conspicuous from without. Albumen fleshy, white. Embryo in the axis of the albumen, straight, orthotropal, or with the radicle pointing to the base of the seed.

This plant succeeds well in the green-house. Its use is unknown.

Although placed in the genus Viola, this species differs from the others by the scarcely auricled bases of the sepals, as well as by the absence of a decided spur. Viola belongs to Pentandra monogynia, and is the type of the order Violaceae.

Plate CXVII. Viola hederacea. Fig. 1. Plant, natural size. Fig. 2. Back view of the calyx. Fig. 3. Lower petal. Fig. 4. One of the upper petals. Fig. 5. One of the side petals. Fig. 6. Side view of the lower petal. Fig. 7. Back view of a stamen. Fig. 8. Front view of the same. Fig. 9. Stipule. Fig. 10. Flower, the petals being removed. Fig. 11. Pistil. Fig. 12. Capsule, natural size. Fig. 13. Capsule burst open, magnified. Fig. 14. Seed, magnified. Fig. 15. Seed cut open to show the embryo and albumen.

Gen. III.—Loasa. Adans.

Calyx tube adhering with the ovarium, the limb persistent, 5-parted, equal. Petals 5, alternating with the calycine lobes, shortly unguiculate, concave. Scales 5, peltoid, alternate with the petals, 2-3-lobed, converging into a cone, and furnished within at the base with two sterile filaments. Stamens numerous, the 10 exterior sterile, the rest arranged in bundles, 10 to 17 together, each androphore opposite a petal. Anthers erect, bilocular. Style triad at the apex. Capsule turbinate-oblong, 1-celled, 3-valved at the apex, and crowned with the calyx, the valves bearing the placentas at their margins. Seeds oval, very numerous, reticulated.—Herbaceous, branched, sometimes twining, for the most part covered with sharp stinging hairs; leaves alternate or opposite, toothed or lobed; peduncles opposite to the leaves, axillary or terminal, one-flowered; petals yellow, rarely white.

1. L. nitida; hispid; leaves opposite, cordate at the base, 5-7-lobed, lobes angled and toothed, upper ones sessile; peduncles axillary; lobes of the calyx oblong, acuminated, entire, equal in length to the petals.

L. nitida. Lam. Dict. vol. iii. p. 581; Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. ii. p. 1177; Juss. in Ann. du Mus. vol. v. p. 25, t. 2, f. 2; Tratt. Tabul. i. t. 23; Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 83; Bot. Mag. t. 2372; De Cand. Prod. vol. iii. p. 341; Pers. Syn. Pl. vol. ii. p. 71.

Hab. Chili. Φ.

Descr. Stem straggling, weak, succulent, and fragile, two or three feet high, branched in a dichotomous manner, and, as well as the whole plant, clothed with longish hairs (which appear, when seen under a microscope, to be jointed, and to have short reflexed bristles), and still larger hairs or stings, seated upon a swollen sac or bag of poison, similar to what is seen in the stings of the common nettle. Leaves all opposite, somewhat five or seven lobed, with the lobes angular and toothed; the lower ones much the largest, placed on long foot-stalks; the upper ones sessile, smaller, and less distinctly lobed. Flowers axillary, generally solitary, pedunculated. Peduncles at first erect, after flowering bent down, swelling upwards into the pyriform ovarium. Calyx cut into five, rarely four, deep segments, lanceolate, acute, green, hispid, at first patent, afterwards reflexed. *Corolla* of five, bright yellow, subunguiculate, concavo-ventricose petals, reddish at the base, waved at the margin, at first spreading, then bent back. *Crowns* of five broadly ovate scales, red below, white upwards, where there are two slight depressions, and bidentate, somewhat pubescent at the base, where there are three (one on each side and one in the middle) subtriangular, toothed, red, fleshy appendages, each at its upper margin furnished with a yellowish brown, clavate filament. On the posterior side the margins of these scales are seen to be curved in, and to contain two filam- mentose bodies, curved and slightly pubescent at the base, about equal in length to the scale, and bearing on one side a purplish filament, which exceeds the scale in height. *Sta- mens*, about ten in each androphone or bundle; at first bent down at an angle, and concealed within the concave petals of the corolla, at length gradually springing upwards, and lying against the style and stigma, between the scales of the nectary. *Filaments* purplish. *Anthers* yellow, ovate. *Pollen* oblong when dry, spherical when moist, and always marked with a central line. *Ovarium* cohering with the tube of the calyx, above which it rises and forms an hemispherical hairy head. *Capsule*, with the persistent calyx, opening into three valves in the superior extremity. *Receptacles* corresponding with the sutures, rather large, fleshy. *Seeds*, several on each receptacle, longish, oblong, attached on one side, wrinkled, brown. *Albumen* white, between waxy and horny, and inclosing in its centre a cylindrical straight embryo, slightly thickened upwards.

This belongs to Polyadelphe polyandria of Linnæus, although by some erroneously placed in Polyandria mono- gynia, and forms the type of the natural order Loasœ.

Plate CXVIII. *Loasa nitida*. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2, A Leaf. Fig. 3, A Flower. Fig. 4, Calyx, most of the petals, stamens, and scales, being removed. Fig. 5, Back view of the scale of the nectary. Fig. 6, Front view of the same. Fig. 7, One of the filaments from within the scale. Fig. 8, Stamen. Fig. 9, Pollen. Fig. 10, Sting. Fig. 11, Hair, with its joints and bristles. Fig. 12, Ovarium cut through transversely. Fig. 13, Seed. Fig. 14, Section of the seed, showing the albumen and embryo. Fig. 15, Em- bryo removed from the seed.

**Gen. IV.—Begonia. Linn.**

Monoeious. Males. *Perianth* usually of four unequal tepals. *Stamens* eight or more. Fem. *Perianth*, the tube adherent with the ovary, the limb divided to the base into 4-9 segments, usually unequal. *Styles* three, each with a two-horned stigma; or nine, dichotomously 3-4 cleft, with simple stigmas. *Capsule* triangular, three-winged, three- celled. *Seeds* very minute and numerous.

1. *B. picta*: stem short, pubescent; leaves cordate, acute, wrinkled, doubly-serrated, spotted, hispid; male flowers of four, the female of 4-5 divisions, the two inner the narrowest; capsule with the wings unequal and pu- bescent.

*B. picta*. Smith, *Ex. Bot.* t. 101; Hook. *Ex. Fl.* t. 89; Bot. Mag. t. 2962; Lodd. *Bot. Cab.* t. 571.—B. hirta, Wallich.

Hab. Nipal. 4. Flowers, in September, in the stoves of our gardens.

Descr. Root perennial, of two small, roundish tubers, together with a few thick, fleshy, simple fibres, mixed with others which are more slender and branched. Stem short, slightly branched, thick, succulent, green, more or less tinged with purple, hairy. Leaves three or four inches in length, few in number, cordate, more or less inequilateral, with a deep sinus at the base, and two large rounded lobes, more or less acute, sometimes acuminate, the mar-

gins unequally and doubly serrated, rugose, waved, hispid above, downy, and prominently veined beneath, green at the margins, and axils of the veins stained with dark purple. *Pedioles* long, terete, hairy, with a pair of broadly ovate stipules at the base. *Peduncles* from the axils of the leaves, and longer than them, reddish below, green above, bearing one or several flowers, often in a trichoto- mous umbel. *Flowers* large, rose-coloured, drooping before and after expansion, especially the female. Male Flower of four spreading tepals, two large, roundish, cor- date, hispid, with short red hairs at the back, two inner ones obovate. *Stamens* numerous, and in reality mono- delphous, the filaments often forked, yellow. Female Flowers of four or five divisions; the outer ones roundo-date-ovate, hispid at the back; the inner rather smaller, and obovate. *Ovarium* large, cohering with the tube of the perianth, turbinate, thickly pubescent, with branched or rather laciniated, white, reticulated processes, triquetrous, the angles extended into the or wings, of which one is larger than the others. *Styles* 3, yellow. *Stigma* bifid, each segment twisted something like the shell of a snail.

We have given a short generic character to this plant, as *Begonia* is the only genus of the natural order to which it belongs, and the description of the order will be given afterwards. In the Linnean system it is usually placed in Monococcia polyandra.

Plate CXVIII. *Begonia picta*. Fig. 1*, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2*, Style and stigma. Fig. 3*, One of the pro- cesses of the ovarium which forms the pubescence. Fig. 4*, Ovarium cut transversely.

**Gen. V.—Cuscuta. Linn.**

*Calyx* 4-5-cleft. *Corolla* urceolate or campanulate, the limb 4-5-cleft, with as many scales (sometimes very mi- nute) inside at the base. *Stamens* 4-5. *Ovarium* bilo- cular, each cell two-seeded. *Stigmas* two. *Capsule* opening transversely. *Cotyledons* inconspicuous.—Parasitical; climbing, leafless plants with filiform stems.

1. *C. verrucosa*: flowers pedicellate; corolla campanu- late, five-toothed, segments reflexed, scales fimbriated; stamens five; stigmas nearly sessile, diverging, elongated, subulate; peduncles and calyx verrucose.

*C. verrucosa*. Sweet, *Brit. Fl. Gard.* t. 6.—C. reflexa, var. verrucosa. Hook. *Exot. Fl.* t. 150.

Hab. East India. 4. Flowers in November in cultivation at Edinburgh.

Descr. Stem of great length, filiform, branched, leafless, succulent, climbing from right to left (contrary to the motion of the sun), shining, glabrous, greenish-white, spotted and dashed with purple, adhering parasitically by means of small, fleshy, discoid radicles. From various parts of the stems and branches proceed racemes or compact panicles, formed of a considerable number of large, pure white, waxy, and slightly pellucid fragrant flowers, the smell of which resembles that of the prim- rose. *Peduncles* and *pedicels* sprinkled with many elevated shining dots or warts, of a deep purple colour. *Bracteas*, two or three on the pedicels, or at the base of the calyx, small ovate. *Calyx* of five fleshy, white or pale rose coloured, ovate, obtuse, appressed, warted segments, persistent. *Corolla* deciduous, campanulate, or very slightly contract- ed at the mouth, five-toothed, the teeth reflexed; at the base of the corolla, on the inside, alternating with its teeth, are five short fringed scales. *Anthers* five, sessile on the corolla, just within its mouth, and alternating with the segments, oblong, yellow. *Filament* incorporated with the corolla, forming an elevated line between the anthers and the back of each scale. *Ovarium* roundish-ovate, superior, and not at all adherent with the calyx, bilocular; each cell with two ovules, tipped with the two, nearly sessile, subulate, white stigmas. Capsule the size of a pea, terminated with the style and stigmas, spherical, membranaceous, opening transversely near the base, imperfectly two-celled; the dissepiment membranaceous, free, each cell two-seeded; one or sometimes both seeds in a cell not unfrequently abortive. Seeds attached to the base of the cells, erect, roundish, compressed. Albumen copious, between fleshy and coriaceous. Embryo filiform, long, spirally rolled up, and immersed in the albumen, as in fig. 8, where only portions of it are visible.

This grows with great luxuriance when plunged in the tan-pit. It is of no use.

This genus has been usually described as having no cotyledons; but, however inconspicuous they be, we are not warranted by analogy to draw such a conclusion: both bracteas and a calyx are perceptible, and these we know to be modified leaves. Although, therefore, leaves and cotyledons do not appear perfect, we may infer that they exist in a rudimentary state. It belongs to Pentandria digynia, and Nat. Order, Convolvulaceae. As a species, it coincides perhaps too closely with the C. reflexa of Dr Roxburgh, but that species has smaller flowers, and the calyx and peduncle have not been observed to possess the remarkable warts of that before us.

Plate CIX. Cuscuta verrucosa. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2, Corolla cut open, showing the stamens and scales at the base, magnified. Fig. 3, Calyx and pistil, magnified. Fig. 4, Capsule opening. Fig. 5, Dissepiment and two seeds, the upper part of the capsule being removed. Fig. 6, Ovarium cut transversely. Fig. 7, Seed. Fig. 8, Seed cut longitudinally, showing the albumen, and the embryo rolled up and immersed in it.

Gen. VI.—Myristica. Linn.

Directions. Males. Perianth campanulate, trifid. Filament columnar. Anthers 3-12, connate. Fem. Perianth campanulate, trifid, deciduous. Style 0. Stigmas two. Drege with a nut covered by an arillus, one-seeded.

1. M. officinalis; leaves oblongo-elliptical, subacuminate, glabrous, paler beneath, nerves simple; peduncles few-flowered; perianth urceolate.

M. officinalis. Linn. Sopp. p. 265; Gaert. de Fruct. vol. i. p. 194, t. 41; Smith in Ross Cyc. ; Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 155, 156; Bot. Mag. t. 2756, 2757.—M. moschata. Thunb. in Act. Holm. 1782, p. 45; Wood's Med. Bot. t. 134; Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. iv. p. 869; Ait. Hort. Kew ed. 2, vol. v. p. 419; Spreng. Spec. Veg. vol. iii. p. 64; Flora Med. vol. ii. p. 74; M. aromatica. Lam. Art. t. 1788, p. 153, t. 3, 6, 7; Lam. Diet. vol. iv. p. 385, and Ill. t. 832; Roxb. Pl. of Corom. vol. iii. t. 267.—Nux myristica seu Pala, Rumph. Herb. Amb. vol. iii. t. 4.—Nux moschata, fructu rotundo. Plath. Phyt. t. 219.

Hab. Islands of Banda, a group of the Molucca isles.

Descr. Trunk from twenty-five to thirty feet, much branched, with a greyish brown, tolerably smooth bark, that abounds in a yellow juice. Leaves 3-6 inches long sub-bifarious, penninerved, oblong, or nearly elliptical, somewhat obtuse at the base, acuminate at the apex, quite entire, glabrous, dark green, and somewhat shining above, beneath much paler, but neither pulverulent nor pubescent; lateral nerves parallel, simple, prominent. Petioles ½-¾ of an inch in length, plane above. Flowers in axillary subumbellate ra-

comes, sometimes forked or compound, males and females on different trees. Peduncles and pedicels subclavate, glabrous, the latter having a quickly deciduous bracteole at its summit, often appressed to the flower. Male Flowers from three to five, or more, on a peduncle. Perianth urceolate, thick and fleshy, of a dingy pale yellowish colour, clothed with a very indistinct reddish pubescence, cut into three, or by luxuriance, and rarely, into four, somewhat erect teeth. Filaments of the stamens united and incorporated so as to form a thickened, whitish, cylindrical body, about as long as the perianth, of which the top is rounded, and the upper half covered by about eleven longitudinal, linear oblong, two-celled anthers, free at their base, opening longitudinally, and emitting a yellow pollen. Fem. Fl., similar to the male, except that the pedicel is very frequently solitary on the peduncle. Perianth deciduous. Pistil solitary, shorter than the perianth, broadly ovate, a little tapering upwards into a short style, and bearing a two-lobed persistent stigma. Fruit a nearly spherical, pendent drupe, of the size and nearly of the shape of a small pear; flesh of a yellowish colour, almost white within, one-third to one-half an inch in thickness, opening into two nearly equal valves, exhibiting the nut and mace, which soon drop out, and the flesh then withers. Arillus thick, somewhat horny or fleshy, laciniated, folded and anastomosing towards the extremity, closely enveloping the nut, of a brilliant scarlet colour. Nut broadly oval; shell very hard, rugged, dark brown, glossy, about half an inch thick, pale and smooth within. Seed oval, pale brown, quite smooth (when first deprived of the shell, but soon becoming shrivelled as it is sold in our shops). Testa and tegmen thin. Albumen firm, fleshy, whitish traversed with reddish-brown oleiferous veins. Embryo fleshy, yellowish white, imbedded in a cavity at the base of the albumen. Radicle short, rounded, pointing to the hilum. Cotyledons two, large, foliaceous, plicate.

The use both of the mace and nutmeg are well known, whether in a medicinal or economical point of view; an essential oil is prepared from them by distillation and expression. The flesh contains a bitter principle, which may be much removed by repeated washings, when the fruit is preserved in sugar.

Myristica belongs to Dieecia monadelphus of Linneus, and to the natural order Myristaceae. It was referred by Jussieu to the Laurineae, but differs in many important characters.

Plate CXX. Myristica officinalis. Fig. 1, Male plant, natural size. Fig. 2, Perianth cut open to show the stamens. Fig. 3, Anther. Fig. 4, Female flower cut open. Fig. 5, Young fruit. Fig. 6, Ripe fruit in the act of bursting and showing the male. Fig. 7, Section of ripe fruit. Fig. 8, The Nut. Fig. 9, Seed. Fig. 10, Seed cut vertically. Fig. 11, Nut cut through vertically. Fig. 12 and 13, Embryo.

Gen. VII.—Euphorbia. Linn.

Flowers monocoeious in the same involucre: the female solitary and central; the males several, surrounding the female. Involucre either regular, or more frequently irregular and cleft on one side, campanulate-turbinate, 4-5 cleft; the segments entire, or fimbriated, or multipartite, and erect or inflected; alternating with which are as many (or rarely fewer) exterior appendages, fleshy, glandulose,

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We have been indebted for the above descriptions, and the accompanying plates, to the works of Professor Hooker, the most elegant botanical writer and draughtsman of the present day. All the plates which follow, with the exception of Plate CXXIII., are also copied from those done after drawings made by the same distinguished botanist; they were originally published principally in the Botanical Magazine, a work that contains now considerably upwards of 3000 coloured plates, and than which none can better merit the patronage of the public. or peltaloid, entire or two-horned, or (rarely) many cleft, patent, and reflexed. MALES consisting of several pedicels, each articulated with a filament bearing one anther, usually distinct below, with intervening paleaceous or squamiform bracteas. FEM. Pistil long-pedicellate, naked below, or (rarely) with an entire or trifid minute perianth. Styles three bifid, rarely united into one trifid at the apex. Stigmas six, rarely three and two-lobed. Ovarium, three-celled; the cells each with one ovule. Fruit capsular, sitting on the elongated pedicel, and nodding by it being deflexed, smooth or warted, glabrous or pilose, tricoccous, the cocci bursting elastically into two valves, and deciduous.—Milky plants, herbaceous or shrubby, erect or creeping, of various appearances.

1. E. hypericifolia, erect, herbaceous, smooth. Leaves opposite oblique, and half heart-shaped at the base, oblong, somewhat obtuse, serrulate; petioles very short, with stipules at the base; corymbs of flowers dense, axillary, or terminal.

E. hypericifolia, Linn. Amoen. Acad. vol. iii. p. 113; Hook, Exot. Fl. t. xxxvi.

Hab. West Indies. (O or 4.) (Humb.)

Of this and the following we do not give either detailed characters, or a long list of synonyms, but exhibit longer generic characters, that the plates may serve to illustrate some of the natural orders.

Plate CXXI. Euphorbia hypericifolia. Fig. 1, Plant natural size. Fig. 2, Involucre with petaloid appendages. Fig. 3, Involucre cut open to show the insertion of the numerous naked monandrous male flowers, and the single naked female flower, all pedicellated. Fig. 4, Involucre deprived of the petaloid appendages. Fig. 5, Involucre with ripe fruit. Fig. 6, Stipule. Fig. 7, Stamen and anther burst open. Fig. 8, Fruit, with one of the cocci separating from the columnella, and bursting to discharge the seed. Fig. 9, Seed. Fig. 10, Seed cut open longitudinally, showing the fleshy albumen and inverted embryo.

GEN. IX.—ESCHSCHOLTZIA. Chamisso.

Calyx ovato-conical, membranaceous, mitriform, very soon falling off entire. Petals four, their claws short, inserted on the expanded hollow apex of the peduncle. Stamens partly inserted with the petals, and partly attached to their claws, numerous, 6-8 opposite to each petal. Anthers terminal, linear, two-celled, the cells bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, elongated. Stigmas sessile, four, two of which are longer than the other two, which are abortive. Capsule siliqueform, cylindrical, marked with ten ribs and ten striae, two-valved. Placentae marginal. Seeds small, globose, externally reticulated. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight, immersed in the albumen near the base of the seed, the radicle pointing to the hilum. Stem abounding in a yellowish juice; leaves alternate, multifid; peduncles opposite to the leaves, and one-flowered, expanding at their apex into a hollow receptacle.

1. E. Californica.

E. Californica. Cham. in Hor. Phys. Berol. p. 74, t. 15; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2887; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 1168; Sweet, Brit. Fl. Gard. t. 265. This genus belongs undoubtedly to the Papaveraceae of Jussieu, and Polyantria tetragynia of Linnaeus. We have already said (p. 60), that the name ought scarcely to be retained. It was named by Chamisso in honour of Dr Eschscholz, an excellent botanist and entomologist, who accompanied him as a fellow naturalist in the voyage round the world under the command of Kotzebue. It is not, perhaps, generally known that this gentleman is a descendant of John Sigismund Elsholz, a Prussian botanist, author of a Flora Marchica, and after whom Willdenow named the Elsholzia cristata. The Russians, into whose service the present Elsholz went, wrote his name Eschscholz by mistake. The genus is now so well established, that the alteration to another generic name might create unnecessary confusion."—Hook.

Plate CXXII. Eschscholtzia Californica. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2*, Base of one of the petals, to which some of the stamens are attached. Fig. 3*, Pistil inserted in the cup-shaped receptacle, or hollowed extremity of the peduncle. Fig. 4*, Section of the ovarium. Fig. 5*, Ripe capsule, natural size. Fig. 6*, Seed. Fig. 7*, Section of the same. Fig. 8*, Embryo.

GEN. X.—JANIPHA. Kunth.

Flowers monocious. Perianth campanulate, 5-partite. Estivation convolute. MALES. Stamens ten, distinct, inserted on the fleshy discoid torus, five of them alternate with the others, and shorter. FEM. Style short. Stigmas three, of several lobes; the lobes, as if united into one mass, marked with sinuous furrows. Ovarium seated on the fleshy torus, three-celled, the cells each with one ovule. Capsule ovate, somewhat acute at the apex, tricoccous, the cocci two-valved.—Trees or milky shrubs; leaves alternate, palmate; flowers racemoso-panicled, axillary or terminal; root of some of the species tubercular and esculent.

1. J. Manihot; leaves palmate, 5-7-partite, glabrous, glaucous beneath, the segments lanceolate and very entire; flowers racemose.

J. Manihot. Humb. and Kunth, Nov. Gen. vol. ii. p. 108; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 3071.—Manihot utilissima. Pohl, Pl. Bras. Icon. vol. i. t. 24.—Intropha Manihot. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1428.—Physic-nut, bitter cassada, manioc, or tapioca, of English writers.

Hab. Brazil. 24. Flowers in July and August in our collections.

"Two kinds are especially cultivated in the colonies, the Sweet Cassada of Browne's Jamaica (p. 350), and Lunan's Hort. Jam. (vol. i. p. 163), Manihot Aipii, Pohl; whose root is of a white colour, and free from deleterious qualities; and the Bitter Cassada, whose root is yellowish, and abounds in a poisonous juice. We shall confine our observations to the latter kind, which is the one here figured and described. They seem not to differ in botanical character.

"When it is considered that the Manioc belongs to a tribe of plants, the Euphorbiaceae, which is essentially distinguished by its acid and poisonous qualities, and that the root of the plant itself abounds in a juice of this peculiar character, it cannot fail to excite astonishment in the minds of those who are not already aware of the fact, that it nevertheless yields an abundant flour, rendered innocent indeed by the art of man, and thus most extensively employed in lieu of bread throughout a very large portion of South America; and that even to our country it is largely imported, and served up at table, under the name of Tapioca.

"Such is the poisonous nature of the expressed juice of the Manioc, that it has been known to occasion death in a few minutes. By means of it the Indians destroyed many of their Spanish persecutors. M. Fernier, a physician at Surinam, administered a moderate dose to dogs and cats, who died in a space of twenty-five minutes, passed in great torments. Their stomachs, on being opened, exhibited no symptoms of inflammation, nor affection of the viscera, nor was the blood coagulated, whence it appeared, that the poison acted on the nervous system; an idea that was confirmed by thirty-six drops being afterwards administered to a criminal. These had scarcely reached the stomach, when the man writhed and screamed with the agonies under which he suffered, and fell into convulsions, in which he expired in six minutes. Three hours afterwards the body was opened, but no alteration was found, except that the stomach was shrunk to less than half its natural size; so that it would appear that the fatal principle resides in a volatile substance, which may be dissipated by heat; as, indeed, is satisfactorily proved by the mode of preparing the root for food.

By various processes, by bruising between stones, by a coarse rasp, or by a mill, the root of the Manioc is broken into small pieces, then put into a sack, and subjected to a heavy pressure, by which all the juice is expressed. What remains is Cassava or Cassarea, which, if properly dried, is capable of being preserved for a great length of time.

In French Guiana, according to Aublet, cassada flour is made by toasting the grated root over the fire, in which state, if kept from humidity, it will continue good for twenty years.

Cassava-cake, or cassava-root, is the meal, or the grated, expressed, and dried root of the Manioc, pounded in a mortar, passed through a coarse sieve, and baked on flat circular iron plates fixed in a stove. The particles of meal are united by the heat, and when thoroughly baked in this manner, form cakes, which are sold at the markets, and universally esteemed as a wholesome kind of bread. The Spaniards, when they first discovered the West Indies, found this in general use among the native Indians, who called it Cazabbi, and by whom it was preferred to every other kind of bread, on account of its easy digestion, the facility with which it was cultivated, and its prodigious increase. Again, in Guiana, Cipipa is another preparation from this plant, and is the name given to a very fine and white fecula, which, according to Aublet, is derived from the expressed juice of the roots, which is decanted off, and suffered to rest some time, when it deposits an amylaceous substance, which requires repeated washing. I know not whether this is exactly analogous to our Tapioca. The juice, says Sloane, evaporated over the fire, gives the Tapioca meal. But Luman tells us, that from the roots of the Sweet Cassada, Tapioca is made in Jamaica, in every respect similar to that imported, which is done by grating them, washing them, and infusing them in water, and evaporating the liquor so as to obtain a sediment like starch, which must be well dried in the sun.

The root of the Manioc is also the basis of several kinds of fermented liquors; and an excellent condiment for seasoning meats, called Cabion, or Capion, is prepared from the juice, and said to sharpen the appetite. The leaves beaten and boiled are eaten after the manner of Spinach, and the fresh root is employed in healing ulcers.

From what has been above stated, it will appear that the expression of the juice from the root deprives the latter of its deleterious properties; and that the application of heat to these juices renders the residue also wholesome and nourishing. And whilst cassava-bread is, as Sloane says, in the most general demand of any provision all over the West Indies, and is employed to victual ships, the use of Tapioca is still more extended, and throughout Europe is largely employed for the same purpose as sago and arrow-root. (Hook. in Bot. Mag.)

Plate CXXII. Janipha manihot. Fig. 1, Branch of a plant, natural size, with female flowers. Fig. 2, Panicle, with mostly male flowers. Fig. 3, Pistil. Fig. 4, Stamens, and discoid fleshy torus. Fig. 5, Anther. Fig. 6, Seed.

Gen. XI.—Anacardium. Jacq. Linn.

Flowers polygamous. Calyx 5-partite, regular, deciduous, the segments erect. Estivation imbricated. Petals five, inserted on the calyx, sessile, longer than the calyx, equal, patent above. Stamens ten, inserted with the petals, included, one (between two of the petals) twice as long and stout as the others. Filaments connate at their base. Anthers two-celled, ovato-elliptical, bifid at the base, attached by the back, longitudinally dehiscent on the inside. Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled, terminating in the style; minute in the male flowers. Ovule one, ascending, situated at the bottom of the cell. Style subulate, protruded. Stigma capitellate. Discoid torus wanting. Fruit reniform, cartilagino-coriaceous, one-seeded, indehiscent, seated on the enlarged pyriform fleshy extremity of the pedicel. Seed reniform. Integument simple, coriaceous, adhering. Embryo of the same shape as the seed, without albumen. Cotyledons half-lunate, fleshy, plano-convex. Radicle hooked, rising upwards from the base of the cotyledons.—Trees bearing gum; leaves alternate, simple, entire and very entire, the primary veins transverse and somewhat parallel; stipules none; panicles terminal, corymbose, branched, diffuse, bracteated; flowers fascicled; pericarp cellular within, abounding in a caustic oil.

1. A. occidentale.

A. occidentale. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 548; Jacq. Amer. t. 181. f. 35.—Acajuba occidentalis. Garlt. Fruct. i. p. 192. t. 40.—Cassuvium pomiferum. Lam. Diet. i. p. 22. Ill. t. 332.

Hab. West Indies, Mexico, South America, East India islands. This yields the well-known cashew-nut. It belongs to the Terebinthaceae.

Plate CXXXIII. Anacardium occidentale. Fig. 1, Branch with flowers and fruit, somewhat reduced. Fig. 2, Flowers not expanded. Fig. 3, Flower spread open. Fig. 4, Stamens and pistil in the calyx, one stamen (fertile) longer than the others. Fig. 5, Stamen. Fig. 6, Nut. Fig. 7, Nut cut open longitudinally. Fig. 8, Seed. Fig. 9, Cotyledons opened, showing the radicle (a) and plumule.

Gen. XII.—Carica. Linn.

Flowers dioecious. Calyx (minute) five-toothed. Males. Corolla infundibuliform. Stamens ten, the alternate ones shorter. Fem. Corolla deeply five-parted. Stigmas five. Fruit like a pepo, many-seeded. Seeds covered with a wrinkled membrane.

1. C. Papaya; leaves palmate, seven-parted, segments oblong acute sinuate, the intermediate one trifid; fruit oblong, furrowed.

C. Papaya. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1466; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 459; Hook in Bot. Mag. t. 2898 and 2899.—Papaya vulgaris, Lam. Ill. t. 821.—Papaya Carica. Garlt. Fruct. vol. ii. p. 191, t. 122, f. 2.

Hab. South America. 5.

This, the Pawpaw tree, yields a milky juice; and, as Browne mentions, if water be impregnated with it, it will make all sorts of meat washed in it very tender; but eight or ten minutes steeping will render it so soft that it will drop in pieces from the spit before it is well roasted, or turn to rags in the boiling. If old hogs and poultry be fed upon the leaves and fruit, however tough the meat they afford might otherwise be, it is thus rendered perfectly tender. Even the vapour of the tree serves this purpose; hence many people in the West Indies suspend the joints of meat, fowls, &c. in the upper part of the tree, in order to prepare them sooner for the table.

Plate CXXXIV. Carica Papaya. Fig. 1, Tree, much reduced. Fig. 2, Portion of a panicle or raceme of male flowers. Fig. 3, Male flower, cut open. Fig. 4, Calyx. Fig. 5, Portion of the tube of the corolla bearing young sta- Gen XIII.—Andromeda. Linn.

Calyx five-parted. Corolla gamopetalous, somewhat campanulate. Stamens ten. Anthers two-horned. Style one. Capsule five-celled, loculicidal, with a central five-lobed placentiferous column.

1. A. hypnoides; stem procumbent; leaves imbricated erect subulate; peduncles solitary; one-flowered, terminal; corolla campanulate five-cleft, the segments obtuse and converging; style ovato-acuminate.

A. hypnoides. Linn. Supp. p. 355; Flor. Lapp. t. I. f. 3; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2936.

Hab. Extreme north of Europe, Asia, and north-west coast of America.

We have already (p. 60) given Linnaeus's interesting account of the origin of the name Andromeda.

Plate CXXIV. Andromeda hypnoides. Fig. 1*, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2*, Flower. Fig. 3*, Back view, and Fig. 4*, Front view of a stamen. Fig. 5*, Leaf. Fig. 6*, Pistil. Fig. 7*, Section of the ovarium.

Gen. XIV.—Artocarpus. Linn.

Flowers monococious, in an amentum. Males. Perianth simple, of one, two, or three segments. Filament solitary, as long as the perianth. Fem. Perianth of one piece, the mouth contracted. Fruit a sorsis.

1. A incisa; leaves cuneato-ovate, lobed in a pinnatifid manner, glabrous, or nearly so, above, scabrous beneath.

A. incisa. Linn. Fl. Supp. p. 411; Lam. Ill. t. 744; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2869, 2870, and 2871.—A communis. Forster, Gen. p. 102, t. 51.

Hab. Ladrome islands, but now cultivated throughout the tropics.

Of this there are two varieties; one producing nuts, which is called the Bread-nut (that here figured); the other in which the nuts are abortive, and called the Bread-fruit. This last is well known to all who have read the interesting voyages of Dampier and Anson.

This genus belongs to the Artocarpaceae, a section of Urticeae.

Plate CXXV. Artocarpus incisa. Fig. 1, Branch, reduced to one third of the natural size, with male and female flowers. Fig. 2, Section of an amentum of male flowers, natural size. Fig. 3, Male flowers. Fig. 4, Single male flower. Fig. 5, Cluster of female flowers. Fig. 6, Single female flower. Fig. 7, Ovarium. Fig. 8, Ovarium laid open to show the ovule. Fig. 9, A variety of the ovarium with two cells. Fig. 10, Transverse section of the ovarium.

Gen. XIV.—Cycas. Linn.

Flowers dioecious. Males in a very thick amentum: scales somewhat imbricated, inserted on the common axis, somewhat triangular, tapering from the apex to the base, terminated at the apex with a recurved point, on the under side sprinkled without order with bivalve anthers. Fem. Arranged in ensiform spadices, which are between foliaceous and carnose, and bear the flowers on both margins: flowers erect, half immersed. Fruit erect, a naked drupaceous seed.—Trees with an erect, round stipes; leaves pinnatisect, and forming a crown round the stem.

C. circinalis; segments of the leaves linear-lanceolate, plane; petioles aculeate; female spadices few-flowered, acuminate, inciso-serrated; fruit ovato-globose, glabrous.

C. circinalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1658; Hook. in Bot. Mag. f. 2866 and 2867; Richard Mem. sur les Conif. p. 187, t. 24, 25, 26.

Hab. East Indies.

This belongs to the natural order of Cycadeae, which, with Coniferae, is remarkable for having no pericarp farther than the spadix or its scales.

Plate CXXVI. Cycas circinalis, male. Fig. 1, Plant, reduced to one-twelfth of the natural size. Fig. 2, Male amentum, natural size. Fig. 3, Upper side of a scale. Fig. 4, Under side of the same. Fig. 5, 6, 7, Anther. Fig. 8, Pollen, magnified. Fig. 9, Small pinna from a leaf.

As to the manner in which botanical works may be got up, whether as Monographs of Orders or Genera, as Floras of particular countries or districts of a country, as a Hortus, as a Genera Plantarum, a Species Plantarum, or as a Systema Vegetabilium, or as Botanical Plates; though each be subjected to a few rules, yet much is left to the taste of the author. We shall therefore pass them over, and proceed to an Herbarium.

Descriptions and figures, however exact they may be esteemed by their authors, have so often been found imperfect by others, that some means must be resorted to, that every one may examine for himself the plant treated of. This in a measure may be attained by having access to gardens; but in all our gardens together, perhaps not more than one fourth of the vegetable productions of the globe are cultivated, and of these many have not been made to bear blossoms or fruit, and are therefore useless; nor can they be certainly seen in all states at the very time when we particularly desire them. In a garden, also, the cultivator is seldom an experienced botanist, and we may therefore expect many errors in nomenclature. The name, therefore, so far from assisting us to trace what an author had in view, may tend to puzzle us still more. In a garden, likewise, plants are made as showy as possible, to please the eye, and often depart very much from the type of the species as taken from its original locality. The necessity, then, was soon perceived of preserving specimens of everything that is described, so that these may be communicated to other botanists, examined by them, and criticised; and as it was impracticable to retain for any length of time specimens in the fresh state, means were devised to extract the juices; and this being accomplished, no alteration could afterwards take place. Such is the origin of an herbarium, which is a collection more or less considerable of different plants, dried as carefully as possible, at a time when they were in leaf, in flower, and in fruit; while a separate collection of fruits alone, either dried, or, if they are fleshy, preserved in spirits or salt water, is called a granary. The mode of drying plants is very simple.

Paper of an absorbent nature (such as common gray or brown packing paper, or old newspapers) must be procured, about seventeen or eighteen inches long, and twelve broad, and a few strong deal boards of the same size. The specimens may be gathered in a large tin box, or in a basket so covered as to exclude the rays of the sun; and when one cannot soon after proceed to dry them, a little water may be occasionally sprinkled over them to keep them fresh. In order to dry them, take one of the boards and lay a few sheets of paper upon it. The quantity of paper will of course depend on its thickness, and on the nature of the specimens; for when they are full of moisture, more paper is requisite than for more tender or less juicy plants; and when they have thick or knobby stems, or large hard fruits, a still greater quantity must intervene between each layer of plants. Having taken, then, some sheets of paper, spread upon them the plants, so as not to allow the one to overlap the other; and with this precaution several may be laid on the same sheet. It is quite useless to spread out or separate the leaves or flowers with the hand. If the specimen be at all in a fresh state, its natural appearance is best preserved by allowing it to take the position which chance may direct. Above this layer of plants place some sheets of paper, then another layer of plants, and so on till a packet be formed of a foot, or a foot and a half high. When a considerable number of woody plants is in the packet, a few thin boards may be interspersed, to prevent the more delicate plants sustaining injury; this will also flatten the coarse ones more easily. On the top of the packet another board is to be placed, and on it a large weight or dry stone when such can be procured, so as to press the plants, and make them give out their juices to the paper. The weight need scarcely be less than 50 lbs.; and if the plants have thick or woody stems, even 80 lbs. or 100 lbs. may be applied. In travelling, it is impossible to carry about large stones or weights, in which case the plants may be pressed by means of two or three leather belts passing round the packet, and pulled extremely tight. When plants have been subjected to pressure for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, the weight may be taken off, and the paper will be found to have absorbed a considerable portion of moisture from the plants. It must therefore be now removed, and the specimens laid on dry paper, and subjected to the same process as before. This must be repeated until the plants are dry. It may be less troublesome were the sheets, upon which the plants immediately rest, laid down in a dry situation for a few hours with the plants on them. The moisture will quickly evaporate, and the sheet, without disturbing the plants, may be laid upon a layer of dry paper. The wet paper, when thoroughly dried, can be used as often as one chooses.

When the specimens are dry, which may be easily ascertained by their stiffness, or not curling up when in a dry situation, they may be packed up (of small ones, fifty or sixty specimens on a sheet), in very little space; only one sheet of paper is then requisite between each layer of plants. Specimens must be gathered, when possible, in dry weather. They ought to be both in flower and in fruit, the latter being obviously as useful as the former to the scientific botanist; and not less than from twelve or fifteen specimens of each kind ought to be taken, one specimen proving frequently of little use. Small herbaceous plants, not more than sixteen or seventeen inches high, may be pulled up by the root, and dried entire; and some that are even longer, as grasses and ferns, may be doubled two or three times. Of larger plants, such as shrubs and trees, specimens are to be taken at least sixteen or seventeen inches long; and if the leaves on a plant vary much in shape, a corresponding number of specimens may be dried of each kind. Those plants which are of a very fleshy or succulent nature, as tulips, &c., ought to be plunged (all but the flower) for a few seconds into boiling water. This deprives them of life; and when the extraneous moisture is allowed to dry off, or wiped away with a towel, they may be dried as other plants. Lichens and fungi may be dried in the common way, although those of the latter tribe seldom make good specimens. Mosses grow frequently in tufts, and are to be a little separated by the hand before they be pressed. The larger or coarse sea-weeds ought to be plunged in boiling water, and treated as succulent plants. The smaller ones, when one is hurried, may first be partially dried in the open air, in a shady situation, and afterwards subjected to a very gentle pressure, till quite dry, when they may be packed up with the other plants; and, when our time permits, they will be restored to their original form by washing them in cold fresh water. They are then to be neatly spread out on pieces of writing paper, to which most of the species will adhere; after this they are to be pressed, and a little attention must then be paid lest the specimens also adhere to the absorbent paper.

When a packet so prepared is sent from abroad, it ought to contain at least 100 different kinds, or more than 1000 specimens. It may then be placed in a deal box, which is to be well closed, so as to prevent injury from water; and if the box be previously well rubbed or sprinkled within with oil of turpentine, or any other essential oil, the specimens will arrive safe from the depredations of insects. Small fleshy plants and pulpy fruits may be put in a jar of spirits, and forwarded in that state. In the case of fruits, a piece of wire, with a number, should be attached, so as to correspond to the dried specimen of that species.

When plants are either dried by ourselves or received in that state from others, our next care is to form the herbarium. For this the specimens are to be either glued down on single sheets of stiff white paper, all of an uniform size, or, as the glue attracts insects and prevents afterwards a perfect analysis of the specimen, others prefer attaching them by means of cross bands. Either of these modes will enable us to keep our herbarium in order; but, without assistance, so much time is spent in the fixing them down, that most botanists now keep the plants loose within sheets of paper of a softer texture. This enables us quickly to dispose of our specimens in the collection; and when turned over carefully, very little damage is afterwards sustained. No more than one species ought to occupy a sheet; but owing to receiving the same plant from different authors and different countries, we must often devote several sheets to one species. Each specimen ought to have a label indicating the locality, the name of the donor, when gathered, or any peculiarities about it; and every sheet ought to have attached to it the name of the plant. All the species of a genus may either be separated from those of another, by being placed within a sheet of strong paper marked on the outside with the name of the genus, or by a thin piece of pasteboard, according to the taste of the possessor.

As to the order in which genera are to be arranged, the alphabetical is the worst, and the Linnæan system next. The best is according to some one of the variations of the natural method, it is of little importance which, provided one adheres to it so much that he can by association go to the order without having constant recourse to a catalogue.

When it is necessary to analyse a dried plant, we may expose the flower or fruit to the steam of boiling water, or those that are of a less delicate nature we may detach, and allow to remain in warm water until the parts we are to examine be so softened that we may easily dissect them under the microscope. Much practice, address, and even knowledge of the structure of plants, is however necessary, so that no appearance exhibited on dissection may fail to make some impression on us. Every thing must be observed and theorised on as we proceed. And we may here remark, that the best instrument for this purpose, at a moderate price, is Ellis's single and aquatic microscope, which is furnished by Jones (Holborn, London), with five lenses, two of which are reflectors, for three guineas.

III—TAXONOMY.

As we have already stated, taxonomy is that branch of botany which has for its object the combination of all our observations on plants, so as to form a system or classification.

When science was in its infancy, and when few plants History were observed, they were described or treated without any particular arrangement; or if some method was adopted, it was merely empirical, and of little use to others. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, who respectively treated of vegetables, may therefore now be justly rejected as systematists; and we may pass on to a much more modern date, when the characters began to be derived from the organization of plants; for it was only then that botany became a science. But as the organs of plants were various in number, so also were the systems, some botanists giving a preference to one, others to another; some laying chief dependence on the roots, some on the stems, others on the leaves, and others on the inflorescence. Conrad Gesner, born at Zurich in 1516, was the first who demonstrated that the characters drawn from the flowers and fruit were most to be depended on, as these were the most permanent and unchangeable parts of a plant; he also pointed out that certain groups possessed particular characters in common. His work was published in 1541. It does not appear that he gave any preference to one organ more than to another as the basis of a system. Cesalpinus, born in 1519, at Arezzo in Tuscany, was a follower of Gesner, and may be said to have been the first who actually invented a system. He set out by distinguishing vegetables into trees and herbs; with the former arranging shrubs, and with the latter suffruticose plants. He next divided each of these, the first into two classes, the last into thirteen, according to the fruit and situation of the embryo (which he termed corculum) in the seed. This system, therefore, being a primary approximation to a natural method, will render him ever memorable.

In 1680 Morison published the second volume of his Historia Plantarum. In this work a new system is offered, but some of the eighteen classes contained in the second and third volumes possess no genuine distinctive characters. His sections or secondary divisions are 108 in number, and are taken from the figure and substance of the fruit, the number of seeds, sepals, and petals, the figure of the root, the direction of the stem, the colour of the flower, the place of growth, and one from the medical virtues of some of the plants that compose it.

Ray proposed his method to the world in 1682. It was founded similarly to Morison's, and divided originally into twenty-five classes. But this he afterwards carefully corrected and improved at different times, so that the plan of arrangement which at present bears the name of that author is entirely different from what first appeared. It now was made to consist of thirty-five classes, the distinguishing marks of some of which were derived from the habit or external appearance; of others, from the greater or less degree of perfection of the plants, from their place of growth, the number of seeds, fruits, petals, or sepals to each flower, or from the nature of the fruit or inflorescence. They were as follow:—1. Herbs. 1. Submarine or sea-plants, including Zoophytes and Corals: 2. Fungi: 3. Musci, including Hepaticae and Lichens: 4. Capillares or ferns: 5. Apetalae or spatulate plants, comprehending, among other anomalies, the genus Equisetum: 6. Planipetala, or those with semifloscule compound flowers, corresponding to the Cichoraceae of Jussieu: 7. Discoidae, containing such of the Corymbiferae of Jussieu as have a pappus: 8. Capitate, corresponding principally to the Cynarocephale of Jussieu, but more extensive, and including all plants with tubular flowers that are collected into a scaly involucre: 9. Corymbiferae, similar to those of modern botanists, but limited to the species without a pappus: 10. Gymno-mono-spermae, or such as were supposed to have one naked seed; to this belongs Valeriana and Armorica, and, by some unhappy chance, Thalictrum: 11. Umbellifere: 12. Stellate, corresponding to one of the sections of Rubiaceae: 13. Asperifoliaceae: 14. Verticillatae, or the Labiatae of Jussieu, and Didynamia angiospermia of Linnaeus: 15. Polyspermae, or those with many apparently naked seeds, as Ranunculus, Malva, Potentilla, and Alisma, a most unnatural assemblage: 16. Pomiferae, the fruit of which resembled an apple, and among these the gourds and passion-flowers: 17. Bacciferae, or every herb with a berry, whether a potato or asparagus: 18. Multisiliquae, such as Aquilegia and Sedum, that had a fruit of apparently several pods: 19. Di-tripterae, containing principally Tillandria, but seemingly not understood by Ray himself: 21. Tetrapetales, with either a long or a short pod, not however confined to the Cruciferae of Jussieu, but comprehending Veronica, Euphorbia, Plantago, &c.: 22. Papilionaceae or Leguminosae, including Fumaria: 23. Pentapetales, as Dianthus, Cistus, Hypericum: 24. Pentapetaloides, or those with a monopetalous corolla, so divided as almost to resemble five petals, among which are enumerated Erythrea, Apocynum, Oxalis, &c.; but indeed the 19th, the 23rd, and the present classes, are much confused by the author: 25. Bulbosae, and their allies, including a great part of the monocotyledones, as Lilaceae, Asphodelaceae, Orchidaceae, or Iridaceae: 26. Graminiflorae, comprehending the Grasses, Cyperaceae, and Juncaceae: 27. Anomala, or those herbs, as Nymphora, Piper, and Polygala, that were not reducible to any of these. II. Trees. 28. Arundinaceae, including the palms: 29. Juliferae, called also Apetalae, containing those in which the fruit is separated from the staminiferous flower; under which Ray ranked the Amentaceae and Coniferae, the Elm, the Mulberry, &c.: 30. Aggregatae, or trees with the flower and fruit collected together into one mass, as the Fig: 31. Umbilicatae, with an inferior, fleshy, or pulpy fruit; a heterogeneous set: 32. Non-umbilicatae, or those where the flower adhered to the bottom of the fruit; these are again divided into Pinniferae, Bacciferae, and Pomiferae: 33. Vasculiferae, or trees with a dry fruit: 34. Siliqueae, or trees or shrubs bearing a legume, follicle, or any of such elongated fruits: 35. Anomala, or such as are not referable to any of the above. Most authors only enumerate thirty-three classes, by omitting the 24th and 30th, but which nevertheless form a part of his arrangement. Ray gives, in addition, more lengthened characters of several of these, but it is quite unnecessary here to notice them. His principal division into herbs and trees is extremely faulty, and separates plants otherwise very closely allied. His method, however, being a great approximation to a natural one, deserves much praise, and we believe that it was the opinion of the late Sir J. E. Smith, who was well qualified to judge, that Ray as a botanist was eclipsed by few but Linnæus.

To pass over several of an inferior note, we come now Tournefort to Tournefort. This distinguished individual was born at Aix in Provence in 1656. He was professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes of Paris, and was sent in 1700 by Louis XIV. to the Levant. He travelled through Greece, and surveyed the borders of the Black Sea and the islands of the Archipelago, and returned to Paris, where he published an interesting account of his expedition. But before he set out, he had already exposed his new system of arranging plants in his Institutiones Rei Herbariae, illustrated by many plates, and containing a description of 688 genera and 10,146 species; and it is difficult to say whether he deserves most honour for his new classification, or for the attempt to characterize the genera and species.

The method of Tournefort is composed of twenty-two classes, of which the characters are derived, 1st, from the consistence and size of the stem, thus dividing vegetables into herbs or suffruticose plants and shrubs, or trees; in which respect his system is subject to the same fault as that of Ray, notwithstanding Rivinus, an intervening botanist, had demonstrated the absurdity of such a division: 2d, From the presence or absence of the corolla: 3d, From the flowers being simple or solitary, or compound or united into a common involucrem: 4th, From the corolla being of one (or gamopetalous) or of several petals; and, 5th, From its regularity or irregularity. His classes are:

**HERBS OR UNDERSHRUBS.**

§ 1. Flowers Simple or Solitary.

1. Flowers monopetalous, Campaniform. 2. Flowers monopetalous, Infundibuliform and Rotate. 3. Flowers monopetalous, Anomalous. 4. Flowers monopetalous, Labiate. 5. Flowers polypetalous, Cruciform. 6. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous. 7. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous Umbellate. 8. Flowers polypetalous, Caryophyllaceous. 9. Flowers Liliaceous. 10. Flowers polypetalous, Papilionaceous. 11. Flowers polypetalous, Anomalous.

§ 2. Flowers Compound.

12. Flowers Flosculose. 13. Flowers Semiflosculose. 14. Flowers Radiate.

§ 3. Herbs without Petals.

15. Flowers Apetalous or Staminateous. 16. Flowers absent, Seed present. 17. Flowers and Fruit invisible.

**TREES AND SHRUBS.**

18. Flowers Apetalous. 19. Flowers Apetalous, Amentaceous. 20. Flowers Monopetalous. 21. Flowers Rosaceous. 22. Flowers Papilionaceous.

In the 3d class, the term anomalous means irregular, but not labiate; in the 11th, irregular but not papilionaceous. A lilaceous flower, as the 9th class, he afterwards explains to be a regular corolla of six or three petals, or even a monopetalous one with six divisions, but always having a fruit of three cells. The 16th contains the ferns; the 17th the other cryptogamia, which he says were commonly denied both flower and fruit. Such were the twenty-two classes established by Tournefort. Each of them contains sections, of which there are in all 122; and though at first sight it may appear simple and easy of reference, it still presents considerable difficulties, from many of the characters being merely negative, and others by no means decisive.

**Artificial System.**

The systems we have already noticed, whether of Casalpinus, Morison, Ray, or Tournefort, were all of them more or less attempts at a natural classification; and such being the case, their great error was in selecting any one particular part, and not an assemblage, as the ground of division. This, indeed, is the grand difference between a natural and artificial method. The latter has merely in view the knowledge of the names of plants; and its only use being, therefore, to afford an easy means of discovering the name in books, by as slight an inspection of the plant as possible, every one may have an arrangement of his own, and there can be no fixed rule, for the system is purely artificial. The natural method is not solely for the finding out the names of plants; its grand object is to exhibit, along with the name, the relation which one plant bears to another, and to class them, as near as we can, in the order they would stand with regard to each other in the grand book of nature. To be correct, it ought to be founded on the immutable laws of nature herself, and not on the will of man. But although these two are grounded so differently, they ought not to be viewed as in opposition to each other. "No person, surely, who has published a natural system, without knowing all the plants in the world, will suppose that he has removed every present obstacle, much less anticipated every future obscurity, so that no insuperable difficulty can occur to the investigator of plants by such a system; neither can any artificial system claim such perfection: but they may combine their powers, and co-operate in instruction. The one may trace an outline, which the other may correct and fill up. The first may propose, and the second elucidate; the former may educate and improve the memory and observation for the use of the latter. When they oppose each other, their several defects and weaknesses appear; by mutual assistance they strengthen themselves."

About the end of the seventeenth century, and the beginning of the eighteenth, the necessity of some botanical system, of arrangement as well as nomenclature, by which the cultivators of this pleasing science might understand each other, became every day more apparent. Nor was there any deficiency of zeal among the leaders and professors of this science. Systems, and branches of systems, sprung up over the whole of this ample field, each aspiring to eminence and distinction above its neighbours. Many of these, like the tares that fell by the way side, soon withered for want of root; others, like the *herba impia* of the old herbalists, strove to overtop and stifle their parents; and all armed themselves plentifully with thorns of offence, as well as defence, by which they hoped finally to prevail over their numerous competitors. This state of scientific warfare did not, in the meanwhile, much promote the actual knowledge of plants, though it prepared the way for a final distribution of the numerous acquisitions which were daily making by the more humble, though not less useful, tribe of collectors and discoverers. The success of the Linnaean artificial system is not altogether, perhaps, to be attributed to its simplicity and facility, nor even to the peculiar attention it commanded by its connection with the striking phenomenon, brought into view at the same time, of the sexes of plants. The insufficiency, or at least the nearly equal merits, of the many other similar schemes that had been proposed, began to be most strongly felt just at the time when the great progress and success of practical botany rendered the necessity of a popular system most imperious. While the cause of system was pending, some of the greatest cultivators of science were obliged to have recourse to alphabetical arrangement. This was the case with Dillenius, the man who alone, at the time when Linnæus visited England, was found by him attentive to, or capable of understanding, the sound principles of generic distinction."

Linnæus was born in the province of Smaland, in Sweden, Linnæus on the 23rd May, 1707. His father wished him to study divinity, but he himself preferred the open air and the gathering of plants. His parent then thought of making him a shoemaker, and in this might have succeeded, had not Rothmann, the provincial physician at Wexicoe, interfered, and persuaded him to permit his son to study medicine; and had such not happened, Linnæus' genius... might have been for ever suppressed. After experiencing many hardships, and living in great poverty, the young naturalist got into favour with Celsius, the professor of divinity at Upsal; and by his exertions, and those of Rudbeck, succeeded in obtaining permission to make a journey through Lapland at the expense of the academy. On his return he published the *Flora Lapponica*. In a few years his fame increased; and, having travelled into Holland and England, he was appointed professor of botany at Upsal after Rudbeck's death, and from time to time honours were showered upon him. His great merit consists in having constituted the genera on better principles, given proper generic and specific names, introduced a better glossology, described species more accurately and according to certain rules, and invented a new system, founded upon the sexes of plants, unquestionably the best and most simple of all the artificial systems attempted either before or since.

The basis of the Linnaean distribution of plants rests almost entirely on the male organs or stamens; and where no sexes could be distinguished, the proposer of it termed the plants Cryptogamous, and the class including such, the twenty-fourth of his arrangement, Cryptogamia. Among the first twenty-three classes, or phanerogamous vegetables, some have the flowers hermaphrodite or containing both sexes; others again have them separate, or are dichotomous. To the former belong twenty classes, to the latter three. Again, hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers may have the stamens either free from the pistillum or united to it; and hence another division; but as only one class belongs to the last, there are nineteen to the first. These nineteen are further divisible, according as the stamens are free from each other or united together. The former may be equal or unequal in length; and those again which are equal may be either definite or indefinite in number. Upon these considerations Linnaeus founded his classification, which we will presently exhibit, not indeed precisely as it was left by Linnaeus, but as it is now to be found in most of our modern works. While we admit slight changes upon it, the plan or method is unaltered; and it would be as preposterous to say that what is now adopted is not the system of Linnaeus, as it would be to assert that the various sketches of the natural system, whether as given by Browne, by De Candolle, by Richard, by Agardh, by Rudolphy, by Hooker, Don, or Lindley, are not variations of the method of Jussieu. All the natural classifications now in use are assuredly founded on that of Jussieu, and differ from each other in a very slight manner, either in the greater subdivisions of the orders, or in the mode of following each other, upon which no two botanists can possibly agree; and, in the same way, the artificial system, whether or not we adopt the changes recommended by Smith, or by Withering, or by Sprengel and others, being decidedly grounded on his principles, is that of Linnaeus. It is as follows:

§ 1. Stamens definite and equal.

Cl. 1. Monandria, or with one stamen. 2. Diandria, or with two stamens. 3. Triandria, or with three stamens. 4. Tetrandria, or with four stamens. 5. Pentandria, or with five stamens. 6. Hexandria, or with six stamens. 7. Heptandria, or with seven stamens. 8. Octandria, or with eight stamens. 9. Enneandria, or with nine stamens. 10. Decandria, or with ten stamens.

§ 2. Stamens indefinite.

11. Dodecandria; stamens from eleven to nineteen.

12. Icosandra; stamens twenty and upwards, perigynous, or inserted on the calyx. 13. Polyandra; stamens twenty and upwards, hypogynous, or inserted on the receptacle.

§ 3. Stamens unequal.

14. Didynamia; stamens four, two longer than the others. 15. Tetradynamia; stamens six, four longer than the others.

§ 4. Filaments united.

16. Monadelphia; one bundle of stamens, or androphore. 17. Dindelphia; two bundles of stamens. 18. Polyadelphia; several bundles of stamens.

§ 5. Anthers united.

19. Syngenesia; stamens five, united by their anthers, flowers collected into a common involucre.

§ 6. Stamens united to the pistil.

20. Gynandria.

§ 7. Flowers unisexual.

21. Monoecea; stamens and pistils on the same individual. 22. Dioecia; stamens and pistils on different individuals. 23. Polygamia; hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers, either on the same or different individuals.

§ 8. Flowers invisible.

24. Cryptogamia; neither stamens nor pistils.

Although we have prefixed sections to the above, that the method may be understood more readily, yet we must remark that such a plan is liable to errors. Thus some of the fifth class have the anthers united, as in the nineteenth; and the tenth has frequently an inequality in the length of the stamens; but these are not the faults of the system, some of which will be traced out in the sequel.

In the first thirteen classes, the characters of the orders or subdivisions of the classes are derived from the number of the styles or female organs, the names Monogyne, Digynia, Trigynia, &c., indicating respectively one, two, three, &c., styles.

In the fourteenth class, or Didynamia, Linnaeus took his ordinal characters from the structure of the fruit. When this is formed of four akenea situated at the bottom of the calyx, so as to resemble naked seeds, he called the order Gymnosperma; and when the fruit was a capsule containing several seeds, he termed the group Angiosperma. Tetradynamia presents also two orders, the one with a silicula, the other with a silqua; and hence they were called Siliculose and Siliquose. A third order has been added, by Sprengel, for such as have an indehiscent fruit, and De Candolle has proposed to subdivide the class according to the relative position of the cotyledons and radicle. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth classes being according to the union of the filaments, the number of stamens is made to serve as a character for the orders.

In Syngenesia, where the anthers are united, and there are almost constantly five stamens, other means were resorted to. Some florets were observed to be bisexual, others with stamens or pistils only. In reference, therefore, to the twenty-third class, Linnaeus gave to each of the orders the name Polygamia, with another epithet to mark their respective peculiarities. The first he terms Polygamia aequalis, all the florets being equally fertile and bisexual; the second Polygamia superflua, where the florets of the disc are bisexual, but those of the circumference or ray female, both producing perfect seed: the third Polygamia frustransca, having the florets of the disc bisexual and fertile, but those of the ray sterile, from either the total absence of a pistil, or the imperfection of the stigmas. In the second order the florets of the ray were only superfluous; here they are totally useless. The fourth, or Polygamia necessaria, has the florets of the disc bisexual, but sterile on account of the imperfection of the stigmas; those of the ray, however, containing only pistillae, are fertilized by the pollen of the former. They are thus necessary for the continuation of the species, and hence the name. The fifth, Polygamia segregata, has all the florets bisexual, but each of them contained an involucre peculiar to itself; the whole, as in the other orders, being collected within a common involucre. To these Linnæus added a sixth, Polygamia monogama, wherein the flowers were not collected in a common involucre; but this has now been transferred to Pentandria monogynia.

In Gynandra the orders are taken from the number of the stamens. Monococcia and Dieccia, including plants that are monandrous, diandrous, monodelphous, or gynandrous, have the names of the orders, as Monandria, Decandria, Gynandra, taken from some of the preceding classes. The twenty-third class, or Polygama, containing plants with bisexual and unisexual flowers mixed either on the same or distinct individuals, has in consequence been divided into three orders: Monococcia, in which the flowers are bisexual and unisexual on the same individual; Dieccia, when one bears the bisexual and another the unisexual blossoms of both kinds; and Tricoccia, where one has the bisexual, another the male, and a third the female flowers.

Cryptogamia was originally divided by Linnæus into four orders, Ferns, Mosses, Algae, and Fungi; but so little was then known about the structure and limits of these, that it is now generally agreed to adopt nearly the same divisions as are employed in the natural method.

"Linnæus" had no sooner published and explained his method of arranging plants, according to that which is generally termed the Sexual System, than it excited considerable attention. His elegant and instructive Flora Lapponica could not be perused by the philosopher or the physician, without leading its readers occasionally aside, from the immediate objects of their inquiry, into the paths of botanical speculation, and awakening in many a curiosity, hitherto dormant, on such subjects. But the scope of that limited Flora is by no means sufficient to show either the necessity or the advantages of any mode of arrangement. Linnæus may be said to have grasped the botanical sceptre, when, in the year 1753, he published the first edition of his Species Plantarum; and the commencement of his reign must be dated from that period. The application of his system to universal practice, in this compendious distribution of all the known vegetables of the globe; his didactic precision; his concise, clear, and certain style of discrimination; his vast erudition displayed in synonyms; and, perhaps as much as anything else, the fortunate invention of trivial or specific names, by which his nomenclature became as evidently commodious, and indeed necessarily popular, as any part of his performance; all these causes co-operated to establish his authority. An immediate impulse was given to practical botany. The vegetable productions of various countries and districts were marshalled in due array, so as to be accessible and useful. A common language was established throughout the world of science; a common stock of knowledge and experience began to accumulate, which has ever since been increasing, and can now never be lost. Of these partial Floras to which we allude, those of Lapland and Sweden, the productions of Linnæus himself, were the models of most of the rest, and have never, on the whole, been excelled.

"Hence arose the Linnæan school of botany, which, though founded in Sweden, extended itself through Holland, Germany, and more or less perfectly in other parts of Europe, though not without impediments of which we are hereafter to speak. In Britain it was firmly established, by the influence of some of the most able pupils of Linnæus, and strengthened at length by the acquisition of his literary remains. But these are adventitious supports. The strength of philosophical, like political, authority, is in public opinion, and the cement of its power is public good.

"As we proceed to trace the practical influence of the Linnæan system, or rather of the facility which it afforded in botanical studies, it will be useful at the same time to observe the effects of adventitious circumstances, which render botany almost a different sort of study in different parts of the habitable globe.

"In those northern ungenial climates, where the intellect of man indeed has flourished in its highest perfection, but where the productions of nature are comparatively sparingly bestowed, her laws have been most investigated and best understood. The appetite of her pupils was whetted by their danger of starvation, and the scantiness of her supplies trained them in habits of economy, and of the most acute observation. The more obvious natural productions of such climates are soon understood and exhausted. But this very cause led Linnæus to so minute a scrutiny of Swedish insects, as had never been undertaken before in any country; in consequence of which a new world, as it were, opened to his contemplation; and the great Réaumur declared that Sweden was richer in this department than all the rest of the globe. Such indeed was its appearance, because it had been more carefully examined. When the ardour and acuteness of the pupils of the Linnæan school first sought matter of employment for their talents, some few had the means of visiting distant and scarcely-explored countries. But this could not be the lot of many. The greater part were confined to their native soil; and it is remarkable that those who are longest so confined have displayed in the sequel the greatest abilities, and have rendered the greatest services to science, independently of the accidents which made the labours of others imperfect or abortive. Such men as Ehrhart and Swartz were not to be satisfied with the general productions of the fields or gardens to which they had access. They had no resource but in the recondite mysteries of cryptogamic botany in the first instance. To these they directed their microscopic eyes and more discriminating minds with the happiest success. When they had derived from hence an ample harvest, Ehrhart, limited in circumstances and opportunities, hindered moreover perhaps, in some degree, by a singularity and independence of character, not always favourable to worldly prosperity, opened to himself a new path. The

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1 This historical sketch, almost to the commencement of the exposition of the Jussieuan or natural method, is extracted from the article Botany in the Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of this Encyclopaedia, which was written expressly for that work, in 1816, by the late Sir James Edward Smith. During these last fifteen years the grave has claimed for its own not only Sir James himself, but most of the distinguished individuals whom he here notices as being then alive. As it was, however, desirable to retain this sketch entire, the author of the present article has refrained from making those alterations which the lapse of time might otherwise have rendered necessary. native trees of the north, and especially the hardy shrubs and arborescent plants of the gardens, had not, as he judiciously discovered, received that correct attention, even from his master Linnæus, which was requisite to make them clearly understood. Difficulties attending the study of these plants, the various seasons in which they require to be repeatedly scrutinized, and the obscurity or minuteness of the parts on which their differences depend, were by no means calculated to deter this laborious and accurate inquirer. He submitted the supposed varieties of the shrubbery, the kitchen garden, and even of the parterre, to the same rigorous examination, and, for the most part, with the happiest success. His discoveries have not received the notice they deserve, for his communications were deformed with asperity and pedantry; and he did not always keep in mind the concise and sober principles of definition, which his preceptor had both taught and practised, and to which he owed so large a share of his well-merited fame. Ehrihart died prematurely, but his name ought to be cherished among those whose talents have advanced science, and who loved nature, for her own sake, with the most perfect disinterestedness.

"The fate of Swartz has been far more propitious to himself and to the literary world. Having thrown more light upon the cryptogamic productions of Sweden and Lapland than they had previously received, and which has only been exceeded by the more recent discoveries of the unrivalled Wahlenberg, he undertook a botanical investigation of the West Indies. Carrying with him, to this promising field of inquiry, so great a store of zeal and practical experience, his harvest was such as might well have been anticipated. Whole tribes of vegetables, which the half-learned or half-experienced botanist, or the superficial gatherer of simples or flowers, had totally overlooked, now first became known to mankind. Tropical climates were now found to be as rich as the chill forests and dells of the north, in the various beautiful tribes of mosses; and the blue mountains of Jamaica rivalled its most fertile groves and savannahs in the beauty, variety, and singularity of their vegetable stores.

"Nor must we pass over unnoticed the discoveries of another illustrious disciple of Linnæus, the celebrated Thunberg, who has now for many years filled the professional chair of his master, with credit to himself, and advantage to every branch of natural science. The rare opportunity of examining the plants of Japan, and of studying at leisure the numerous and beautiful productions of the Cape of Good Hope, as well as of some parts of India, have thrown in the way of Professor Thunberg a greater number of genera, if not species of plants, than has fallen to the lot of most learned botanists; except only those who have gone round the world, or beheld the novel scenes of New Holland. These treasures he has contemplated and illustrated with great advantage, so far as he has confined himself to practical botany. We lament that he ever stepped aside to attempt any reformation of an artificial system. It is painful to complain of the well-meant though mistaken endeavours of so amiable and candid a veteran in our favourite science; but what we conceive to be the interests of that science must form our apology. We cannot but be convinced, and the experience of others is on our side, that discarding those principles of the Linnæan system which are derived from the situation of the several organs of impregnation, and making number paramount, has the most pernicious and inconvenient effect in most respects, without being advantageous in any. This measure neither renders the system more easy nor more natural, but for the most part the reverse of both. We have elsewhere observed (Introduction to Botany, 3d ed. p. 358), that the ameniaceous plants are of all others most uncertain in the number of their stamens, of which Linnæus could not but be aware. Even the species of the same genus, as well as individuals of each species, differ among themselves. How unwise and unscientific then is it, to take as a primary mark of discrimination, what nature has evidently made of less consequence here than in any other case? When such plants are, in the first place, set apart and distinguished by their monococious or dioecious structure, which is liable to so little objection or difficulty, their uncertainty with respect to the secondary character is of little moment; their genera being few, and the orders of each class widely constructed as to number of stamens. Linnæus, doubtless, would have been glad to have preserved, if possible, the uniformity and simplicity of his plan; but if he found it impracticable, who shall correct him? Such an attempt is too like the entomological scheme of the otherwise ingenious and able Fabricius. The great preceptor having arranged the larger tribes of animals by the organs with which they take their various food, and which are therefore accommodated to their several wants, and indicative of even their mental as well as constitutional characters, Fabricius his pupil would necessarily extend this system to insects. But nothing can be more misapplied. Feeding is not the business of perfect insects. Many of them never eat at all, the business of their existence through the whole of their perfect state being the propagation of their species. Hence the organs of their mouth lead to no natural distinctions, and the characters deduced therefrom prove, moreover, so difficult, that it is notorious they could not generally be applied to practice by Fabricius himself, he having, in the common course of his studies, been chiefly regulated by the external appearance of the insects he described. This external appearance, depending on the form and texture of their wings, and the shape of their own peculiar organs, the antennæ, affords in fact the easiest, as well as the most natural, clue to their arrangement and discrimination.

"As we presume to criticise the systematic errors of great practical observers, it cannot but occur to our recollection how very few persons have excelled in both these departments. Ray, Linnæus, and perhaps Tournefort, may be allowed this distinction. We can scarcely add a fourth name to this brief catalogue. The most excellent practical botanists of the Linnæan school have been such as hardly bestowed a thought on the framing of systems. Such was the distinguished Solander, who rivalled his preceptor in acuteness of discrimination, and even in precision and elegance of definition. Such is another eminent man, more extensively conversant with plants, more accurate in distinguishing, and more ready in recollecting them, than almost any other person with whom we have associated. Yet we have heard this great botanist declare, that however he might confide in his own judgment with regard to a species, or a genus of plants, he pretended to form no opinion of classes and orders. Men of so much experience know too much, to be satisfied with their acquirements, or to draw extensive conclusions from what they think insufficient premises. Others, with a quarter of their knowledge, find no difficulty in building systems, and proceed with great alacrity, till they find themselves encumbered with their own rubbish; happy.

1 Thunberg died at Upsal, on the 8th August 1828, in the 65th year of his age, having filled the botanical chair during half a century. if their doubts and uncertainties will afford them a tolerable screen or shelter! But we here anticipate remarks which will come with more propriety hereafter. We return from the consideration of the labours of particular botanists, to that of the diversities of nature and circumstance.

"While it is remarked that, in the cold regions of the north, the skill of the deep and learned botanist is chiefly exercised on the minute and intricate cryptogamic tribes, we are not to infer that nature is not everywhere rich in beauty and variety. Mosses and lichens afford inexhaustible amusement and admiration to the curious inquirer, nor are more gorgeous productions entirely wanting. Even Lapland boasts her *Pedicularis Scoprium*, never seen alive out of her limits; and Siberia offers her own beautiful crimson *Cypripedium*, to console for a moment the miserable banished victims of imperial caprice. Kotzebue, though ignorant of botany, did not pass this lovely plant unnoticed, even in the height of his distress. The authoress of the pleasing little novel called *Elizabeth*, has represented in a just light the botanic scenery of that otherwise inhospitable country; yet it must be allowed that its rarities are not numerous, except perhaps in those microscopic tribes already mentioned.

"Let us in imagination traverse the globe, to a country where the very reverse is the case. From the representations or accounts that have been given of New Holland, it seems no very beautiful or picturesque country, such as is likely to form or to inspire a poet. Indeed the dregs of the community which we have poured out upon its shores, must probably subside, and purge themselves, before anything like a poet, or a disinterested lover of nature, can arise from so foul a source. There seems, however, to be no transition of seasons, in the climate itself, to excite hope, or to expand the heart and fancy; like a Siberian or Alpine spring, bursting at once from the icy fetters of a sublime though awful winter. Yet in New Holland all is new and wonderful to the botanist! The most common plants there are unlike every thing known before, and those which at first sight look like old acquaintances, are found, on a near approach, to be strangers, speaking a different language from what he has been used to, and not to be trusted without a minute inquiry at every step.

"The botany of the Cape of Good Hope, so well illustrated by Thunberg, and with the treasures of which he scattered a charm around the couch of the dying Linnæus, most resembles that of New Holland. At least these countries agree in the hard, rigid, dwarfish character of their plants. But the Cape has the advantage in general beauty of flowers, as well as in a transition of seasons. After the dry time of the year, when everything but the *Aloe* and *Mesembryanthemum* tribes are burnt up, and during which innumerable bulbs are scattered, by the winds and driving sands, over the face of the country, the succeeding showers raise up a new and most beautiful progeny from those bulbs. The families of *Ixia*, *Gladiolus*, *Iris*, *Antholyza*, *Oxalis*, and many others, then appear in all their splendour. Some of them, the least gaudy, scent the evening air with an unrivalled perfume; whilst others dazzle the beholder with the most vivid scarlet or crimson hues, as they welcome the morning sun.

"The lovely floras of the Alps and the Tropics contend, perhaps most powerfully, for the admiration of a botanist of taste, who is a genuine lover of nature, without which feeling, in some degree of perfection, even botany can but feebly charm. Of one of these the writer can speak from experience, of the other only by report; but he has had frequent opportunities of remarking, that the greatest enthusiasts in the science have been Alpine botanists. The expressions of Haller and Scopoli on this subject go to the heart. The air, the climate, the charms of animal existence in its highest perfection, are associated with our delight in the beauty and profusion of nature. In hot climates, the insupportable languor, the difficulty of bodily exertion, the usual ill health, and the effects of wholesome instead of salutary fatigue, are described as sufficient to counterbalance even the pleasure which arises from the boundless variety, and infinite beauty, of the creation around. The flowery trees of a tropical forest raise themselves far above the human grasp. They must be felled before we can gather their blossoms. The insidious and mortal reptile twines among their boughs, and the venomous insect stings beneath their shade. We who enjoy the productions of these climates in peace and safety in our gardens, may well acknowledge our obligations to the labour and zeal of those who, by arduous journeys and painful researches, supply us with the riches of every country in succession. We do not indeed enjoy them in perfection, but we can study and investigate at leisure their various beauties and distinctions. We can compare them with our books, and profit by the acuteness of former observers. We can perpetuate, by the help of the pencil or the pen, whatever is novel or curious. We can preserve the plants and flowers themselves for subsequent examination, and return to them again and again in our closet, when winter has fixed his seal on all the instruction and pleasure afforded by the vegetable creation abroad. Yet let not the sedentary botanist exult in his riches, or rejoice too heedlessly in the abundance of his resources. A plant gathered in its native soil, and ascertained by methodical examination, is more impressed on the memory, as well as more dear to the imagination, than many that are acquired with ease, and named by tradition or report. The labours of its acquisition and determination enhance its value, and the accompaniments of delightful scenery, or pleasing society, are recollected, when difficulties and toils are forgotten.

"The western continent is, with respect to botany, almost a world in itself. There exists, indeed, a general affinity between the plants of North America and those of Europe, and many species of the arctic regions are the same in both; but there are few common to the more temperate climates of each. A considerable number, communicated by Kalm to Linnæus, which the latter considered as identified with certain well-known plants of our quarter of the world, prove, on more accurate examination, to be corresponding but distinct species. Instances occur in..." the genera of Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, as well as in the Orchis tribe, and others. These points of resemblance are found mostly among the vegetable productions of the eastern regions of North America, Mexico, and what little we know of the intermediate space, abound with different and peculiar productions. So, in South America, Peru, Guiana, Brazil, &c., have all their appropriate plants, of which we know as yet enough to excite our curiosity, rather than to satisfy it. Whatever has hitherto been given to the world respecting American botany, has had one considerable advantage. Each Flora has been founded on the knowledge and experience of some one or more persons, long resident, and in a manner naturalized, in the countries illustrated. Those regions commonly comprehended under the name of North America, have afforded materials for the Flora Boreali-Americana of Michaux, and the more complete and correct Flora Americae Septentrionalis of Pursh. Michaux, Wangenheim, and Marshall, have particularly illustrated the trees of those countries. But all these works have been enriched by the communications and assistance of men who had much more extensive and repeated opportunities of observation than their authors, except Mr Marshall could have. Such are the venerable John Bartram, the Reverend Dr Muhlenberg, Messrs Clayton, Walter, Lyon, &c. The Mexican flora has received, for a long course of years, the attention of the able and learned Mutis, who long corresponded with Linnæus, and whose countrymen have prepared the sumptuous Flora Peruviana; each of the authors of which has repeatedly traversed, at various seasons, the rich and interesting regions, whose botanical treasures make so splendid and novel an appearance in those volumes. Of those treasures we have still more to learn from the unrivalled Humboldt.1 The French botanist Aublet, after having gained considerable experience in the Mauritius, resided for many years in Cayenne and Guiana, for the purpose of studying the plants of those countries, of which his work, in four quarto volumes, gives so ample a history and representation.

"All the writers just named have been practical botanists. They have generally excelled in specific discrimination, nor have they neglected the study of generic distinctions. Any thing further they have scarcely attempted. It is remarkable that they have all followed, not only the Linnæan principles of definition and nomenclature, but the Linnæan artificial system of classification. This same system was chosen by the veteran Jacquin, in his well-known work on West Indian plants, entitled Stirpium Americanarum Historia, as well as by Browne in his History of Jamaica; not to mention Swartz, in his Flora Indiae Occidentalis, who only wanders a little out of the way, to adopt some of Thunberg's alterations. We cannot but observe, that in the very department of botany in which he has most signalized himself, and with which he is most philosophically conversant, the Orchidæ; he totally rejects the ideas of Thunberg.

"If we now turn our eyes to the oriental world, we shall find that the seeds of Linnæan-botany, sown by Koenig, Indica, have sprung up and produced successive harvests among the pious missionaries at Tranquebar, who still continue to interweave a sprig of science, from time to time, among their amaranthine wreaths which are not of this world. India too has long possessed a practical botanist of indefatigable exertion and ardour, who has thrown more light upon its vegetable riches, with the important subject of their qualities and uses, than any one since the days of Rheede and Rumphius. It is scarcely necessary to name Dr Roxburgh, whose recent loss we deeply lament, and whose acquisitions and learned remarks are given to the world by the munificence of the East India Company, in a style which no prince has ever rivalled.2 That enthusiastic admirer of nature, Colonel Hardwicke, and the learn-

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1 Humboldt's splendid work, Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Aequinoctiales, in seven volumes, containing several hundred plates, and descriptions of some thousands of new species, was completed in 1825. Since 1816 many other works on the plants of South America have been published, particularly illustrative of the Flora of Brazil. Of these, Pohl's, Martius', and St Hilaire's, are the most eminent.

2 From the period in which the East India Company saw its sovereignty established in India with some security, it undertook both for its own interest and that of humanity, as much as it possibly could, the promotion of the study and culture of the vegetables of that vast country. It, in consequence, directed its attention to the establishment of the Botanic Garden of Calcutta; and it was in March 1768, and under the direction of Colonel R. Kyd, that this garden commenced. A correspondence with all the Europeans settled in various parts of India speedily enriched it with some very precious plants, and there were in it about three hundred species when Dr Roxburgh took the superintendence, in the autumn of 1793. This botanist obtained new and more active correspondents, and visited personally the coast of Coromandel, and some other provinces of British East India. He succeeded in collecting together 3300 species into the garden, and of this number 1500 were previously unknown, but described by him. Such at least we learn from the catalogue of the garden, printed in 1814, at Serampore, by the care of Dr Carey, the friend of Roxburgh. This catalogue appeared in a very condensed shape; it makes known the botanical name, the Indian appellation, the beauty, the time of introduction, and the period of initial multiplication of each plant; it is terminated by a list of all containing a list of other Indian plants, known to the author, but not then under cultivation. Roxburgh sent from time to time to the Company a great number of drawings and descriptions, and from these a selection was made and published under the direction of Sir Joseph Banks. This splendid work, the Plants of Coromandel, gives the history and coloured figure of 300 of the most beautiful or most useful of the Indian vegetables. But the very magnificence of this work placed limits to it, and therefore Dr Roxburgh projected a Flora of the East under a more simple form; unfortunately, however, his health forced him to leave India and return home in 1814. His Indian Flora was nevertheless not lost to science; Dr Carey published two volumes of it at Serampore, and added to those described by Roxburgh, such as were more lately discovered, both by himself and by Dr Wallich, Jack, and other botanists of British-India. This only contains the first five classes of Linnæus.

After the death of Roxburgh, the management of the garden of Calcutta was intrusted to Dr Wallich, whose talents and activity, under the auspices of the Company, have raised the establishment to a high degree of prosperity. More than three hundred persons are employed in the garden, so that the naturalisation of useful objects, and preservation for study of the rare productions of the different parts of India, are equally attended to. Many assistants travel the country at the expense of the Company, and with unceasing zeal continue to enrich the garden with the herbarium. Dr Wallich himself travelled in 1820 throughout Nepal, which, situated at the foot of the great mountains of Himalaya, presents a vegetation very different from that of Bengal. Since then notwithstanding the severe hardships brought on by fatigue and the climate, he has visited Penang, Singapore, the kingdom of Ava, and several other parts of India; in addition, he sent collectors into various districts to which he could not go in person; so that, by these different means, a very considerable number of vegetables has been amassed. Descriptions of several of these have been given in the Prodromus Florae Nepalenæ of Don, and in other publications of a more general nature published in Europe. Wallich himself, as has been said, inserted many of his discoveries into the Flora Indica, and has besides commenced two other works for the purpose of making them better known. The one is the Tentamen Floræ Nepalenæ Illustratum, which presents a detailed description and a lithographic figure of the principal plants of that country. Two numbers have appeared, each of twenty-five plates; which, in addition to their botanical interest, deserve to be noticed, as being the first attempts at lithographic botanical plates in India, and executed by Taxonomists Dr. Francis Buchanan have also contributed greatly to increase our knowledge of Indian botany. The latter has enjoyed the advantage of investigating, for the first time, the remote and singular country of Nepaul, so prolific in beautiful and uncommon plants, that few parts of the world can exceed it; and yet meeting, in several points, not only the floras of the lower regions and islands of India, but those of Japan, China, and even Siberia. The only systematic work on East Indian plants, is the Flora Indica of Burmann, which is classed according to the Linnaean artificial method. We cannot but wish that it were more worthy of the system or the subject; yet, as a first attempt, it deserves our thanks. In speaking of Indian botany, shall we withhold our homage from that great and sublime genius Sir William Jones, who honoured this study with his cultivation, and, like every thing else that he touched, refined, elevated, and elucidated it? No man was ever more truly sensible of the charms of this innocent and elegant pursuit; and whenever he adverted to it, all the luminous illustrations of learning, and even the magical graces of poetry, flowed from his pen.

"But we must extend our view beyond the utmost bounds of India, and, of the then discovered world, to trace the steps of those adventurous circumnavigators who sought out, not only new plants, but new countries, for botanical examination. The names of Banks and Solander have, for nearly half a century, been in every body's mouth. Their taste, their knowledge, their liberality, have diffused a charm and a popularity over all their pursuits; and those who never heard of botany before, have learned to consider it with respect and admiration, as the object to which a man of rank, riches, and talents, devoted his life and his fortune; who, while he added, every season, something of novelty and beauty to our gardens, gave the bread-fruit to the West Indies, and was ever on the watch to prompt or to further any scheme of public advantage."

With the recollection of such men must also be associated the names of the learned Forsters, father and son, of Sparrmann, and of Menzies, who have all accomplished the same perilous course, and enriched their beloved science. The cryptogamic acquisitions of the latter in New Zealand prove him to have attended to that branch of botany with extraordinary success, and at the same time evince the riches of that remote country. Indeed, it appears that any country proves rich, under the inspection of a sufficiently careful investigator. The labours of these botanists have all been conducted according to the principles and classification of Linnaeus. Forster, under Sparrmann's auspices, has judiciously pointed out, and attempted to remedy, defects which their peculiar opportunities enabled them to discover, but with no invidious aim. They laboured, not to overthrow or undermine a system, which they found on the whole to answer the purpose of readily communicating their discoveries, but to correct and strengthen it for the advantage of those who might come after them. It is much to be lamented that, except the Nova Genera Plantarum, we have as yet so short and compendious an account of the acquisitions made in their voyage. To the technical history of these, however, the younger Forster has commendably added whatever he could supply of practical utility, and has thus given us all the information within the compass of his means.

"Long since the voyages of these celebrated naturalists, the same remote countries have been visited, in our own days, by two learned botanists more especially; these are M. Labillardiere, and Mr Brown, librarian of the Linnean Society. The former has published an account of the plants of New Holland, in two volumes folio, with fine engravings; the latter has favoured the botanical world with one volume of a most acute and learned Prodromus of his discoveries. As his voyage was made at the public expense, we may trust that the government will consider itself as bound to enable him to publish the whole of his acquisitions, in such a manner as to be generally useful. His own accuracy of observation, illustrated by the drawings of the inimitable Bauer, cannot fail to produce such a work as, we will venture to pronounce, has never been equalled. M. Labillardiere has disposed his book according to the system of Linnaeus; a rare example in France, where anything not French usually comes but ill recommended. Mr Brown, on the other hand, has written his Prodromus, at least, on the principles of classification established by the celebrated Jussieu, the great champion of a natural system of his own. On this subject we postpone our remarks for the present. Before we can enter on the subject of natural classification, it is necessary to consider the state and progress of botany, for some years past, in the schools, and among the writers, of Europe.

"Sweden has continued to maintain her long established rank in the several departments of natural science, nor has Denmark been behind-hand with her neighbour and ancient rival. The son and successor of the great Linnaeus endeavoured to follow his father's steps, and was ambitious of not being left very far in the rear; a commendable aim, which his short life, to say nothing of his talents or experience, disabled him from accomplishing. He completed and gave to the world, the unfinished materials which his father had left, for a supplement to his Species Plantarum and Mantissa; and having enriched the book with many communications of Thunberg and others, as well as a number of original remarks, he felt a strong desire, not altogether unpardonable, of being thought the principal author of the work. All uncertainty on this subject, wherever other helps fail, is removed by the original manuscript of the Supplemantum Plantarum in our possession. Ehrhart superintended the printing of this work, and made some alterations in the manuscript, traces of which are perceptible in the affected Greek names given to some species of Carex, Mespilus, &c., as well as in their sesquipedalian specific characters. But he had

native draughtsmen. The other work by Dr Wallich, much more splendid than the preceding, is destined to present the history and coloured figures of the rarer plants of Asia. This, the Planta Asiatica rariora, will form three volumes.

Besides Roxburgh and Wallich, there are others who have been patronized by the Company. Koenig, Heyne, Carey, Patrick Russel, Rottler, Klein, Wight, Jack, Finlayson, &c. have traversed different parts of India with the view of studying its vegetation. For about half a century, all the collections of dried plants have been transmitted to England, and preserved in the Company's museum; and the immensity of these materials has made the Directors perceive that they would be useless without the co-operation of naturalists. By a decision remarkable for its liberality, the Court of Directors has, therefore, lately given instructions to Dr Wallich, resident in London, to distribute these precious collections among the principal botanists of the present day; and the East India Company has thus acquired the most honourable claim on the gratitude of the men of science of every country. But if the thanks of naturalists be due to the Company in the first place, they are scarcely less so to Dr Wallich, who superintends the operation. Far from profiting by his situation to reserve for himself the publication of so much riches, he merely wishes to distribute them among others in the manner which he conceives most useful for the progress of natural history. His time in England, which he has a right to devote to his private affairs, and his valuable notes, are wholly at the service of others.

1 Sir Joseph died on the 19th of March 1820. See Article BANES, SIR JOSEPH. introduced his own new genera of Mosses; which the younger Linnæus thought so alarming an innovation, that he ordered the sheet containing these matters to be cancelled. We are possessed of a copy, which shows the genera in question to be almost all well founded, and what are now, under Hedwig's sanction, generally received, though by other names. The descriptions of Ehrlhart are precise and correct, though his terminology is exceptionable, being full of innovations and crabbed expressions.

Two years, almost immediately preceding the death of the younger Linnæus, were spent by the latter in visiting England, France, and Holland, and were employed to very great advantage, in augmenting his collections of natural productions, as well as his scientific skill. During this tour he attached himself strongly, through the medium of his old friend Solander, to Sir Joseph Banks; and, while in France, he almost planted, or at least greatly advanced, a Linnæan school in that kingdom. He had scarcely resumed his professorial office at home when he was unexpectedly taken off, by an acute disease, in his forty-second year. Of the talents and performances of his successor Thumberg, who still with honour fills the chair of the Rudbeckians and the Linnæi, we have already spoken. Dr Swartz is the Bergian professor of botany at Stockholm. The Transactions of the Upsal Academy, founded by the younger Rudbeck, are continued occasionally; and those of the Stockholm Academy, whose foundations were laid by Linnæus, are published regularly. Both are from time to time enriched with botanical communications worthy of the pupils of so illustrious a school. A veteran in botanical science, Professor Retzius, still presides at the university of Lund. The worthy and accurate Afzelius, well known in England, who accomplished a hazardous botanical expedition to Sierra Leone, is the coadjutor of Professor Thumberg; and the difficult subject of Lichens, under the hands of Dr Acharius, has become so vast and so diversified as to be almost a science of itself.

"Denmark has always possessed some acute and learned botanists, and has, more than most other countries, been supplied with dried specimens of plants, as an article of commerce, from her West or East Indian establishments. Oeder, the original author of the Flora Danica, and Müller its continuator, have distinguished themselves; but their fame is inferior to that of the late Professor Vahl, who studied under the celebrated Linnæus, and is the author of several excellent descriptive works. He undertook no less than a new Species, or, as he entitled it, Enumeratio Plantarum; an admirable performance, cut short by his death at the end of the second volume, which finishes the class and order Triandria Monogynia. It is almost superfluous to mention, that Afzelius and Retzius, as well as Vahl, in all they have given to the world, have followed the system of their great master. The Flora Danica, chiefly a collection of plates, with few synonyms and no descriptions, has come forth, from time to time, for above fifty years past, in fasciculi, without any order, and is still incomplete. It was undertaken by royal command, and, in a great measure, at the sovereign's expense, though regularly sold, except some copies presented to certain distinguished men, as Linnæus.

"After the example of Denmark, Sweden, &c. Russia has been desirous of promoting, throughout its vast dependencies, an attention to natural knowledge. Nor was any country ever more fortunate in the possession of an active and intelligent naturalist. The celebrated Pallas successfully devoted a long life to these pursuits, and to the communication of his discoveries and observations. Taxonomically, he prompted the Empress Catharine to offer an unlimited sum for the museum, library, and manuscripts of Linnæus; but, fortunately for their present possessor, the offer was made too late. A Flora Rossica, on the most magnificent scale, was undertaken by Pallas; his imperial mistress proposing to defray the cost of the whole undertaking, not merely for sale, but for gratuitous presentation, on the most princely scale, to all who had any taste or ability to make use of the book. This well-intended munificence was the cause of the ruin of the project. The first half volume was bestowed as the empress intended. But the second part, instead of following the destination of the first, got into the hands of interested people, who defeated the liberal designs of their sovereign, misapplied her money, and by the disgust and disappointment which ensued, prevented the continuance of the work. Those who wished to complete their sets, or to obtain the book at all, were obliged to become clandestine purchasers, buying as a favour, what they ought to have received as a gift; and were, moreover, like the writer of this, often obliged to receive imperfect copies. In like manner the intentions of the great Howard, respecting his book on prisons, were rendered ineffectual by the disgraceful avarice of certain London booksellers, who immediately bought up, and sold at a greatly advanced price, the whole edition, which its benevolent author had destined to be accessible to every body at an unusually cheap rate. These examples, amongst others, show that it is the most difficult thing in the world to employ patronage, as well as gratuitous charity of any kind, to real advantage, except under the guidance of the most rigorous discretion. 'All that men of power can do for men of genius,' says Gray, if we recollect aright, 'is to leave them at liberty, or they become like birds in a cage,' whose song is no longer that of nature and enjoyment. The great and the affluent may foster and encourage science and literature, by their countenance, their attention, and a free, not overwhelming liberality; but when princes become publishers of books, or directors of academies, they generally do more harm than good. They descend from their station, and lose sight perhaps of their higher and more peculiar duties, which consist in promoting the general prosperity, peace, and liberty of their subjects, under the benign influence of which, every art, science, or pursuit, that can be beneficial to mankind, is sure to flourish without much gratuitous assistance.

"Several of the immediate scholars of the illustrious Swedish naturalist were planted in different parts of Germany. Murray, to whom he intrusted the publication of that compendious volume entitled Systema Vegetabilium, and who printed two successive editions of the work, was seated as Professor at Gottingen. Giseke was established at Hamburg, and, after the death of Linnæus, gave to the world such an edition as he was able to compile, from his own notes and those of Fabricius, of the lectures of their late preceptor, on the natural orders of plants. His ideas on this subject Linnæus himself always considered as too imperfect to be published, except in the form of a sketch or index, at the end of his Genera Plantarum. The venerable patriarch, Professor Jacquin, still survives at Vienna, where he and his worthy son have enriched botany with a number of splendid and useful works. They have given to the public several labours of the excellent practical botanist Wulfen, and others, which might, but for their encouragement, have been lost. The highly va-

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1 At the present day, Sweden has to boast of Agardh and Fries, the former of whom has published many erudite works on the Algae, the latter on Fungi. The publication of Host on grasses is conducted on the plan of Jacquin's works. His Synopsis of Austrian plants is an excellent Flora, disposed according to the sexual system; as is the more ample Tentamen Florae Germanicae of the celebrated Dr Roth, one of the best practical European botanists, and more deeply versed than most others in cryptogamic lore. The best Linnean Flora, as far as it goes, that the world has yet seen, we speak it without any exception, is the Flora Germanica of Professor Schrader of Göttingen, the first volume of which, comprising the first three classes of the sexual system, was published in 1806. The correct distinctions, well-digested synonyms, and complete descriptions, of this work, are altogether unrivalled. If the whole should be equally well executed, for which the longest life would be scarcely sufficient, it must ever be the standard book of European botany. Its descriptions of grasses are worthy to accompany the exquisite engravings of the same tribe from the hand of Leers, published at Herborn in 1775, which excel every botanical representation which we have yet examined. They will bear, and indeed they require, the application of a magnifying-glass, like the plants themselves. The purchaser of this little volume must however beware of the second edition, the plates of which are good for little or nothing. The name of Schrader has long been distinguished in cryptogamic botany. In this pursuit, the industrious and accurate botanists of Germany, shut out from extensive opportunities of studying exotic plants, have had full scope for their zeal and abilities. In this field the Leipsic school has distinguished itself. Here the great Schreber first began his career with some of the most perfect cryptogamic works, especially on the minute genus Phasena. Here the same author published his excellent Flora Lipsiensis, his laborious practical work on Grasses, and finally his improved edition of the Genera Plantarum of his friend Linnæus. But, above all, Leipsic is famous for being the residence of Hedwig, whose discoveries relative to the fructification and generic characters of Mosses form an era in botanic science. Under the hands of such an observer, that elegant tribe displays itself with a degree of beauty, variety, and singularity, which vies with the most admired herbs and flowers, and confirms the Linnæan doctrine of impregnation, which the more obvious organs of the latter had originally taught.

Nor must we, in speaking of cryptogamic plants, neglect here to record the names of Weiss, Weber, Mohr, Schmidt, Esper, and especially Hoffmann; the plates of the latter, illustrating the Lichen tribe, are models of beauty and correctness. His Flora Germanica is a most convenient and compendious manual, after the Linnæan system. Fungi have been studied in Germany with peculiar care and minuteness. The leading systematic author in this obscure tribe, Persoon, was indeed born of Dutch parents, at the Cape of Good Hope; but he studied and published at Göttingen. Two writers of the name of Albertini and Schweinitz have published the most minute and accurate exemplification of this natural order, in an octavo volume, at Leipsic, in the year 1805, comprising the Fungi of the district of Niski in Upper Lausatia. If their figures are less exquisitely finished than Persoon's, or less elaborately detailed than Schrader's, their descriptions make ample amends.

The German school of botany has for a long period been almost completely Linnæan. This however was not always the case; for, in the earlier part of his career, the learned Swede was attacked more repeatedly and severely from this quarter of the world than from any other; his ridiculous critic Siegesbeck of Petersburg excepted, who would not admit the doctrine of the sexes of plants, because the pollen of one flower may fly upon another, and his purity could not bear the idea of such adultery in nature. Numerous methods of arrangement appeared in Germany, from the pens of Heister, Ludwig, Haller, and others, and even Schreber adopted a system like some of these in his Flora above mentioned. It would be to no purpose now to criticise these attempts. They cannot rank as natural systems, nor have they the convenience of artificial ones. Part of their principles are derived from Linnæus, others from Rivinus. Their authors were not extensively conversant with plants, nor trained in any sound principles of generic discrimination or combination. They set off with alacrity, but were soon entangled in their own difficulties, and were left by Linnæus to answer themselves or each other. We here mention these learned systematics; for learned they were thought by themselves and their pupils, merely because they will scarcely require animadversion when we come to canvass the great question of natural and artificial classification, they having had no distinct ideas of a difference between the two. Hedwig used frequently to lament that his preceptor Ludwig had never perfected his system of arrangement; but from what he has given to the world, we see no great room to suppose that he had any thing very excellent in reserve. Unexecuted projects are magnified in the mists of uncertainty. We have ventured elsewhere, in a biographical account of Hedwig, to remark, that even that ingenious man did not imbibe, under Ludwig, anything of the true philosophical principles of arrangement, the talents for which are granted to very few, and are scarcely ever of German growth. We mean no invidious reflections on any nation or people. Each has its appropriate merits, and all are useful together in science, like different characters on the theatre of human life.

Germany may well dispense with any laurels obtained by the very secondary merit of speculative schemes of classification, when she can claim the honour of having produced such a practical observer as Gaertner. This indefatigable botanist devoted himself to the investigation of the fruits and seeds of plants. Being eminently skilled in the use of the pencil, he has, like Hedwig, faithfully recorded what he no less acutely detected. The path he struck out for himself, of delineating and describing in detail, with magnified dissections, every part of the seed and seed-vessel of each genus within his reach, had never been explored before in so regular and methodical a manner. Botanists of the Linnæan school are justly censurable for having paid too little attention to the structure of these important parts, in their generic characters. Indeed it may be said, that if they were able to establish good genera without them, and, after the example of their leader, merely preferred the more obvious and distinct organs, when sufficient for their purpose, their conduct was justifiable. If generic principles be natural and certain, it matters not on what parts of the fructification they are founded; nor is the inflorescence, or even the herb or root, rejected by sound philosophers, but because they are found to lead only to unnatural and uncertain characters. It is therefore extremely to the honour of Linnæus, Gaertner, and Jussieu, that their conceptions of genera are almost entirely the same. They meet in almost every point, however different the paths by which they pursue their inquiries. Their labours illustrate and confirm each other. Even Tournefort, who conceived so well, on the whole, the distinctions of genera, which he could but ill define, receives new strength from their knowledge, which does not overturn his imperfect performances, but improve them. The accurate student of natural genera cannot fail to perceive, that where Gaertner differs from Linnæus, which is but in a very few material instances, such as his numerous subdivision of the genus Fumaria, and his dis- tribution of the compound flowers, it arises from his too intent and exclusive consideration of one part of the fruc- tification, instead of an enlarged and comprehensive view of the whole. In other words, he neglects the Linnan maxim, that 'the genus should give the character, not the character the genus.' Such at least appears to us the case in Fumaria.1 In the syngenesious family, being so very natural in itself, the discrimination of natural ge- nera becomes in consequence so difficult, that Gaertner and Linnæus may well be excused if they do not entirely agree; and they perhaps may both be satisfied with the honour of having collected materials, and disposed them in different points of view, for the use of some future sys- tematist, who may decide between them. However exact Gaertner may have been in discriminating the parts of seeds, we believe him to have been mistaken in distinguis- ing the vitellus as a separate organ distinct in functions from the cotyledons. His readers will also do well, while they profit by his generally excellent principles, not to ad- mit any of his rules as absolute. They may serve as a clue to the intricacies of nature, but they must not overrule her laws. Still less is our great carpologist to be implicitly fol- lowed in physiological doctrines or reasonings; witness his feeble and incorrect attack on Hedwig's opinions, or rather demonstrations, respecting the impregnation of Mosses. His criticisms of Linnæus are not always marked with that candour which becomes a disinterested lover of truth and nature; nor can we applaud in general his changes of nomenclature or of terminology, especially when he un- philosophically calls the germin of Linnæus the ovarium, a word long ago rejected, as erroneous when applied to plants.2 These however are slight blemishes in a repu- tation which will last as long as scientific botany is cul- tivated at all. Botanists can now no longer neglect, except at their own peril, the parts which Gaertner has called into notice, and to the scrutiny of which, directed by his faith- ful guidance, the physiologist and the systematist must often in future recur.

We shall close this part of our subject with the men- tion of the Berlin school, where Gleditsch, who, in 1740, repelled the attacks of Siegesbeck on Linnæus, was pro- fessor, and published a botanical system, founded on the situation, or insertion, of the stamens; the subordinate divisions being taken from the number of the same parts; so that it is, in the latter respect, a sort of inversion of the Linnæan method. In the former, or the outline of its plan, the system of Gleditsch is in some measure an anticipation of that of Jussieu. Berlin has of late been much distinguished for the study of natural history, and possesses a society of its own, devoted to that pursuit. Its greatest ornament was the late Professor Wilddenow, who, if he fell under the lash of the more accurate Afzel- ius, is entitled to the gratitude of his fellow-labourers, not for theoretical speculations, but for the useful and arduous undertaking of a Species Plantarum, on the Lin- næan plan, being indeed an edition of the same work of Linnæus, enriched with recent discoveries. This book, left unfinished at the end of the first order of the Cryp- togamia, by the death of the editor, wants only a general index to render it sufficiently complete. The Musci, Lichenes, and Fungi, are systematically treated in the se- parate works of writers devoted to those particular, and now very extensive, subjects, from whom Wilddenow could only have been a compiler. With the Felices, which he lived to publish, he was practically conversant. His inser-

1 Most modern botanists view the Linnæan genus Fumaria as a natural order, and have therefore properly adopted Gaertner's di- visions as distinct genera. 2 Notwithstanding the above opinion to the contrary, ovarium is now generally adopted instead of germin.

Little can be said of Holland in this review of the bo- of Hel- tanical state of Europe for a few years past. The Ley-land, den garden has always been kept up, especially during the life of the late Professor David Van Royen, with due care and attention: we know little of its fate in the sub- sequent convulsed state of the country. Botany has long been on the decline at Amsterdam, though we are in- debted to that garden for having first received, and afterwards communicated to other countries, such acqui- sitions of Thunberg in Japan as escaped the perils of im- portation.

The botany of Switzerland may, most commodiously, of Switzer- land, be considered in the next place. Here, in his native land, country, the great Haller, after a long residence at Gött- ingen, was finally established. Its rich and charming Flora has been illustrated by his classical pen, with pec- cual success. Every body is conversant with the second edition of his work, published in 1768, in three volumes folio, and entitled Historia Stirpium Indigenarum Hel- vetiae; with its inimitable engravings, of the Orchis tribe more particularly. But few persons who have not lab- oured with some attention at the botany of Switzerland, are aware of the superior value, in point of accuracy, of the original edition of the same work, published in 1742, under the title of Enumeratio Methodica Stirpium Hel- vetiae Indigenarum. This edition is indispensable to those who wish fully to understand the subject, or to appreciate Haller's transcendent knowledge and abilities. These works are classed after a system of his own, intended to be more consonant with nature than the Linnæan sexual method. We can scarcely say that it is so, on the whole; nor is it, on the other hand, constructed according to any uniformity of plan. The number of the stamens, compared with that of the segments of the corolla, or its petals, re- gulate the characters of several classes, and these are ar- tificial. Others are assumed as natural, and are for the most part really so; but their characters are frequently taken from Linnæus, even from his artificial systems as the Cruciate and the Apetala. Lord Bute has well said, that Haller was a Linnæan in disguise. His classification, how- ever, was merely intended to answer his own purpose with respect to the Swiss plants; for he was not a general bot- anist, nor had he a sufficiently comprehensive view of the subject to form a general system, or even to be aware of the difficulties of such an undertaking. He ought not therefore to be obnoxious to criticism in that view. His method has served for the use of his scholars, as the Lin- næan one serves English botanists, by way of a dictionary. Some such is necessary; and those who should begin to decide on the merits of a system, before they know plants, would most assuredly be in danger of appearing more learned to themselves than to others. We cannot excul- pate Haller from some degree of prejudice in rejecting real improvements of Linnæus, which are independent of classification; such as his trivial or specific names, by which every species is spoken of at once, in one word, mostly so contrived as to assist the memory, by an indi- cation of the character, appearance, history, or use, of the plant. What did the great Swiss botanist substitute in- stead of this contrivance? A series of numbers, bur- densome to the memory, destitute of information, accom- modated to his own book only, and necessarily liable to total change on the introduction of every newly-discovered species! At the same time that he rejected the luminous nomenclature of his old friend and fellow-student, who had laboured in the most ingenious terms to depreciate his jealousy, he paid a tacit homage to its merit, by contending that the honour of this invention was due to Rivinus. In this he was not less incorrect than uncandid, the short names of Rivinus being designed as specific characters, for which purpose Haller knew, as well as Linnæus, that they were unfit. Useful specific characters he himself constructed on the plan of Linnæus, with some little variation, not always perhaps for the better as to strictness of principle, but often strikingly expressive. Here, as in everything connected with practical botany, he shines. The most rigid Linnæan, whose soul is not entirely shrivelled up with dry aphorisms and prejudice, must love Haller for his taste and enthusiasm, and the Flora of Switzerland as much for his sake as its own. No wonder that his pupils multiplied, and formed a band of enthusiasts, tenacious of even the imperfections of their master. The line of demarcation is now no longer distinctly drawn between them and the equally zealous scholars of the northern sage. The amiable and lamented Davall strove to profit by the labours of both. The Alpine botanists of France and Italy have served to amalgamate the Swedish and the Helvetian schools. The Flora of Dauphiné by Villars is nearly Linnæan in system; and the principles of the veteran Bellardi of Turin are entirely so, though, in some of his publications, he has been obliged to conform to the method of his preceptor, the venerable Allioni, who, in spite of all remonstrance, had the ambition of forming a system of his own. His Flora Pedemontana is disposed according to this system; an unnatural and inconvenient jumble of the ideas of Rivinus, Tournefort, and others. This work is also faulty in the neglect of specific definitions, so that its plates and occasional descriptions are alone what render it useful; nor would it, perhaps, be consulted at all, but for the uncommon abundance of rare species.

"We may glance over the botany of Italy, to whose boundaries we have thus been insensibly led, as the traveller takes a bird's-eye view of its outstretched plains from the lofty summits of the Alps. We may pass from Turin to Naples without meeting with any school of distinction. The northern states are not without their professors and patrons of botany; nor are their nobles destitute of taste, in various branches of natural knowledge. The names of a Castiglione of Milan, a Durazzo and Dinegro of Genoa, and a Savi of Pisa, deserve to be mentioned with honour, for their knowledge and their zeal. The unfortunate Cyrillo, and his friend Pacifico, of Naples, were practical botanists. There is also a rising school, of great promise, at Palermo. But since the time of Scopoli, Italy has contributed little to our stock of information; nor are the latter publications of this eminent man, while he resided at Pavia, commensurate in importance or merit with those earlier ones, the Flora and the Entomologia Carniolica, which have immortalized his name. Scopoli, who at first adopted a system of his own, had the sense and liberality, in his second edition, to resign it in favour of what his maturer experience taught him Taxon to prefer, the sexual system of Linnæus."

Spain and Portugal claim our attention; the former for being the channel through which the gardens of Europe have, for some years past, been enriched with many new Mexican and Peruvian plants, and likewise as the theatre of the publication of some important books relative to the botany of those countries. In speaking of American botany, we have mentioned the Flora Peruviana, the authors of which, Ruiz and Pavon, rank deservedly high for their industry and knowledge. The late Cavanielles, resident at Madrid, has also communicated to the learned world much information, from the same source. Spain seems anxious to redeem her reputation, which suffered so much from the neglect, or rather persecution, of the truly excellent but unfortunate Dombey, who, like many other benefactors of mankind, was allowed to make all his exertions in vain, and finally perished unknown, in the diabolical hands of English slave-dealers at Montserrat. Portugal is most distinguished at home by the labours of a learned Benedictine, Dr Felix Avellar Brotero, author of a Flora Lusitanica, disposed after the Linnæan method, reduced entirely to principles of number; and abroad by the valuable work of Father Loureiro, entitled Flora Cochinchensis, in which the plants of Cochin-China, and of the neighbourhood of Canton, are classed and defined in the Linnæan manner, with valuable descriptions and remarks. It is undoubtedly a disgrace to the possessors of such a country as Brazil, that they have not derived from thence more benefit to the world or to themselves from its natural productions. But they are satisfied with what the bowels of the earth afford, and they neglect its more accessible, though perhaps not less valuable treasures. The jealousy and innumerable restrictions of their government render what they possess as useless to all the world as to themselves. A genius of the first rank in natural science, as well as in every thing which his capacious mind embraced, has arisen in Portugal, and has been domesticated in the schools of Paris and London, the amiable and learned Correa de Serra. What little impulse has been given to literature in Portugal, and particularly the foundation of a Royal Academy of Sciences, is owing to him; and though his name has chiefly appeared in the ranks of botanical science in an incidental manner, no one possesses more enlarged and accurate views, or more profound knowledge, of the subject.

"In the extensive, though incomplete, review which we have undertaken of the recent history of botanical science, and the individual merits of particular writers have chiefly French hitherto been detailed and compared. The most difficult part of our task perhaps still remains, namely, to contrast and appreciate the influence and the merits of two great and rival nations, in the general school of scientific botany; to consider the causes that have led to the particular line which each has taken; and to compare the success, as well as to calculate the probable future consequences, of their respective aims. England and France have, from the time of Ray and Tournefort, been competitors in botanical fame, because each was ambitious of supporting the credit of the great man she had produced. This contest,

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1 Geneva is celebrated at the present day as the residence of Professor De Candolle. This distinguished botanist, in addition to many other works of scarcely inferior merit, published, in 1818 vol. 1st, and in 1821 vol. 24, of a Regnum Vegetabile, arranged according to the natural system. No more has yet appeared; but in 1824 he commenced a Prodromus, or abridgement of what the other was intended to be, and of this four volumes are completed. It is expected to be concluded in a few years.

2 Had Sir James Smith lived, he would have found occasion to alter the above paragraph. At present there is not one individual deserving the name of botanist in Spain. The last of them, Lagasca, has had all his collections, including what he had amassed for years with a view to publish a Flora of Spain, entirely destroyed, and been obliged himself to take refuge in England. however, as far as it regarded theoretical speculations, has entirely subsided on the part of Ray's champions. In practical science, likewise, the admirers of Ray and of Tournefort have shaken hands, like those of every other school. On the subject of system, the question is greatly changed; for though a phoenix has arisen from the ashes of Tournefort, its "star-like eyes," darting far beyond all former competition, have been met, if not dazzled, by a new light, rising in full glory from the north; a polar star, which has been hailed by all the nations of the earth.

"The Linnaean system of classification, with all its concomitant advantages of nomenclature, luminous technical definition, and richness of information, was planted, like a fresh and vigorous scion, in the favourable soil of England, already fertilized with accumulations of practical knowledge, about the middle of the last century. If we may pursue the metaphor, the ground was entirely cleared for its reception; for all previous systems had been of confined and local use, the alphabetical index having become the resource of even the most learned, and the pupils of Ray being held to his method of classification rather by their gratitude for his practical instruction, than any other consideration. Accordingly we have, in our own early progress, before they were all, as at present, swept off the stage, found them rather contending for his nomenclature, imperfect as it was, because they were habituated to it, than for his system, of which it was evident they had made little use. Hence the first attempt in England to reduce our plants to Linnaean order, made by Hill, was chiefly a transposition of Ray's Synopsis into the Linnaean classes; the original nomenclature being retained, while the specific names of the Species Plantarum were rejected.

"Hill's imperfet performance was superseded by the more classical Flora Anglica of Hudson, composed under the auspices and advice of the learned and ingenious Stillingfleet, in which the botany of England assumed a most scientific aspect, and with which all the knowledge of Ray was incorporated. At the same time, the principles of theoretical botany, and the philosophical writings of the learned Swede, were studied with no ordinary powers of discrimination and judgment, in a small circle of experienced observers at Norwich. A love of flowers, and a great degree of skill in their cultivation, had been long ago imported into that ancient commercial city, with its worsted manufacture, from Flanders; and out of this taste something like the study of systematic botany had sprung. These pursuits were mostly confined to the humblest of the community, particularly among the then very numerous bodies of journeymen weavers, dyers, and other artisans of a similar description. Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, several of the opulent merchants seem to have acquired, by their intimate connection with Holland, not only the above-mentioned taste for horticulture, but likewise an ambition to be distinguished by their museums of natural curiosities. The former sometimes extended itself, from the flowery parterre and the well-arranged rows of tulips, hyacinths, carnations, and auriculas, into no less formal labyrinths, or perhaps a double pattern of angular or spiral walks, between clipped hedges, exactly alike on each side of a broad gravel walk. Such was the most sublime effort of the art within the compass of our recollection. "Grove" could by no means be said to "nod at grove," for the perpendicular and well-trimmed structure was incapable of nodding; but that "each alley should have a brother" was an indispensable part of the design. Greenhouses of exotic plants, except oranges and myrtles, were at this time scarcely known; and the writer well recollects having seen, with wonder and admiration, above forty years ago, one of the first African geraniums that ever bloomed in Norwich. If, however, the progress of natural science was slow in this angle of the kingdom, the wealthy manufacturers, becoming their own merchants, found it necessary to acquire a knowledge of various foreign languages, in order to carry on their wide-extended commerce. In learning French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German, they unavoidably acquired many new ideas. Their sons were sent to the continent, and it were hard, indeed, if many of them did not bring home much that was worth learning. The society of the place, aided by some concomitant circumstances, and the adventitious acquisition of two or three men of singular talents and accomplishments, became improved. A happy mixture of literature and taste for many years distinguished this city above its rivals in opulence and commercial prosperity. Such Norwich has been in our memory; and if its splendour be gone by, a taste for mental cultivation, originating in many of the before-mentioned causes, still remains, and is fostered by the novel pursuits of chemistry and natural history, on which some arts of great importance in the manufactory of the place depend for improvement. We trust the reader will pardon this digression from the subject more immediately before us, to which we shall now return.

"Some of the more learned students of English plants, among the lovers of botany in Norwich, had long been conversant with the works of Ray, and even the Historia Muscorum of Dillenius. They were prepared therefore to admire, and to profit by, the philosophical writings of Linnaeus. Hence originated the Elements of Botany, published in 1775 by Mr Hugh Rose, who was aided in the undertaking by his equally learned friend, the reverend Henry Bryant, of whose acuteness and botanical skill no better proof is wanting, than his having found and determined, nine years before, the minute Tillaea muscosa, for the first time in this island. Numerous pupils were eager to improve themselves by the assistance of such masters; and, amongst others, the writer of these pages imbibed, from their ardent and friendly assistance, the first rudiments of a pursuit that has proved the happiness and the principal object of his life.

"London became, of course, the focus of this science, as London, as well as of every other. Of the English universities, Cambridge most fulfilled its duty, in rendering its public establishments useful to the ends for which they were founded and paid. The names of Martyn, both father and son, have long maintained a distinguished rank in botany; and the latter, for many years, has inculcated the true principles of Linnaean science, from the professor's chair. A botanic garden was established by a private individual, Dr Walker, about the period of which we are speaking. A Linnaean Flora Cantabrigiensis, by Mr Relhan, has renewed the celebrity of that field in which Ray had formerly laboured; and there has always existed a little community of Cambridge botanists, though fluctuating and varying, according to circumstances. At Oxford, botany, so vigorously established by Sherard and Dillenius, slept for forty years under the auspices of the elder Professor Sibthorp, at least as to the utility of its public foundations. Yet even there the science had many individual cultivators, and if others were forgotten, the name of a Banks ought to render this school for ever celebrated. The younger Professor Sibthorp well atoned for the supineness of his father and predecessor. He published a Flora Oxoniensis, and extended his inquiries into the classical scenes of Greece, finally sacrificing his life to his labours, and sealing his love of this engaging study by a posthumous foundation, which provides for the publication of a sumptuous Flora Graeca, and the subsequent establishment of a professorship of rural economy. Edinburgh, under the aus- pices of Professor Hope, became distinguished for the cultivation of botany as a branch of medical education. The physiology of plants was there taught more assiduously than in almost any other university of Europe; and the Linnaean principles were ably enforced and illustrated, not with slavish devotion, but with enlightened discrimination. Nor must the dissenting academy at Warrington be forgotten, where the distinguished circumnavigator Forster, of whom we have already spoken, was settled. Here many young naturalists were trained. The neighbouring family of the Blackburnes, possessed even to this day of one of the oldest and richest botanic gardens in England, have steadily fostered this and other branches of natural knowledge. The same taste has spread to Manchester, Liverpool, and the country around. Westmoreland, Northumberland, and Durham, have their sequestered practical botanists in every rank of life. Scenes celebrated by the correspondents of Ray are still the favourite haunts of these lovers of nature and science, who every day add something to our information, and to the celebrity of other parts of the same neighbourhood.

"We must now concentrate our attention to the London school, which for about forty years past has maintained a rank superior to most other seats of botanical science; the more so perhaps from its being founded in total disinterestedness, both with respect to authority and emolument. Truth alone, not system, has been the leading object of this school; unbiased and gratuitous patronage its support; and a genuine love of nature and of knowledge its bond of union, among persons not less distinguished from each other by character and opinion, than by their different pursuits and various ranks of life. The illustrious Banks, from the time when, after his return from his celebrated and adventurous voyage, he devoted himself to the practical cultivation of natural science for the advantage of others, as he had long pursued it for his own pleasure and instruction, has been the head of this school. Here he fixed the amiable and learned Solander, for the remainder of his too short life. The house of this liberal Mecenas has ever since been, not only open, but in a manner at the entire command of the cultivators and admirers of this and other branches of philosophy; inasmuch as his library and museum have been devoted to their free use; and his own assistance, encouragement, and information are as much at their service as if his fortune and fame had all along depended on their favour. With such an establishment as this, aided by the perpetual resources of the numerous public and private gardens around, botany might well flourish. The liberal spirit of the leaders of this pursuit gave a tone to the whole. The owners of nurseries, though depending on pecuniary emolument for their support, rivalled each other in disinterested communication. The improvement of the science was the leading object of all. One of this latter description took his rank among the literary teachers of botany. Lee's Introduction was much approved by Linnaeus, whose system and principles it ably exemplifies, and who became the friend and correspondent of its author. Travelling botanists were dispatched under the patronage of the affluent to enrich our gardens from the Alps, the Cape of Good Hope, and the various parts of America. Every new acquisition was scrutinized, and received its allotted name and distinction from the hand of the correct and classical Solander, who one day was admiring with Collinson, Fothergill, or Pitcairn, the treasures of their respective gardens, and another labouring with the distinguished Ellis,

at the more abstruse determination of the intricate family of marine productions, whether sea-weeds, corallines, or shells. His own acquisitions, and those of his friend and patron, in the fairy land of the South Sea Islands, the hazardous shores of New Holland, or the nearly fatal groves and swamps of Java, were at the same time recorded by his pen, as they were gradually perpetuating by the slow labours of the engraver. To this band of zealous naturalists the younger Linnæus was for a while associated, as well as the excellent and zealous Broussonet, who, though not unversed in botany, devoted himself most particularly to the more uncommon pursuit of scientific ichthyology.

"The Banksian school, altogether intent upon practical botany, had adopted the Linnaean system as the most commodious, while it pursued and cultivated the Linnaean principles as the only ones which, by their transcendent excellence, could support the science of botany on a stable foundation. In these Dr Solander was, of course, well trained; and, having added so wide a range of experience to his theoretical education, few botanists could vie with him, who had, as it were, caught his preceptor's mantle, and imbibed, by a sort of inspiration, a peculiar talent for concise and clear definition. Abstract principles of classification, or even such outlines of natural arrangement as Linnæus had promulgated, seem never to have attracted Solander. In following the chain of his ideas, discernible in the materials he has left behind him, one cannot but remark his singular inattention to everything like botanical affinity, to which the artificial sexual system was, with him, entirely paramount. The genera which, for extemporaneous use, he named with the termination oides, comparing each with some well-known genus, till a proper appellation could be selected, are seldom thus compared because of any natural affinity, or even any external resemblance, but because they agree with such in their place in the artificial system, or nearly perhaps in technical characters. A great botanist, therefore, it is evident, may exist, without that vaunted erudition in a peculiar line, which some would have us consider as the only road to knowledge and to fame. We allow that this sort of erudition is now, since the attention it has received from Linnæus, Jussieu, and others, become an indispensable to a good theoretical or philosophical botanist, as is the study of carpology, in consequence of the labours of Gaertner; we only contend that it is possible to know plants extremely well without either.

"The learned Dryander, less skilled than his predecessor the coadjutor of Sir Joseph Banks, in a practical acquaintance with plants, exceeded him in theoretical lore and ingenious speculation, and far excelled every other man in bibliographic information, as well as in the most precise and fastidious exactness relative to every subject within the wide extent of his various knowledge. He furthered, upon principle, and with unwearied assiduity, every object of the noble establishment to which he was devoted; but, like Solander, he now sleeps with his fathers, and his place is supplied by a genius of British growth, who unites talents with experience, and theoretical skill, in the most eminent degree, with practical knowledge."

Although it is almost superfluous to name the most eminent disciples of the London school of botany, it might seem negligent to pass them over without some particular mention. The ardent and ingenious Curtis has left a permanent monument behind him, in the Flora Londinensis, to say nothing of the popular Botanical Magazine, continued

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Since the death of Sir Joseph, his library and herbarium have been deposited in the British Museum, where Mr Brown, to whom Sir James here alludes, has still the unqualified charge of them. by his friend Dr Sims. The Flora Scotia of Lightfoot first offered, in a pleasing and familiar garb, the botanical riches of that part of the island to its southern inhabitants. The lynx-eyed Dickson, so long and faithfully attached to his constant patron, has steadily traced, through all its windings, the obscure path of cryptogamic botany with peculiar success. No more striking instance can be pointed out, to prove how totally the most consummate practical skill, even in the most difficult part of botany, is independent of theoretical learning. Even those who profit by the certain aids supplied by the discoveries of Hedwig, can with difficulty keep pace with this veteran in their pursuits, who, with conscious independence, neglects all those aids.

"Just at the time when the school, whose history we are endeavouring to trace, had most firmly established its credit and its utility, a great additional weight was given to England, in the scale of natural science, by the acquisition of the entire museum, library, and manuscripts of the great Linnaeus and his son, which came amongst us, by private purchase, in 1784, after the death of the latter. Hence our nomenclature has been corrected, and our knowledge greatly augmented. These collections have necessarily been consulted by most persons about to publish on the subject of natural history, and a reference to them, in doubtful cases, secures a general conformity of sentiment and nomenclature among the botanists of Europe, Asia, and America. We are seldom obliged to waste time in conjecturing what Linnaeus, or the botanists with whom he corresponded, meant, for we have before us their original specimens, named by their own hands. An entire London winter was devoted to the almost daily labour of comparing the Banksian herbarium throughout, with that of Linnaeus, and to a copious interchange of specimens between their respective possessors, who, with the aid of Mr Dryander alone, accomplished this interesting and instructive comparison. Hence the Hortus Kewensis of the lamented Aiton, which was at that period preparing for publication, became much more correct in its names, than it, or any other similar performance, could have been, without this advantage. It could scarcely be expected that Sweden would, unmoved, let the botanical sceptre thus pass from her; but it is much to the honour of the nation, that all her naturalists have ever preserved the most friendly intercourse with us, particularly with the person who deprived them of this treasure. They have not merely pardoned, but publicly sanctioned, the scientific zeal which prompted him to this acquisition, by associating him with all their learned establishments, without any solicitation on his part."

"The institution of the Linnean Society at London in 1788, especially under that name, must be considered as a triumph for Sweden in her turn. By this establishment the intercourse of sciences is facilitated; essays, which might otherwise have never seen the light, are given to the world; and a general taste for the pleasing study of nature is promoted. Learned and worthy people are thus made acquainted with each other, from the remotest corners of the kingdom, and their information enriches the common stock. The state has given its sanction to this rising establishment. Its publications and its members are spread over the Continent, and other similar institutions have borrowed its name, imitated its plan, and paid respect to its authority. Yet it is not in the name alone of Linnaeus, that the members of this society place their confidence; still less do they bow to that name, or to any other, at the expense of their own right of private judgment. Their transactions are open to the pupils of every school, and the observations of every critic, that have any prospect of being useful to the world. The writer of each communication must, of course, be answerable for the particulars of his own performance, but the society is responsible for each being, on the whole, worthy to be communicated to the public. The possession of the very materials with which Linnaeus worked, his own specimens and notes, enables us very often to correct mistakes, even of that great man, many of which would be unaccountable without the means of thus tracing each to its source. At the same time, the acquisition of materials to which he never had access, tends to improve and augment the history of what he had left imperfect. His language, his definitions and characters, were, for some time, held so sacred, that they were implicitly copied, even though manifestly inapplicable, in some points, to the objects to which they were referred. Synonyms were transcribed from his works by Rose, Hudson, Curtis, and even Gartner (we assert it on the positive proof of errors of the press, copied in the transcribing), without reference to the original books, to see whether such synonyms, or their accompanying plates, agreed with the plant under consideration. The example of Dr Solander first led the writer of this to avoid such a negligent and unfaithful mode of proceeding; yet he has ever considered as sacred the very words of Linnaeus, where they require no correction. They are become a kind of public property, the current coin of the botanical realm, which ought not, with impunity, to be falsified or adulterated. To them we hope to be pardoned if we apply the words of the poet,

The solid bullion of one sterling line, Drawn to French wire, would through whole pages shine.

Of this it is needless to quote examples. We must be every day more, and more sensible of the value of the Linnaean style, in proportion as the number of those who can attain it is evidently so very small. By the light of our master alone can the science, which he so greatly advanced and refined, be preserved from barbarism, while long and tedious, loose and feeble, ill-contrasted and barbarously-worded definitions, press upon it from various quarters. New terms are invented to express old ideas; names and characters are changed for the worse, to conceal the want of new discoveries; and students are often deterred from adopting real improvements, because they know not which guide to prefer.

"From the combined effects of the various causes which Practical we have endeavoured to trace, the study of botany in England has, for a long period, been almost entirely practical. To determine the particular species intended, in every case, by Linnaeus; to distinguish and to describe new ones; to improve scientific characters, and to correct synonyms; these have been the objects of our writers; and hence many publications of great utility, especially a number of critical and descriptive essays, in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, not unworthy of the school which gave them birth, have enriched the general stock of knowledge. These are the sound fruits of skill and investigation, the solid advantages of real information, applied to practical use. They are independent of theoretical speculation, and will stand unshaken, amidst any possible changes of system. On such principles the Flora Britannica has been attempted, and continued as far as the present unsettled state of some of the latter orders, of the last class,

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1 It may not, perhaps, be generally known, that Sir James Smith himself was the purchaser. Since his death it has become the property of the Linnean Society of London, along with all his private collections and library. Such impediments, which depend on the difficulties of systematic discrimination, among the Lichens especially, it is hoped will soon be removed. Meanwhile the English Botany of the same writer, illustrated by Mr Sowerby's expressive and scientific figures, has finished its course, and formed so nearly complete a body of local botany, as we believe, no other country has produced. In this the liberal contributions of numerous skilful observers, from the Alpine heights of Scotland to the shores and circumambient ocean of the south, are preserved and recorded; evincing a degree of general inquiry and acuteness, which hardly any nation can rival. The memory of several benefactors to the science, otherwise in danger of passing away, is embalmed in this national work, which serves at once as their botanical testament, and the monument of their fame. Some of our botanists of the present day have thrown great light on several of the most obscure departments of the science; witness Mr Sowerby's work on English Fungi; the labours of the learned Bishop of Carlisle on Carices, and, in conjunction with Mr Woodward, on Fuci; of Mr Dawson Turner on the latter tribe, and on the Musci of Ireland; but especially Mr Hooker's inimitable display of the British Jungermanniae. Nor shall the contributions of a Winch or an Abbot, a Withering, Knapp, Stackhouse, or Velley, nor the more splendid labours of the indefatigable Lambert, be forgotten. Each, in one way or other, has enlarged the bounds of science, or rendered it easier of access. We cannot, in the compass of our present undertaking, pay the tribute due to every individual, our aim being a general picture of the whole. From what we have said, the zeal with which this lovely science has been cultivated in England, will sufficiently appear. Nor have public lectures or botanic gardens been neglected, in order to render the knowledge of botany as accessible as possible, and to diffuse a taste for its pursuit. The popularity of the study has, at least, kept pace with the means of instruction. The garden and greenhouse, the woods, fields, and even the concealed treasures of the waters, are now the resource of the young and the elegant, who, in the enjoyment of a new sense as it were, in the retirement of the country, imbibe health, as well as knowledge and taste, at the purest of all sources.

France now remains to be considered, in order to finish the historical picture which we have undertaken of the state of botanical science in Europe. To do justice to this part of our subject, we must turn our attention to times long since gone by, or we shall scarcely render intelligible the state of affairs at present.

The great Tournefort, by the force of his character, his general and particular information, the charms of his pen, and the celebrity which his name gave to his country, through the popularity of his botanical system, was so firmly established, in the ideas of the French, as the Grand Monarque of botany, that they would have as soon allowed the greatness of Louis XIV. to be questioned, as that of this distinguished philosopher. So beneficial was this partiality, in some respects, that it gave an unprecedented impulse and popularity to the science; so disadvantageous was it in others, that it placed a formidable barrier in the way of all improvement. Vaillant, the able and worthy pupil of Tournefort, has never been forgiven for speaking, on some occasions, too freely of his master's defects. Hence his own merit has been kept in the background. The doctrine of the sexes of plants was discountenanced as long as possible, because it was proved by Vaillant, after having been rejected by Tournefort. Nevertheless, when the good seed of science is once sown, it can hardly be totally suffocated by the impediments of prejudice and ignorant partiality. Practical zeal sprang up by the side of speculative jealousy, and the tares withered, while the profitable plants flourished. Some botanists followed the steps of Tournefort to the Levant, exploring afresh those countries which he has for ever rendered classic ground. Others visited America, which they traversed in different directions. The indefatigable Plumier performed three separate voyages to the western world; and though his discoveries have, in a great measure, suffered shipwreck from tardy and imperfect patronage, as a great part of his collections did by the accidents of nature, yet something of value remains. His Filices are enough to insure his perpetual remembrance, and his Nova Genera are the basis of our knowledge of generic differences in West Indian plants. Most of all has been distinguished, among the French botanists who succeeded the times of Tournefort and Vaillant, the family of the Jussieus. One of these Jussieus investigated the prolific regions of Peru, and discovered some things which no succeeding traveller has gathered. Other branches of this family, besides being eminent in medical science and practice, have pursued the study of botany with no ordinary success, on the most philosophical principles. Of these the most eminent are the celebrated Bernard de Jussieu, the contemporary of the earlier days of Linnaeus; and his nephew Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, the pride and the ruler of systematic botany at present in France. The views and the performances of these great men lead us to a new branch of our subject, which indeed we have had in our contemplation from the beginning of this essay,—the exposition of the principles of a natural scheme of botanical classification, as hinted, and imperfectly sketched, by Linnaeus, and brought to the perfection of a regular system by the Jussieus.

Previous to our entering on this detail, and the remarks to which it will give rise, we must conclude all that belongs to the former part of our undertaking, by giving some account of those botanists who have formed and maintained a Linnaean school in France. We must shelter ourselves under the broad banner of truth when we observe that these have, till very lately, been almost the only French botanists that have supplied us with any practical information; and their labours have been useful in proportion as they have commendably shaken off the prejudices of their predecessors. Of this last proposition Duhamel is a witness, though we may perhaps excite some surprise in classing him among Linnaean botanists. His preface to his Traité des Arbres sufficiently shows how fearful he was of being taken for such, and yet how he was held by vulgar prejudice alone, to the nomenclature, or rather the generical opinions of Tournefort. He tells

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1 The English Flora was published on the same plan, a short time before the death of the author. This contains none of the Cryptogamia except the Ferns, but a continuation is every day expected from Dr Hooker.

2 Dr Hooker, now Professor at Glasgow, is better known throughout the world as the first mycologist of the present age. His Musci Exotici et Muscorum Britonum are excellent. In a knowledge of Ferns he is also unrivalled, upon which branch, along with Dr Greville, he has published the splendid Icones Filicum. But it is not Cryptogamia alone his pencil and pen have illustrated; he has published the Cryptic Flora, at present containing the Botanicon Magnificum, and is engaged with Botanical Miscellany, Flora Boreali-Americanae, &c., all of which are accompanied with plates.—Among those who have contributed in this country to illustrate botany by plates, we ought not to omit to mention Mr Lindley, and also Dr Greville, whose delineations of Cryptogamic subjects, particularly of Fungi, must always render his Scottish Cryptogamic Flora a standard work. There are other botanists, likewise, who equally deserve notice, although they be not gifted with the use of the pencil: Mr David Don has contributed much to the page of botany, but who has not heard of Mr Robert Brown, "Botanorum faciei princeps?" us, while he adopts these, that his judgment went with Linnaeus, whom he follows in all new discoveries. The plan of his book, confined to hardy trees and shrubs, justifies his use of an alphabetical arrangement, in preference to any system, unless he had thought sufficiently well of Tournefort's to prefer that. But he has prefixed to his work, as a practical method of discovering scientifically what it contained, no other than a sexual classification. His practical botany was so limited, being entirely subservient to his great objects of forest planting and vegetable physiology, that he had no attention to spare for the consideration of methodical systems. Accordingly, he tells us, that some such is necessary for the use of botanists, especially of those who explore the productions of foreign countries; but whether the method of Ray, Tournefort, Boerhaave, Van-Royen, Linnaeus, or Bernard de Jussieu be adopted, is of no importance. Six years before Duhamel's work came out, Dalibard had published, in 1749, his *Flora Parisiensis Prodromus*, according to the Linnaean system.

"It has always appeared to the writer of this, from the conversation and writings of French botanists, that the judgment of the learned Le Monnier, and the countenance of his patron the Duke d'Ayen, afterwards Marechal de Noailles, first established the reputation of Linnaeus in France; not so much possibly for the sake of his system, as his discoveries, his commodious nomenclature, and his clear principles of discrimination. When Le Monnier botanized in Chili, in the company of the astronomers with whom he was associated, he soon found, like Dr Gardiner in South Carolina, that the classification of Tournefort was no key to the treasury of a new world. He however made his remarks and collections, and studied them subsequently under the auspices of a more comprehensive guide. The Marechal de Noailles, a great cultivator of exotic trees and shrubs, corresponded with the Swedish naturalist, and encouraged him to recommend him to the notice of the lovers of plants in France. Meantime Gerard and Gouan in the south, both introduced themselves to the illustrious Swede, and promulgated his principles and discoveries, though only the latter adopted his classification. Villars we have already noticed as the author of a Linnaean *Histoire des Plantes de Dauphine*. He died lately, professor of botany at Strasburg, where he succeeded the very able and philosophical Hermann, one of the truest Linnaeans, who had imbibed all the technical style of the Swedish school, as well as its accuracy of discrimination. We may now safely announce Hermann as the real author, in conjunction perhaps with Baron Born, of that ingenious but bitter satire the *monachologia*, in which the several species of monks are affectedly discriminated, and their manners detailed, like the animals in the Linnaean *Systema Naturae*. This ludicrous performance has long since appeared in a not very exact English translation, and was rendered into French by the late M. Broussonet. As we are led again to name this amiable man, too soon lost to his country, after experiencing every vicissitude of revolutionary peril and alarm, we cannot help distinguishing him as one most zealous in the cultivation and diffusion of Linnaean learning, a taste for which he chiefly imbibed in England. He had no indulgence for those prejudices which cramped the talents of his countrymen, and prevented their deriving knowledge from any quarter where it was to be had. He recommended the younger Linnaeus to their personal acquaintance and favour; which service he also rendered, a few years after, to the person who now commemorates his worth, and who will ever remember, with affection and regret, his many virtues, his agreeable converse, and his various and extensive acquirements.

"The intimacy which subsisted between this enthusiastic taxonomist and the distinguished botanist l'Heritier, confirmed, if it did not originally implant, in the mind of the latter, that strong bias which he ever showed for the Linnaean principles of botany. According to these his numerous splendid works are composed. He moreover imbued, if we mistake not, from the same source, a peculiar preference for uncoloured engravings of plants, instead of the coloured ones which had long been in use. It cannot be denied that the merit of these last is very various, and sometimes very small. They do, nevertheless, present to the mind a more ready idea of each species, than a simple engraving can do, nor is the latter less liable to incorrectness. When plates are taken from the delineations of such exquisite artists as l'Heritier employed, they have a good chance of excellence; but the engravings of Cavallines, done after miserable drawings, though they deceive the eye by their neat finishing, are really less exact than many a rude outline. Coloured plates, if executed with the uniformity and scientific exactness of Mr Sowerby's, or the characteristic effect of Jacquin's, speak to the eye more readily than most engravings. The art of printing in colours, practised formerly in England with small success, was revived at Paris by Bulliard, and is carried to the highest perfection in the recent publications of Redouté and Ventenat, which leave hardly anything to be wished for, with respect to beauty or exactness. Many of the works of l'Heritier have remained imperfect, in consequence of the political convulsions of his country and his own premature death. The learned and worthy Desfontaines, who travelled in Barbary, has been more fortunate in the completion of his labours. His elegant *Flora Atlantica*, in 2 vols. 4to, with finely engraved uncoloured plates, is classed and modelled on the plan of the Linnaean school. Such also is the plan of the works of that distinguished botanist Labillardière, who, besides his account of New Holland plants, has published five elegant decades of new species from Syria. That scientific horticulturist M. Thouin, likewise a most excellent botanist, though he has scarcely written on the subject, is a correct pupil of the Swedish school. His general spirit of liberal communication, and his personal attachment to the younger Linnaeus, led him to enrich the herbarium of the latter with the choicest specimens of Commerson's great collection, destined otherwise to have remained in almost entire oblivion. A singular fate has attended the discoveries of most of the French voyagers, such as Commerson, Sonnerat, and Dombey, that, from one cause or other, they have scarcely seen the light. So also it has happened to those of Tournefort, Surrazin, Plumier, and others, whose acquisitions have long slept in the Parisian museums. Happily there seems to have arisen of late a commendable desire to render them useful by publication, and thus many fine plants, known merely by the slight and unscientific appellations of Tournefort, and therefore never adopted by Linnaeus, have recently been clearly defined, or elegantly delineated. The journeys of Olivier and Michaux towards the east have enriched the Paris gardens, and been the means of restoring several lost Tournefortian plants. We believe however that the English nurseries have proved the most fertile source of augmentation to the French collections, as appears by the pages of all the recent descriptive writers in France.

"We dare not presume to arrange the indefatigable and very original botanist Lamarck among the Linnaean botanists of his country, but we beg leave to mention him here, as one who has thought for himself, and whose works are the better for that reason. His severe and often petulant criticisms of the Swedish teacher, made him appear more hostile than he really was, to the principles of..." that great man. Being engaged in the botanical department of the Encyclopédie Méthodique, he was obliged to conform to an alphabetical arrangement; but he surely might have chosen the scientific generic names for that purpose, instead of barbarous or vernacular ones, which, to foreigners, would make all the difference, between a commodious and an unintelligible disposition of his work. In the detail of his performance, he has great merit, both with respect to clearing up obscure species, or describing new ones; and he had the advantage of access, on many occasions, to Commerson's collection. Lamarck's Flore Francoise is arranged after a new analytical method of his own. This book however is valuable, independent of its system, as an assemblage of practical knowledge and observation. We have only to regret a wanton and inconvenient change of names, which too often occurs, and which is not always for the better; witness Cheiranthus hortensis, instead of the long established incanus of Linnaeus; Melampyrum violacum, which is not correct, for nemorosum, which is strictly so, and which preserves an analogy with the rest of the species.

"We shall now undertake the consideration of the principles that have been suggested, and the attempts that have been made, respecting a

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

"The sexual system of Linnaeus lays no claim to the merit of being a natural arrangement. Its sole aim is to assist us in determining any described plant by analytical examination. The principles on which it is founded are the number, situation, proportion, or connection, of the stamens and pistils, or organs of impregnation. These principles are taken absolutely, with the sole exception of their not being permitted to divide the genera, that is, to place some species of a genus in one part of the system, and others in another, though such may differ in the number, situation, proportion, or connection of their stamens or pistils; those characters being possibly artificial, while the genera are supposed, or intended, according to a fundamental law independent of all systems, to be natural assemblages of species. We need not here explain the mode in which Linnaeus has provided against any inconvenience in practice, resulting from such anomalies of nature herself.

"But though this popular system of Linnaeus does not profess to be a natural method of classification it is in many points incidentally so, several of its classes or orders whose characters are founded in situation, proportion, or connection, being more or less perfectly natural assemblages; nor can it be denied that, on the whole, it usually brings together as many groups of natural genera, as occur in most systems that have been promulgated. This fact would be more evident, if the various editors of the system, those who have added new genera to the original ones of Linnaeus, or, in general, those who have any way applied his method to practice, had properly understood it. They would then have perceived that its author had always natural affinities in view; his aim, however incompletely fulfilled, according to our advanced knowledge, having constantly been, to place genera together in natural affinity or progression, as far as their relationship could be discerned. At the same time he uses an analytical method, at the head of each class in his Systema Vegetabilium, in which the genera are disposed according to their technical characters. Murray, in compiling the fourteenth edition of that work, has been inadvertent respecting this essential part of its plan. Indeed it is probable that he was not competent to judge of the affinities of the new genera, introduced from the Supplementum, or from the communication of Jacquin, Thunberg, &c. Yet surely he might have perceived the affinity of Banksia to Taxon Protea, rather than to Ludwigia or Oldenlandia; and my indeed Linnaeus himself ought to have discovered the relationship of the latter to Hedyotis, if he did not detect their identity, instead of inserting it between two such strict allies of each other as Ludwigia and Ammannia. To pursue these remarks would be endless. It is hardly necessary to indicate the natural classes or orders of the Linnaean system, such as the Tetradynamia, Didynamia, Diadelphia, Syngenesia; the Triandra Dignia, Gynandria Diandra, &c. Except the first-mentioned class, which, if Cleome be removed, is strictly natural and entire, the others are liable to much criticism. We are almost disposed to allow, what we know not that any one has yet observed, that the system in question is the more faulty in theory, for these classes being so natural as they are. Each order of the Didynamia presents itself as a natural order, though the character of that class, derived from the proportion of the stamens, serves to exclude several genera of each order, and to send them far back into the second class. If all ideas of natural affinity be discarded from our minds, there is no harm whatever in this; but if the Didynamia claims any credit, as a class founded in nature, the above anomaly is a defect. So, still more, under the same point of view, is the Diadelphia, or at least its principal order Decandra, liable to exception. This order consists entirely of the very natural family of Papilionaceae. They are characterized as having the ten stamens in two sets. Now it happens that there are many papilionaceous genera, indeed a great number of such have been discovered since Linnaeus wrote, whose ten stamens are all perfectly distinct. These therefore are necessarily referred to the class Decandra, and they come not altogether amiss there, because they meet in that class some concomitant genera, which though, like them, leguminous, are less exactly, or scarcely at all, papilionaceous. But the greatest complaint lies against some genera of the Diadelphia Decandra, for having the stamens all really combined into one set, so as in truth to answer to the technical character of the preceding class Monadelphia. There is mostly indeed some indication of a disunion upward, where they, more or less perfectly, form two sets; and some of them are so nearly diadelphia, that their complete union at the bottom may easily be overlooked; others, however, have only a fissure along the upper side of their common tube, without any traces of a separate stamen or stamens. The papilionaceous character of the corolla therefore, in such cases, is made to overrule that of the particular mode of union among the stamens, and is in itself so clear, as seldom to be attended with any difficulty; but the incorrectness of principle in the system, in the point before us, as being neither professedly natural, nor exactly artificial, cannot be concealed. Part of the objections, to which the sexual system was originally liable, have been obviated. We mean what concerns the last class but one, Polygamy. Dr Forster observed, in his voyage round the world, that this class was subject to great exception, on account of the trees of tropical climates, so many of which are constantly or occasionally polygamous; that is, each individual frequently bears some imperfect flowers, male or female, along with its perfect or united ones. Such a circumstance reduces any genus to the class Polygamy; and on this principle Mr Hudson, thinking perhaps that he made a great improvement, removed our Ilex Aquifolium, or Holly, thither, though Ilex is well placed by Linnaeus in the fourth class. The author of the present essay has ventured to propose a scheme, which is adopted in his Flora Britanica, for getting clear of this difficulty. He considers as polygamous such genera only as, besides having that charac ter in their organs of impregnation, have a difference of structure in the other parts of their two kinds of flowers. Thus *Atriplex* has, in its perfect flowers, a regular spreading calyx, in five equal segments; in the attendant female ones a compressed one, of two leaves, subsequently much enlarged.

"The genera thus circumstanced are so very few, as far as we have discovered, that possibly the class might, but for the uniformity of the system, be abolished. We cannot indeed tell what future discoveries may be made; and its character, on the above foundation, is sufficiently clear and permanent; for flowers of an essentially different configuration can hardly vary into each other. The orders of the last class of the Linnaean system, *Cryptogamia*, are natural, and preserved, all nearly the same, by every systematic projector. The original appendix to this system, the *Palmar*, would be a great blemish therein, as an artificial arrangement; for such an arrangement ought to be so formed as to admit every thing, on some principle or other. But this stumbling-block is now removed. The palm tribe were placed thus by themselves, merely till their fructification should be sufficiently known. Now they are found to agree well with some of the established classes and orders, where they meet with several of their natural allies.

"Whatever advantages might accrue to the practical study of botany, from the convenience and facility of his artificial system, Linnaeus was from the beginning intent on the discovery of a more philosophical arrangement of plants, or, in other words, the classification of nature. This appears from the 77th aphorism of the very first edition of his *Fundamenta Botanica*, published in 1736, where he mentions his design of attempting to trace out fragments of a natural method. In the corresponding section of his *Philosophia Botanica*, he, fifteen years afterwards, performed his promise; and the same *Fragmenta*, as he modestly called them, were subjoined to the sixth edition of his *Genera Plantarum*, the last that ever came from his own hands. The interleaved copies of these works, with his manuscript notes, evince how assiduously and constantly he laboured at this subject, as long as he lived. He was accustomed to deliver a particular course of lectures upon it, from time to time, to a small and select number of pupils, who were for this purpose domesticated under his roof. What this great botanist has himself given to the world, on the subject under consideration, is indeed nothing more than a skeleton of a system, consisting of mere names or titles of natural orders, amounting in his *Philosophia* to sixty-seven, besides an appendix of doubtful genera; and that number is, in the *Genera Plantarum*, reduced to fifty-eight.

"Under the title of each order, the genera which compose it are ranged according to the author's ideas of their relationship to each other, as appears by some of his manuscript corrections; and some of the orders are subdivided into sections, or parcels of genera more akin to each other than to the rest. He ingeniously avowed, at all times, his inability to define his orders by characters. He conceived that they were more or less connected with each other by several points of affinity, so as to form a map rather than a series. The experienced botanist, who peruses the above-mentioned *Fragmenta*, will in most cases readily imbibe the ideas of their author, as to the respective affinities of the genera. In some few instances, as the *Dumasce*, where he avows his own doubts, and the *Holaraceae*, where he is unusually paradoxical, it is more difficult to trace the chain of his ideas. Such, however, was all the assistance he thought himself competent to afford. His distinguished pupils, Fabricius and Giseke, fortunately took notes of his lectures on natural orders; and by the care of the latter, to whom Fabricius communicated what he had likewise preserved, their joint acquisitions have been given to the public, in an octavo volume, at Hamburg, in 1792. Nor was this done without the permission of their venerable teacher, who told Giseke by word of mouth, when they took leave of each other, that 'as he loved him, he had laboured with pleasure in his service,' adding, that 'Giseke was at liberty to publish, whenever he pleased, any thing that he had retained from his own instructions.'

"Linnaeus, according to a conversation with Giseke, recorded in the preface of the volume edited by the latter, declined to the last any attempt to define in words the characters of his orders. His reason for this appears in his *Classes Plantarum*, where he justly remarks, that no certain principles, or key, for any such definition can be proposed, till all the orders, and consequently all the plants, in the world are known. He has, however, so far expressed his opinion, in the work last quoted, as to point out the situation of the seed itself, with respect to other parts, and the situation and direction of its vegetating point, or *corculum*, as most likely to lead to a scheme of natural classification. Hence the system of Cassalpinus stood very high in his estimation. He also, in the conversation above mentioned, divides his own orders into three sections, or classes, *Monocotyledones*, comprising the first ten orders, with the 15th; *Dicotyledones* (with two or more cotyledons), the 11th to the 54th order inclusive, except the 15th; and *Acotyledones*, order 55th to 58th, with a hint that the last, or *Fungi*, ought perhaps to be altogether excluded. This distribution of plants, by the number or the absence of the cotyledons, or lobes of the seed, is the great hinge of all the professedly natural modes of arrangement that have been attempted."

"Linnaeus did not consider it as absolute, for he told Giseke that he knowingly admitted into his eleventh order some plants that are monocotyledonous, with others that are dicotyledonous. The reason of this was the only secret he kept from his pupil; nor could the latter ever dive into it, though he afterwards endeavoured to learn it from the younger Linnaeus, who knew nothing, neither did he, as Giseke says, much care about the matter."

The want of any avowed principle of distinction precludes almost all criticism of these orders of Linnaeus as a natural system. They cannot be applied to practice, and might in the present day be passed over in silence. As, however, a very few, and amongst others the late Sir J. E. Smith, considered them as even of more importance than those of Jussieu, an opinion in which we cannot coincide, we shall trace very shortly their names, but omit entirely the notes that usually accompany them, as unphilosophical, and tending but little to benefit the reader.

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*Nymphaea* appears to be the great secret, which the worthy professor told his pupil, that he, or some other person, might chance to find out in ten, twenty, or fifty years, and would then perceive that Linnaeus himself had been aware of it. According to Gaertner and Jussieu have made the same discovery, or rather, fallen into the same mistake, describing *Nymphaea* as monocotyledonous, and *Cymus*, Sm. *Ezot. Bot.* v. i. p. 59 (their *Nelumbo* or *Nelumbium*), as in some measure dicotyledonous. The excellent De Candolle, in the *Bulletin des Sciences*, No. Ivii., published in 1802, has first rightly considered both as dicotyledonous, and akin to the *Papaveraceae* of Jussieu, the Linnaean *Rheodeae*. Taxonony.

1.—Monocotyledones.

1. Palmae. 2. Piperite, the flowers of which are crowded into a close spike, including Arum. 3. Calamariae, or grass-like plants, not true grasses, as Carex, Typha, &c. 4. Graminae, or the true grasses. 5. Tripetaloidae, in which there were three petals (Linn.), as Juncus and Alisma. 6. Ensata, where the leaves are ensiform, and the corolla (Linn.) monopetalous. 7. Orchideae, with fleshy roots, and the flowers either furnished with a spur or of a singular construction; the filaments and style are united, and the ovary inferior. 8. Scitamineae, with herbaceous stems, very broad leaves, a triangular ovary beneath a liliaceous corolla. 9. Spathaceae are those lilies which have the flowers issuing from a large spathe. 10. Coronarieae, or lilies without a spathe, but with a corolla of six petals. 11. Sormentaceae, with weak stems and liliaceous flowers.

II.—Dicotyledones.

12. Holocereae, "plants tender or brittle in the mouth, and easy of digestion;" the flowers of no beauty. 13. Succulentae, with very thick fleshy leaves. 14. Gruminae, having a pentapetalous corolla, several pistils, and a long pointed capsule, as Geranium. 15. Inundatae, which grow in or under water, with flowers of no beauty. 16. Colyeiflora: here there is only a calyx, on which the stamens are inserted; but the genera put into this were afterwards referred elsewhere by Linnæus. 17. Calycanthemae, where the calyx is seated on the germen or ovarium, and the flowers are beautiful. 18. Ricorae, having the anthers provided with two long straight points or horns, as Erica, and several others having no real affinity. 19. Hesperideae, with evergreen leaves, fragrant flowers, and numerous stamens. 20. Rotaceae, having a rotate corolla. 21. Preciae, with handsome early spring flowers, as the primrose. 22. Caryophyllaceae, or those with a caryophyllaceous corolla. 23. Tribilaticeae, having a style with three stigmas, and winged or inflated capsules, as Melia, Malpighia, and Acer. 24. Corydaliae, flowers with a spur, or of a singular form, as in Epimedium and Pinguicula. 25. Putaminaceae, bearing fruit in a hard shell, as Capparis, and others not allied to each other. 26. Multisiliquae, with a fruit of many siliques, as Trollius. 27. Rheoideae, with a caducous calyx, and a capsule or siliqua. 28. Luridae, corresponding to the Solanaceae of Jussieu. 29. Campanaceae, with bell-shaped flowers, but otherwise an unnatural assemblage. 30. Confortae, with a twisted corolla, as Nerium and Vinca. 31. Vepreolae, having a monophyllous calyx, coloured like a corolla. 32. Papilionaceae, with papilionaceous flowers. 33. Lomentaceae, with a legume or lomentum, but not a papilionaceous flower. 34. Cucurbitaceae, as Cucumis and Passiflora. 35. Senticeae, comprehending many of the Rosaceae. 36. Pomaceae, as Amygdalus and Pyrus. 37. Columbineae, in which the stamens, as in Malva, unite and form a long tube. 38. Tricoccæ, with a trilocular capsule, as Euphorbia. 39. Siliqueae, corresponding to Tetradynamia in the artificial system. 40. Personate, the same as Didynamia angiosperma. 41. Asperfoliæ, having "four naked seeds" (Linn.), a monopetalous corolla, five stamens, one style, and rough leaves. 42. Verticillatae, those with labiate or ringent flowers, including some of Dianthera, and all Didynamia gymnosperma. 43. Dumasæ, shrubby plants, with a stem furnished with a soft pith: flowers small, the petals of four or five segments, as Sambucus, Rhamnus, &c. 44. Separiæ, shrubs, usually with a tubular corolla, and very few stamens, as Ligustrum. 45. Umbellatae, bearing an umbel of flowers, a pentapetalous corolla, five stamens, two styles, and "two naked seeds." 46. Hederaeae, with a quinqueflor corolla, five or ten stamens, a baccate fruit, and flowers in a corymb; Hedera and Vitis were here associated. 47. Stellatae, with a quadrifid corolla, four stamens, and two Taxaceae, "naked seeds." 48. Aggregatae, resembling the compound flowers, but with the anthers free. 49. Compositae, or the compound flowers. 50. Amentaceae, with the fruit in a catkin. 51. Coniferae, bearing a strobilus or cone. 52. Coniferae, which have several berries or fruits united into one, as Annona. 53. Scabridae, having rough leaves, and flowers of no attraction, as Urtica, Ficus, &c. 54. Miscellaneae, or those not referable to the preceding.

III.—Acotyledones.

55. Filices. 56. Musci. 57. Algae. 58. Fungi.

It will readily appear that many of these are very artificial, and some of the conjunctions quite improper; but, upon the whole, they exhibit a great resemblance in their external appearance, which Linnæus himself could not define in words.

We shall now advert to the French school of Botany: French and "here the learned and truly estimable Bernard de Jussieu, the contemporary of Linnæus in the earlier part of his career, first claims our notice. This great practical botanist, too diffident of his own knowledge, extensive as it was, to be over-anxious to stand forth as a teacher, did not promulgate any scheme of natural arrangement till the year 1759, when the royal botanic garden at Trianon was submitted to his direction. His system was published by his nephew in 1789, at the head of his own work, of which it makes the basis. It appears in the form of a simple list of genera, under the name of each order, without any definition, just like the Fragments of Linnæus, at the end of his Genera Plantarum.

"In 1768 a very active and zealous systematic, M. Adanson, made himself known to the world, by the publication of his Familles des Plantes. In this learned and ingenious, though whimsical and pedantic work, the great task of defining natural orders by technical characters is first attempted. His affected orthography and arbitrary nomenclature render it scarcely possible, without disgust, to trace his ideas; which, however, when developed, prove less original than they at first appear. His work is written avowedly to supersede the labours of Linnæus, against whom, after courting his correspondence, he took some personal displeasure; and yet many of his leading characters are borrowed from the sexual system. The discriminative marks of his fifty-eight families are taken from the following sources: leaves, sex of the flowers, situation of the flowers with respect to the germen, form and situation of the corolla, stamens, gemens, and seeds. Every family is divided into several sections, under each of which the genera are, in like manner, synoptically arranged, and discriminated by their leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, fruit, and seeds. In the detail of his system, Adanson labours to overset the principle, so much insisted on by Linnæus and his school, and to which the great names of Conrad Gesner and Casalpinus, are chiefly indebted for their botanical fame, that the genera of plants are to be characterized by the parts of fructification alone. The experienced botanist knows that this is often but a dispute of words; Linnæus having, in arranging the unbelliferous plants, resorted to the inflorescence, under the denomination of a receptacle; see his 45th natural order. But it appears to us that the characters deduced from thence are in themselves faulty, being often uncertain, and not seldom unnatural; and that the plants in question may be better discriminated by their flowers and seeds. Adanson however prefers the inflorescence, even in the Verticillate of Linnæus; for no reason, that we can discover, but because Linnæus has so much better defined the genera of those plants by the calyx and corol- It were a needless and ungrateful task to carp at the mistakes of this or any writer on natural classification, with regard to the places allotted for difficult genera, because the human intellect must falter in unravelling the intricate mysteries of Nature. But surely, when *Plantago* is placed with *Buddleia* in one section of the *Jasminaceae*, and *Dipsosia* with *Callicarpa* in another; when the most natural genus of *Lavandula* is divided and widely separated; when *Caryopteris* is ranged with *Stachys*, *Ericoculon*, and the *Protococcce*, in one place; *Gentiana* with *Melia*, *Rhus*, *Sepidium*, and *Ruta*, in another; we may be allowed to wonder, and to doubt whether we are contemplating a natural or an artificial system. It does not appear that Adanson made many proselytes. He haunted the botanical societies of Paris in our time, without associating with any; nor was his extensive knowledge turned to much practical account. Linnæus has made but one slight remark, that we can find, in his own copy of the *Familles des Plantes*, nor could he study deeply what was undoubtedly very difficult for him to read. He certainly never noticed Adanson's attacks, unless the satirical sketch of the *Botanophilus*, at the end of his *Regnum Vegetabile*, (see the beginning of *Synt. Veg.* ed. 14), be partly aimed at this author. To apply the whole of it to him would be unjust, though much is very characteristic.

The study of Botany had never been entirely neglected in France since the days of Tournefort; because one department in the Academy of Sciences was allotted to that and other branches of natural history; and the seats in the academy being pensioned places under government, there was something to be got by an apparent attention to such pursuits. Buxton and his pupils engrossed zoology. Botany was allowed to exist, so far as not to interfere with his honours; but nothing of foreign origin, and above all, nothing Linnæan, dared to lift up its head. Something of true science, and practical knowledge, did nevertheless imperceptibly work its way. Le Monnier, and the Marechal de Noailles, corresponded, as we have already said, with Linnæus, and acquired plants from England, of which they dared to speak, and to write, by his names. A most able and scientific botanist and cultivator, Thouin, was established in the Jardin du Roi, who studied the Linnæan system, and even ventured, though secretly, to communicate new plants to the younger Linnæus when at Paris. Cels, an excellent horticulturist, was unshackled by academic trammels. L'Héritier, Broussonet, and others, came forward. An original letter of Rousseau, the idol of the day, in which he paid the most flattering homage to botany and to Linnæus, was published in the *Journal de Paris*, and had a wonderful effect on the public mind, and on the conversation of literary circles. In short, a Linnæan party had been, for some time, gaining ground; and every thing was done by party at Paris. The old French school was roused from its slumber. Of the family of the Jussieus, one individual remained, who, though he venerated the names and the pursuits of his uncles, had never devoted himself to their studies any further than to sit in their professorial chair. He possessed, however, an inherent taste for botany; he had leisure, opulence, and eminent talents; and though his religious principles, and his rather strict devotional habits, might interfere, which they still do, with his credit in certain philosophical circles, and his predilection for animal magnetism might exclude him from the Royal Society of London, yet he has risen above all such obstacles, to the summit of botanical fame and authority in his own country; and his name stands conspicuous, as the leading teacher of a na-

Sir J. E. Smith in *Encycl. Brit.* sixth ed. Supp. vol. ii. p. 415 and 416. her laws; and to know these we must first obtain a precise idea of the organization of plants, studying minutely all their parts, and the functions of each. This we have already attempted to elucidate under the head of Glossology. We now come to examine into the relative importance of these organs, in order that we may derive from them a classification according to nature.

When different seeds taken from the same plant are made to germinate, we have individuals not entirely agreeing in the shape of the leaves, or the height of the stem; from which we may infer that characters derived from these are of the least importance; and consequently, when we form species, we must use such with great caution. But when we rise a step higher, and group species into genera, we find so great a variety in both the stem and leaves, that we are forced to look for characters elsewhere, and thus resort to the different parts of the flower; and all genera are therefore founded on a consideration of these.

When, however, we come to examine a genus by itself, we shall find that perhaps none of these parts are sufficiently constant, some species differing from others in the number or shape of the sepals, or petals, or stamens, or pistils, so that we are obliged to call into action not any particular one, but a combination of the whole. While doing this, it cannot escape our notice that the more external portions, as the calyx, exhibiting more of the foliaceous origin, are less constant than the petals; and these again less so than the stamens; but the stamens and pistils having least of the structure of the original leaf, are the most uniform; and hence Linnæus, influenced principally however by these being the true sexual organs, adopted the stamens and pistils as the basis of his system.

Now we have already said that, in many natural genera, plants differ from one another only specifically, although there happen to be a difference in the number of parts of the reproductive organs. Number, then, not being at all times sufficient to constitute a genus, can still less be relied on for a higher division. The structure must thus be considered; and this we not only find common to the species of a genus, but even often to different genera so allied in aspect that at first we might consider them all as one great genus; and such a great genus being in fact an order, we are led, while defining it, to place considerable dependence on the structure of the anthers, but more especially on the fruit, the ultimate metamorphosis of the primary leaf. But on comparing together two or more orders otherwise very closely allied, we often perceive very different structures of the fruit; so that, in search of something more fixed, we are compelled to dip still deeper into the economy of the plant, and examine the seed. Here, indeed, we find a great diversity in the external form; but on scrutinizing the interior, particularly the embryo, or the very rudiment of the plant, we find only two modifications; and each of these, after having opened different seeds, we perceive to be constant to a very great class of plants united together, whether by the structure of the fruit, the number of stamens, or by the flower, or by the anatomy of the stems, or by the leaves. These modifications of the embryo, resting on there being one or two cotyledons, must thus form the groundwork of a natural method: it was already foreseen by Linnæus, but was demonstrated by Jussieu. We only here allude to those plants in which a seed and embryo exists; for the very principle we have laid down implies its existence. A primary division, then, pointed out by nature, is therefore obviously into those with flowers and those that have none, or into those which have seeds and an embryo, and such as have neither true seeds nor an embryo.

First, then, we have a division into Exembryonate and Embryonate vegetables; and, secondly, the Embryonate divides into those with one and those with two cotyledons, which was no sooner fixed than many corresponding differences of structure became perceptible. Thus Monocotyledones show a radicle that projects the root through a covering. The divisions of the flower are ternary; the leaves are curviverted, primarily alternate or spiral, but indicating a disposition to become opposite at the summit of the plant; the stem is cylindrical, and increasing in diameter from within by an expansion of the vascular fibre. The Dicotyledones, on the contrary, have opposite cotyledons; the radicle of the embryo becomes a root by mere development; the division of the flower is usually quinary; the leaves are angulineved, and primarily opposite or verticillate, with a tendency to become alternate towards the inflorescence; the stem is conical, with a bark, and both increasing by concentric layers, the stem from without, the bark from within.

Having thus attained primary divisions with important secondary and constant characters, we are next to proceed to subdivide these into orders; but in doing this we must observe, that though it be quite possible to group genera into orders, and to place these orders in one of the great divisions above given, it is almost impracticable to place them satisfactorily one after the other so as to constitute a book. Each order is not allied merely to the one that precedes and that which follows it, but approaches more or less to several others. In arranging them, then, in a linear series, all that we can attempt is to place those next each other that have common characters of most value or of greatest number; and as the value and number of these are added to or diminished by the discovery of new plants and modern analyses, we must expect daily changes to take place. In this consists the difficulty of the natural method, when compared with a purely artificial one; but these difficulties are from time to time smoothed down, so that ultimately it will be viewed as the only useful one, while the artificial system will be entirely neglected, except by those whose desires extend no farther than to make out the name of a vegetable.

Jussieu considered the whole floral envelopes of the Monocotyledones as a calyx, whether coloured or green; and observing that a portion of the Dicotyledones were also destitute of a corolla, he laid hold of this to divide them into two parts, as had been already done by Tournefort: at the same time he separated those with a corolla into one and many-petaled. These sections, however, being artificial, cannot be entirely depended on in practice, many species belonging to a polypetalous order having the corolla abortive; while again, as in the Pentapetaloidese of Ray, several of those also with a polypetalous corolla have the ungules or claws united, so that it is in reality a monopetalous one, although arranged with the other. Linnæus had already introduced the insertion of the stamens to distinguish his class Icosandria from Polyandria; and this bringing together plants tolerably nearly allied in other respects, Jussieu extended the idea, and having observed that stamens not hypogynous were either perigynous or epigynous, he made use of these three characters to subdivide both the Monocotyledones and each of the sections of the Dicotyledonous plants. Only one of these he found necessary further to divide, in order to separate Syngenesia of Linnæus from those approximated to them in several other characters, but of a different habit or appearance, and had here recourse to the union or separation of the anthers. These ultimate subdivisions he termed classes, and to the end of them he appended one consisting of such Dicotyledones as had the flowers unisexual, and were therefore principally contained in the 21st, 22d, and 23d classes of Linnæus. We have already seen, in treating of the parts of a flower, that the stamens and corolla have always the same insertion, and that when a corolla is gamopetalous, or, in common language, monopetalous, the cause that unites the petals often also makes part of the filaments adhere to it. Among the monopetalous plants, then, to prevent confusion, Jussieu, instead of saying that the stamens were hypogynous or perigynous, speaks of the insertion of the corolla; and, with these remarks, we may now present the fifteen classes of Jussieu.

I.—Cotyledons none.

Cl. 1. Acotyledones.

II.—Monocotyledones.

2. Monohypogynae, stamens hypogynous. 3. Monoperigynae, stamens perigynous. 4. Monoepigynae, stamens epigynous.

III.—Dicotyledones.

§ 1. Apetalae.

5. Epistaminaceae, stamens epigynous. 6. Peristaminaceae, stamens perigynous. 7. Hypostaminaceae, stamens hypogynous.

§ 2. Monopetalae.

8. Hypocorollae, corolla hypogynous. 9. Pericorollae, corolla perigynous. 10. Epicorollae synantherae, corolla epigynous, anthers united. 11. Epicorollae corisantherae, corolla epigynous, anthers free.

§ 3. Polypetalae.

12. Epipetalae, stamens epigynous. 13. Peripetalae, stamens perigynous. 14. Hypopetalae, stamens hypogynous.

§ 4. Dielines.

15. Dielines, flowers unisexual, or without a perianth.

Such was the groundwork of the system which, though in some things artificial, was instantly perceived to bear the palm from all that preceded it; and this, without any alteration, is still adhered to in France by many of the most eminent botanists. Jussieu originally prefixed no names to his classes, and the want of this was much objected to. Those which we have given have been lately proposed by Antoine L. de Jussieu in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles; and, although not entirely according to the principles of the Greek language, may be adopted as extremely useful, each being so framed as to suggest the structure of the class. Thus the commencement Mono indicates the Monocotyledones. Epistaminae, &c., having no allusion to a corolla, suggests its absence. Hypocorolla, and the others, allude to the corolla being of one piece, and not of distinct petals, which last is pointed out by names Epipetalae, &c. The other parts of the names, epi, peri, and hypo, need no explanation.

While engaged in the study of plants alone, it is obviously of little consequence whether we begin, as Jussieu did, by the Acotyledones, or by the Dicotyledones; but if we view botany as a science that treats of only one of the great kingdoms of nature, and wish to introduce it into a Systema Naturae, we must bring those portions of each most closely together which are most nearly linked. So that if we commence by Zoology, we must first describe the Mammalia, and end by those of a simpler structure, and then take up the most allied of the Acotyledones, and follow the steps of Jussieu. But if we describe vegetables in the first place, we must begin with the Dicotyledones, Taxono, and finish with the Acotyledones. When, however, a Systema Vegetabilium is contemplated without reference to animals, it may perhaps smooth the way to the student if it commences by those more obvious, and, though of more complex formation, yet more simple to be comprehended. On this account De Candolle has reversed the arrangement of Jussieu.

We have said that in some respects the system of Jus Modified sieu is artificial, and therefore his orders need not necessarily follow each other precisely as he has left them. De Candolle accordingly divides the Dicotyledones into Thalamiflorae, or those whose petals are distinct and hypogynous; Calyciflorae, having the petals either distinct or united, but always inserted on the calyx; Corolliflorae, with the petals united, and hypogynous, and bearing the stamens; and Monochlamydeae, with a simple perianth or perigonium. Moreover, he derives his characters for all these united, not from the cotyledons, but from the structure of the stem, and terms them Exogene; and in a similar way he calls Monocotyledones by the name of Endogene, with this alteration, that he supposes the ferns and allied plants, which in another part we have termed Dicotulosae, to have the same structure of a stamen as the Monocotyledones, and therefore divides the Endogeneae into Phanerogamae and Cryptogamae. The other Acotyledones, named by him Cellularae, from their entire homogeneity of cellular tissue, conclude the system. Although he has given us an arranged catalogue of the orders in his Theorie Elementaire, which, however, he has considerably altered in his Prodromus, now publishing; yet he has scarcely exhibited any subdivisions of his principal groups. It may be, however, useful to present the following sketch of his, contrasted as much as possible with that of Jussieu.

A. Exogene (De Candolle). Dicotyledones (Jussieu).

I. Thalamiflorae........... 1. Hypopetalae. 2. Peripetalae. 3. Epipetalae. 4. Epicorollae corisantherae. 5. Epicorollae synantherae. 6. Pericorollae. 7. Hypocorollae. 8. Hypostaminaceae. 9. Peristaminaceae. 10. Epistaminaceae. 11. Dielines.

B. Endogene.

V. Phanerogamae........... 12. Monoepigynae. 13. Monoperigynae. 14. Monohypogynae.

VI. Cryptogamae........... C. Cellularae.

VII. Cellularae............. 15. Acotyledones.

From the above it will be perceived, although some sneer at the natural system, because they do not understand it, and assert that every one has a method of his own, and quote De Candolle's as extremely distinct from that of Jussieu, that it is in fact founded on, and not differing in any essential point from, that of the Parisian botanist.

Mr Lindley, in his Introduction to the Natural System by Mr of Botany, has discarded nearly all these subdivisions as Lindley's empirical, and substituted in their place one derived from the ovulum, being protected by a pericarp, or exposed without any covering to the influence of the pollen. This last is of very great importance, and is worthy of being

Second Edition, p. 213. (1819). adopted; but any one who has glanced at his volume must have soon felt the great want of more minute divisions than he has adopted, however artificial they might be; nor do we think that he has compensated for the deficiency by a more judicious disposition of the orders.

We ourselves shall follow pretty closely that given by De Candolle, because, from his publishing a work containing all the known species arranged according to it, it is almost the only one that can be of use to a student of species. But while we do so, we shall subdivide his groups in the manner recommended by Jussieu; not that they are to be implicitly trusted, but that they may in some measure assist the reader while referring to the orders.

We must now advert to the orders themselves; and these being great natural genera, in order to obtain characters for them, we must have an intimate knowledge of the structure of the organs of the component genera and species, so as to select such as are common to all, and of the greatest importance. Botanists having seen that the embryo gave most fixed characters for a general division, have looked to it also, and to the structure of the seed, as of great influence in limiting each order individually. This view was altogether omitted by Jussieu at the time the Genera Plantarum was given to the world, but is now frequently adopted as a criterion, when other and more easily examined points fail. The structure of the fruit we have already said to be useful for defining genera, and consequently must not be passed over while circumscribing an order; nor must the position of the seed be omitted. As to the carpel, the stigma affords few good marks; but the ovarium must be strictly attended to, especially as a contrast to the mature fruit, many plants having two or three cells in the ovarium, and but one by abortion in the fruit. Thus the structure of the ovarium is in several of greater importance than that of the fruit. The apocarpous or syncarpous nature of the ovarium, upon which we have already dwelt, must be noticed. The position of the placenta and the ovules has likewise been esteemed of great value. The stamens, whether viewed relatively to their insertion, their adherence, proportional size, or number, and particularly the structure of the anther, and even the pollen, all indicate greater or less affinities in other points.

The floral envelopes must be considered in all their bearings, and even the inflorescence must not be neglected. The relative position, also, of one part of a flower to another, whether the number be symmetrical or complete, enables us often to clear up many difficulties. But it is not one of these alone in which we are to confide, but in a combination of them: two orders, differing solely by one character, being too closely allied, had better be united; a clavis analytica, therefore, such as has been given by Mr Lindley in his introduction, can convey to us almost no idea of the orders, and, besides, has the disadvantage of not exhibiting the anomalies that so frequently occur.

Having exhausted all the parts of the flower, we may then turn our attention to the leaves; and here we may take advantage of a character that is intimately connected with the habit or external aspect of the order, and is consequently truly natural; we allude to the leaves being opposite or alternate, and with or without stipules. The presence or absence of pellucid dots, exhibiting a peculiar organization in the plant, must be carefully observed. Compound or simple leaves are often of use to enable us to refer a plant to a particular order. The mere shape of leaves is too variable, but the venation, or disposition of the nerves, upon which the shape of the leaf depends, as the fruit does upon the ovary, although hitherto not much attended to, seems in many cases of considerable importance. As to the stem, the external variations, as erect or climbing, square or round, sometimes aid us, but in most orders afford us no assistance. The root has been rarely found of any avail.

We have again and again stated that we are not to take classes the characters of orders from any one organ individually, but from several. Each order may thus be expected to possess some points in common with several other orders, and by the number of these, and their value, as found from experience, we are able to trace the affinity between any one, and those that ought to be arranged in its vicinity. When several very important points are nearly the same in four or five different orders, though distinct in many others, a greater approximation is visible between themselves, than any of them exhibits to other orders: this has induced Mr Brown to propose to erect orders into classes of a different kind from those of Jussieu; and he has happily succeeded in accomplishing this in several instances. Very few such classes or aggregate orders have, however, yet been formed, and therefore we shall not enter into their consideration farther than merely remark that this is, at present, greatly to be desired in the natural method, and that, when it shall be accomplished, and the whole distributed among a few great compound orders, we may be able to do away entirely with even the slight remains we now must admit into it, of an artificial or empirical arrangement.

It is now time that we proceed to enumerate and lay down the characters of the orders themselves. Jussieu constituted a hundred, and subjoined a list of many genera, either so little known, or so ill defined, that he could not refer them. By degrees, however, as light was thrown upon them, some were entered into known orders, while others exhibited the necessity of constructing additional ones. In his Théorie Élémentaire, in 1819, De Candolle enumerates 161 orders, but has since admitted many new ones in his Prodromus. Richard, in 1828, describes 162, but omits a few which he considered not well understood. Rudolphi, in 1830, gives 276; and about the same time Mr Lindley has 272. Both Rudolphi and Lindley, however, carry the system of subdivision perhaps to excess; but as our object is here to give a view of the science at the present day, we shall admit almost all of them, arranging, however, the minor ones under a general head, to which, for conciseness, we shall give no character, and which may be viewed, if one pleases, as a class. To as short a definition of the orders as possible we shall annex a few remarks, which we trust may render this department more interesting.

ARRANGEMENT AND CHARACTERS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

I. VASCULARES.

A. EXOGENAE DE CAND. (DICOTYLEDONES JUSS.)

DIV. I.—Dichlamydeae Thalamiflorae. D. C.

(1. Hypopetalae.) Juss.

Order 1. Ranunculaceae. Juss.

Sub-order 1. Ranunculinæ. Sepals distinct, various in number, from three to fifteen, but usually five, deciduous; estivation generally imbricated, sometimes valvate.

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1 In the divisions with several petals, the petals are sometimes, though rarely, abortive; it is then difficult to decide whether the plant comes here or belongs to the monochlamydeæ. Corolla of 5-15 petals (or absent by abortion), distinct. Stamens distinct, indefinite in number; anthers adnate, extrorse. Ovaria seated on the torus, indefinite, or rarely (by abortion) solitary, usually apocarpous, and rarely somewhat syncarpous: style one to each ovary, simple; ovules solitary or several, adhering to the inner edge. Carpels various, either achenia which are sometimes baccate, or follicular with 1-2 valves. Albumen between fleshy and horny. Embryo minute, inclosed in the albumen near its base.—Herbaceous, suffrutescent, or rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, or sometimes opposite, simple but variously divided: petiole dilated and forming a sheath half-clasping the stem. Hairs, when present, simple.

—Ex. Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Helieborus.

Suborder 2. Cimicifugae. Sepals 4-5, distinct, deciduous: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, distinct. Stamens distinct, indefinite: anthers adnate, introrse. Ovaria seated on the torus, apocarpous, indefinite or rarely solitary: styles simple; ovules 2-3, or more, in each ovary, adhering to the inner margin. Carpels follicular or baccate. Seeds several or solitary, exarillate. Albumen between fleshy and horny. Embryo minute, inclosed at the base of the albumen.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent. Leaves simple, divided, alternate. Flowers racemose.

—Ex. Cimicifuga, Actaea, Zanthorrhiza.

Suborder 3. Paeoniacae. Sepals five, foliaceous, persistent, unequal: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sometimes 6-10 by culture, distinct, somewhat equal, destitute of claws: estivation imbricated. Stamens very numerous: anthers adnate, introrse. Torus large, fleshy, annular, surrounding the base of the ovaria. Ovaria 2-5, apocarpous: style none: stigmas sessile, thick, of two lamellae: ovules numerous. Carpels follicular, tipped with the persistent stigmas, opening above by a longitudinal suture. Seeds several, exarillate: umbilicus prominent. Embryo minute, straight, inclosed at the base of the fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous or shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, divided. Flowers terminal, solitary, large.—Ex. Paeonia.

The first suborder is usually divided into four, Clematidaceae, Anemonaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Helieborinaceae, distinguished by a combination of the estivation, and position of the seed; but as it appears probable that in the ovarium there is always at least two ovules, so the position of the seed, whether erect or pendulous, must depend entirely on which of the ovules, the upper or lower, becomes abortive. In general terms the Ranunculaceae may be known from other Hypopetalae by having adnate anthers that dehisce longitudinally, by a fruit of several distinct simple carpels, by a horny albumen, exarillate seeds, and exstipulate sheathing leaves.—Acridity, causticity, and poison, are the general characters of this order.

Order 2. Dilleniaceae. D. C.

Sepals five, persistent. Corolla of five petals, deciduous, in a single row. Stamens numerous; filaments dilated either at the base or apex. Anthers adnate, introrse, bursting longitudinally. Ovaria definite, more or less distinct, with a terminal style and simple stigma; ovules ascending. Fruit of 2-5 distinct unilocular carpels, or of a similar number cohering together; the carpels are either capsular or baccate, and pointed by the style. Seeds several in each carpel, or only two or one by abortion, surrounded by a pulpy arillus. Testa hard. Embryo straight, minute, at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, or rarely opposite, without stipules.—Ex. Delima, Dillenia.

Known by the longitudinally dehiscing anthers, distinct arrangement of carpels, arillate seeds, fleshy albumen, and exstipulate leaves. In some genera, however, there is but one carpel, and in a few others they partially cohere. They are trees or shrubs, or even undershrubs.—They are generally astringent; most have the leaves covered with asperities, which are sometimes so hard as to permit of their use for polishing.

Order 3. Magnoliaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Winterae. R. Br. Sepals 2-6, deciduous or persistent. Petals 2-30 (when more than five, in several rows). Stamens indefinite, distinct: anthers adnate, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovaria definite in one verticil, one-celled, ovules suspended. Stigmas sessile. Fruit of distinct carpels. Embryo very small, straight in the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, transparently dotted, coriaceous, with convolute deciduous stipules.—Ex. Illicium, Wintera.

Suborder 2. Magnoliacae. Juss. Sepals 3-6, deciduous. Petals 3-27, in several rows. Stamens indefinite, distinct; anthers adnate, long, bursting longitudinally. Ovaries numerous in several rows, one-celled: ovules ascending or suspended: styles short. Fruit of numerous carpels, which are either dehiscent or indehiscent, distinct or partially connate, sometimes samaroid. Embryo minute at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, not dotted, coriaceous, with deciduous convolute stipules.—Ex. Magnolia, Liriodendron.

These two suborders, scarcely distinguishable from each other but by their leaves, may be characterized by their longitudinally dehiscing anthers, apocarpous ovaria, and stipulate leaves.—The first tribe is aromatic and stimulant; and the Drimys Winteri yields the winter's bark, well known for its resemblance to cinnamon. The second is not at all aromatic; but the flowers, which are large, are often strongly odoriferous; they have a bitter tonic taste, but the bark does not seem to possess either tannin or gallic acid. The bark of the tulip-tree has been said to equal Peruvian bark.

Order 4. Anonaceae. Juss.

Sepals 3-4, persistent, often partially cohering. Petals 6, in two rows, coriaceous; estivation valvular. Stamens indefinite (very rarely definite): anthers adnate, extrorse, with a large connectivum. Ovaries usually numerous, separate or sometimes cohering, rarely definite: ovules solitary or several, erect or ascending. Fruit of a number of succulent or dry carpella, that are one or many-seeded, and distinct, or concrete into a fleshy mass. Tests of the seed brittle. Embryo minute at the base of a hard fleshy ruminated albumen.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, without stipules.—Ex. Anona, Guatteria.

The apocarpous ovaria, ruminated albumen, and exstipulate leaves, are the general characteristics of this order.—Almost all possess a powerful aromatic taste and smell; in some the fruit contains much sugary mucilage, and is succulent and eatable; of this kind are the custard-apples, and the celebrated Cherimolia of Peru.

Order 5. Menispermaceae. Juss.

Flowers usually unisexual, and very small. Sepals and petals having the same appearance, in one or several rows; three or four in each row, deciduous. Stamens monadelphous or occasionally free, sometimes opposite to the petals and equal to them in number, sometimes three or four times as many: anthers adnate, extrorse. Ovaria usually numerous, free or slightly united by their inner margin, unilocular. Drupes baccate, one-seeded, oblique,

For the sake of brevity, we shall seldom state, under the respective orders, that the stamens or petals are hypogynous or perigynous, trusting that this may be inferred from the divisions Hypopetalae, Peripetalae, and the like, which we have already explained. When, however, there is any discrepancy, we shall notice it.

Arrangement and Characters.

Lunate, and compressed, or rarely a multilocular berry, with the cells many-seeded. Embryo curved, radicle superior. Albumen none, or in small quantity and fleshy.—Climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves and very minute flowers.—Ex. Menispermum, Cissampelos.

The stamens opposite the petals, apocarpous ovaria, minute unisexual flowers, and twining shrubby stems, point out this order.—The root of several species is bitter and tonic, and of some the seeds are narcotic. A few have been used in intermittent fevers. The columbo root, so esteemed for its tonic, antiseptic, and astringent qualities, belongs to the genus Menispermum.

Order 6. Berberideae. Vent.

Sepals 3-4-6, deciduous, in a double row, accompanied externally with petaloid scales. Petals equal to the sepals in number and opposite to them, or twice as many; often furnished in the inside with an appendage at the base. Stamens equal in number to the petals and opposite to them; anthers bilocular, the cells opening elastically with a valve from the bottom to the top. Ovarium solitary, unicellular, containing 2-12 ovules, which are erect, or attached laterally to the inner margin, and forming there one or two rows; style sometimes lateral, short; stigma orbicular. Fruit baccate or capsular, indehiscent. Albumen fleshy or horny. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen; radicle pointing to the hilum; cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, without stipules.—Ex. Berberis, Leontice.

The single simple carpel, stamens opposite to the petals, and the anthers opening by valves, will readily distinguish this from the other Hypopetalae. This kind of anther is of rare occurrence, but equally exists in the Laurineae, Hamamelideae, and Atherospermae. There are no stipules, the spines being the true leaves, of which the parenchyma has disappeared, and the nerves become indurated: what are commonly called leaves are those formed by the development of the leaf-buds. All are articulated with the petiole, and hence the leaves are in reality compound, although apparently simple. The stamens of many exhibit great irritability.—The berries of some species of Berberis are acid and astringent, and form with sugar an agreeable preserve.

Order 7. Podophyllaceae. D.C.

Sepals 3-4. Petals in two or three rows, each equal in number to the sepals. Stamens 12-18, arranged in two, three, or more rows; filaments filiform; anthers terminal, introrse, opening by a double longitudinal line. Torus small. Ovary solitary: style one, short; stigma somewhat peltate. Fruit succulent or a capsule, one-celled. Seeds indefinite, attached to a lateral placenta. Embryo small, at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Plants herbaceous. Leaves broad and lobed, without stipules.—Ex. Podophyllum, Jeffersonia.

This order is allied to the Berberideae, to the last tribe of Ranunculaceae, and to Papaveraceae, with which some botanists unite it.—The roots possess purgative properties.

Order 8. Hydropeltideae. D.C.

Sepals 3-4. Petals 3-4, alternate with the sepals. Stamens two or more times the number of the petals: anthers linear, introrse, continuous with the filament. Torus inconspicuous. Ovaries two or more, stigmas simple. Fruit indehiscent, tipped with the indurated styles, containing one or two pendulous seeds. Embryo inclosed in the endosperm, is fungilliform, and seated at the base of a firm somewhat fleshy perisperm.—Aquatic plants, with floating leaves.—Ex. Hydropeltis, Colomba.

The situation of this order was formerly involved in some doubt, as Richard, mistaking the endosperm, insisted that the embryo was fungilliform, or shaped like a little mushroom or a small nail, and perfectly monocotyledo-

nous. De Candolle unites it to Podophyllaceae as a section. In some points the above, and the only two genera, approach very closely to the Nymphaceae, to which Brown unites them; and Hydropeltis is somewhat related to Caltha among the Ranunculaceae.

Order 9. Nymphaceae. Salisb.

Suborder 1. Nelumboneae. D.C. Sepals 4-5. Petals numerous in many rows. Stamens indefinite in several rows: filaments petaloid: anthers adnate, introrse, opening by a double longitudinal cleft. Torus fleshy, elevated, very large, inclosing in hollows of its substance the numerous separate ovaria, which have a simple style and stigma. Nuts inserted, but loose, in the hollows of the torus, 1-2-seeded. Perisperm 0: endosperm conspicuous. Embryo large, with two fleshy cotyledons.—Aquatic herbs with peltate leaves. Ex. Nelumbo.

Suborder 2. Nymphaceae. D.C. Sepals and petals numerous, passing into each other. Stamens indefinite, in several rows: filaments petaloid: anthers adnate, introrse, opening by two longitudinal clefts. Torus large, fleshy, surrounding more or less completely the ovaria, styles, and stigmas. Ovaria apocarps, attached to the inside of the bottle-shaped, indehiscent torus, on the top of which are the radiate stigmas. Seeds very numerous in each carpel, attached to spongy placenta that form the false dissepiments of the fruit. Endosperm fleshy, and, with the enclosed embryo, seated on the outside of the base of the farnaceous perisperm: cotyledons foliaceous.—Aquatic herbs, with peltate or cordate fleshy leaves.—Ex. Nymphaea, Nuphar.

We cannot see that these tribes can be separated, and we almost coincide with Brown, that the Hydropeltideae may be added to this order. We have already (p. 49) sufficiently explained the structure of the fruit of Nuphar.—Their medical properties are not well understood, but they are reputed to be narcotic and sedative.

Order 10. Sarraceniacae. Turp.

Sepals five, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five. Stamens indefinite: anthers adnate, bilocular, bursting internally and longitudinally. Ovary five-celled: style single: stigma persistent, much dilated, peltate, with five angles. Capsule quinque-locular, valves five, loculicidic. Seeds very numerous, small: placenta large at the inner angle of the cells. Albumen copious. Embryo cylindrical, lying near the base of the seed, with the radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous bog plants. Leaves radical, with a hollow petiole, at the apex of which is the lamina covering the orifice of the petiole like a lid. Scapes one-flowered.—Ex. Sarracenia.

On account of the stigma this family has been usually placed near Papaveraceae. Mr Lindley suggests its affinity to Dionaea, wherever that be placed.

Order 11. Papaveraceae. Juss.

Sepals two, deciduous. Petals four cruciate (or a multiple of four), regular, rarely wanting. Stamens eight, or some multiple of four, usually indefinite, inserted in four parcels, one of which adheres to the base of each petal: anthers bilocular, erect. Ovary solitary: style short or none: stigmas alternate with the placentae, two or many, in which case they are stellate on the flat apex of the ovarium. Fruit one-celled, either siliqueform with two, or capsular with several, parietal placentae. Seeds numerous. Albumen between fleshy and oily, at the base of which is a minute straight embryo, with plano-convex cotyledons.—Plants herbaceous or shrubby, with a milky juice. Leaves alternate, divided. Peduncles long, one-flowered.—Ex. Papaver, Eschscholtzia (Plate CXXII.)

This order approaches to the Podophyllaceae on the one hand, and to the Cruciferae on the other. In Eschscholtzia the apex of the peduncle dilates, and bears on it the organs of reproduction; the calyx in it is apparently of one piece, and separates like an operculum from the very base.

Narcotic properties prevail in this family, except in the seed, which is oily. The narcotic principle of opium is an alkaline substance called Morphia.

Order 12. Fumariaceae. D.C.

Sepals two, deciduous. Petals four, cruciate, one or both of the two outer saccate at the base, the two inner callous at the apex, where they cohere and inclose the anthers and stigma. Stamens six, diadelphous, opposite the outer petals; anthers of the middle stamens of each parcel two-celled, of the outer ones one-celled. Ovary one-celled; style filiform, stigma with two or more points. Fruit a one-seeded utricle, or a two-valved, two-seeded, indehiscent capsule, or a two-valved, polyspermous stigma. Seeds with an arillus attached to narrow parietal placentae. Albumen fleshy. Embryo nearly straight, minute, eccentric.

Herbaceous plants, with a watery juice. Leaves alternate, multifid.—Ex. Fumaria, Dielytra.

Nearly allied to the last order, but distinct in the definite diadelphous stamens and irregular corolla. The central anthers being alone bilocular, suggests that two of the others make but one, or that there is in reality here but four stamens, one before each petal. And even Mr Lindley has demonstrated that the inner petals form a corolla, while the outer ought to be viewed as sepals; the deciduous sepals above described would thus be bracteae.—The Fumariaceae are slightly bitter, and act as diaphoretics and aperients.

Order 13. Cruciferae. Juss.

Sepals four; two corresponding to the two stigmas are anterior and posterior, and narrower than the others; two are lateral, or corresponding to the valves, broader, concave at the base, gibbous or spurred. Corolla cruciform. Petals four, alternate with the sepals, nearly equal, deciduous. Stamens six; the two opposite the lateral sepals are solitary, shorter, and occasionally toothed; four in pairs opposite the anterior and posterior sepals, longer, generally free, sometimes connate, or furnished with a tooth on the inside; anthers bilocular, introrse. Torus with several green glands between the petals and the stamens, and ovarium. Ovarium syncarpous, bilocular. Placentae parietal, usually meeting in the middle, and forming a spurious dissepiment. Stigmas two, opposite the placentae, or anterior and posterior. Fruit a silique or silicule, rarely one-celled and indehiscent, usually spuriously bilocular, and dehiscing by two valves separating from the placentae; one or many-seeded. Seeds campylotropous, pendulous, attached in a single row by a funicle to each side of the placentae. Albumen none. Embryo with the radicle folded up on the cotyledons, which are next the placentae.—Herbaceous plants, or very seldom suffruticosæ. Leaves alternate.—Ex. Draba, Lepidium, Sinapis, Bunias.

This order having six tetradyamous stamens, can scarcely be confounded with any other. We have already explained (p. 49) the structure of the fruit according as Mr Lindley and we understand it. Mr Brown gives a different explanation, upon which we have not room to enter.—The general character of the Cruciferae is to possess antiscorbutic and stimulant qualities, with an acid flavour. They contain much azote, and have therefore, when in a putrescent state, been occasionally used in the manufacture of Prussian blue, when the horns and hoofs of cattle could not be had in sufficient quantity.

Order 14. Capparideæ. Juss.

Sepals four. Petals four, cruciate, usually unguiculate and unequal. Stamens four, six, or indefinite, but in general some high multiple of four. Torus hemispherical or elongated, often bearing glands. Ovary stalked; style one, filiform, or sometimes none. Fruit unilocular, sili-arrange-queueform, or fleshy and indehiscent, rarely one-seeded, ment and usually with two polyspermous placentæ at the margin of Characters. The valves or carpels. Seeds generally reniform, with a thickened tegmen. Albumen none. Embryo incurved; cotyledons foliaceous, somewhat flat.—Leaves alternate, stalked, undivided, or palmate. Stipules none, or spi-nescient.—Ex. Cleome, Capparis.

Allied to Cruciferae: indeed Linnaeus arranged some of the genera in Tetradynamia. The stipitate ovarium, and the fruit, indicates some affinity to Passifloræ.—The properties are not very dissimilar from those of the last order. The root of Cleome dodecandra is used as a vermifuge.

Order 15. Resedaceæ. D.C.

Sepals 4-6, persistent. Petals 4-6, alternate with the sepals, unequal; the upper ones with a scale-like claw and palmatipartite limb, the lateral ones 2-3-lobed, the lower smaller and entire. Stamens 10-24: filaments more or less and variously united; anthers bilocular, erect, opening longitudinally. Torus very short, or resembling a stipes, bearing under the stamens an obtuse nectariferous scale. Ovaria 3-6, each with one style, free, or united into a syncarpous ovary. Fruit of 3-6 few-seeded follicles, dehiscing internally; or a capsule, unilocular, polyspermous, 3-6-valved, indehiscent except at the apex. Placentæ parietal in the middle of the valves or follicles. Seeds somewhat pendulous, the testa crustaceous. Albumen very thin and fleshy. Embryo curved: radicle superior: cotyledons fleshy.—Herbaceous plants, with alternate leaves; stipules none, or represented by glands.—Ex. Reseda.

Most botanists agree in bringing this family near to the Capparideæ, except Mr Lindley, who conceives it to be more nearly allied to Euphorbiaceæ and Datisceæ.—Reseda luteola yields a yellow dye, and R. odorata or Mignonette is well known for its fragrant flowers.

Order 16. Flacourtiaceæ. Rich.

Sepals 4-7, cohering slightly at the base. Petals equal in number to, and alternate with, the sepals, sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number to the petals or some multiple of them, occasionally changed into nectariferous scales. Ovary roundish, sessile or slightly stalked; style none, or filiform; stigmas several, more or less distinct. Fruit unilocular, containing a thin pulp, either fleshy and indehiscent, or capsular with 4-5 valves. Placentæ parietal, branching all over the inner surface of the valves. Seeds few, thick, often enveloped in a pellicle formed by the withered pulp. Albumen fleshy, somewhat oily. Embryo straight in the axis, with the radicle turned towards the hilum; cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, simple, without stipules. Flowers sometimes unisexual.—Ex. Patrisia, Flacourtia, Kiggelaria, Erythropoerum.

The peculiar placentæ of this order occurs in no other of the Dicotyledones. In some things they resemble the Capparideæ.—The fruit of several species of Flacourtia is eaten; that of Hydnocarpus is used in Ceylon for poisoning fish, which at the same time renders them unfit for food.

Order 17. Bixaceæ. Kunth.

Sepals 4-7, distinct, or cohering at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals five, resembling the sepals, or none. Stamens indefinite, free, inserted on the discoid torus; anthers bilocular. Ovary sessile, one-celled; ovules attached to 2-7, narrow, parietal placentæ; style single, or 2-4 cleft. Fruit capsular or baccate, one-celled, many seeded; placentæ in the middle of the valves. Seeds enveloped in pulp. Albumen fleshy, or very thin, including the embryo, which is slightly curved; radicle pointing to the hilum; cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, simple, with deciduous stipules.—Ex. Prochia.

From the last family this is chiefly to be distinguished by the narrow and not ramified placenta; still Richard ment and unites them; and we would have also done this, were it not that Mr Lindley places upwards of 120 orders be- tween them, and does not even notice their affinity. Don suggests that the name Prockiacae ought rather to be adopted, for that Bixa is nearly related to Sloanea and Ablania, among the Tiliaceae. This order also bears some relation to the Cistineae and Homalineae.—The pulp sur- rounding the seeds of Bixa (or the Arnotto) is purgative and stomachic.

Order 18. Cistineae. Juss.

Sepals five, persistent, unequal; the three inner with a twisted estivation. Petals five, very caducous; estiva- tion corrugated, and twisted in an opposite direction to that of the sepals. Stamens indefinite, free; anthers ad- nate. Ovarium syncarpous, one or many-celled; style single; stigma simple. Fruit capsular, 3-5-10-valved, one-celled, with parietal placentae in the middle of the valves, or imperfectly 5-10-celled, with dissepiments pro- ceeding from the middle of the valves, and meeting in the axis of the fruit. Seeds indefinite. Embryo either spiral or curved, in the midst of a mealy albumen; radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite below, alter- nate above, with or without stipules.—Ex. Cistus, Hel- ianthemum.

The inverted embryo and loculicidal dehiscence are what must be chiefly relied on in defining the limits of this or- der.—The balsamic substance called Labdanum, which must not be confounded, as some ignorant people have done, with Laudanum, is obtained from Cistus Creticus.

Order 19. Violarieae. D. C.

Sepals five, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals five, usually withering, generally unequal; estivation oblique- ly convolute. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, or occasionally opposite to them, inserted on the hypogynous disc or torus; anthers bilocular, introrse, closely approxi- mated, or united laterally to each other; filaments dil- ated, elongated beyond the anthers; two of them, in the irregular flowers, usually with an appendage at the base. Ovary one-celled, with many (rarely one) ovules; style single, usually declinate, with an oblique cucullate stigma. Capsule three-valved, loculicidic, or bearing the placenta on the middle of the valves. Embryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, with persistent stipules and an involute vern- ation.—Ex. Viola (Plate CVII), Aldrovia.

The irregular flowered genera are easily distinguished from those of other orders; but those with regular flowers, constituting the section Alisoideae, are so with more dif- ficulty. Of the latter, Penstalobea was said to have five pla- centae; but that seems contradicted by Brown. The pla- centae are opposite to the three outer sepals.—The roots of all the species are more or less emetic, and some of them are substituted for Ipecacuanha.

Order 20. Droseraceae. D. C.

Suborder 1. Droserae. Sepals five, persistent, equal; estivation imbricated. Petals five. Stamens free, wither- ing, five and alternate with the petals, or ten; anthers bi- locular, bursting longitudinally. Ovary one; styles 3-5, slightly connected at the base or distinct, bifid or branch- ed. Capsule 8-5-valved, loculicidic, one-celled, or spuri- ously three-celled, the dissepiments being formed by the placentas meeting in the axis. Seeds without an arillus; testa sometimes loose, and distinct from the tegmen. Em- bryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy or cartilaginous albumen.—Leaves alternate, furnished (except in Aldro- vanda), with glandular hairs, with a circinate vernation. Stipules in the form of ciliae at the base of the petioles.— Ex. Drosera, Aldrovanda.

Suborder 2. Parnassiae. Sepals five; estivation im- bricated. Petals five, alternate with the sepals. Sta- mens 10-20, some of them often sterile; anthers bilocu- lar, bursting longitudinally. Ovary solitary, unicellular: style none, and four sessile stigmas opposite the placenta, or one with a lobed stigma. Fruit a capsule, one-celled, 4-5-valved and loculicidic; or indehiscent, and then the pla- centa is only at the base. Seeds numerous. Albumen 0. Embryo erect, or the radicle pointing to the hilum.—Bog plants. Leaves nearly all radical, without glandular hairs. —Ex. Parnassia, Dionaea.

Some botanists describe the stamens of Droseraceae as perigynous, which, however, we do not think distinctly made out; but were that true, they would approach to the Saxifragaceae. As to our second suborder, Parnassia has been referred by Lindley, as was already suggested by Brown, to the Saxifragaceae, but by Don to the Hypericaceae. Richard, again, who affirms it to be a genuine Drosera- ceae, places Dionaea among the Hypericaceae; while Lind- ley retains it, for the time, among the Droseraceae, but pointing out an affinity with the Sarraceniaceae. But the four stigmas opposite to the placenta in Parnassia seem to indicate that these are each composed of two half stig- mas belonging to different carpels, and consequently that the styles have a tendency to become united, although bifid in their upper portion, as in Drosera. The stigma of Dionaea may be similarly explained. The syncarpous ovarium is at variance with the Saxifragaceae; and, in the Hypericaceae, the styles alternating with the margins of the carpels, and the sometimes capitate stigmas, demon- strate that the styles are there free and the stigmas un- divided. Hence we have brought them under Droseraceae, from which they chiefly differ by their habit and absence of albumen.—The genus Drosera is rather acid, slightly acid, and reputed poisonous to cattle.

Order 21. Polygalaceae. Juss.

Sepals five, very irregular, distinct; three exterior, of which one is superior and two inferior; two interior, pe- taloïd, lateral; estivation imbricated. Petals unequal, usually three, of which one is inferior, while the others alternate with the upper and lateral sepals. Sometimes there are five, the two additional ones being minute, and between the lateral and lower sepals; the lower petal (called the keel), is sometimes entire, and then naked or crested, or sometimes three-lobed without a crest. Stamens eight, unequal, ascending, combined into a tube, which is split opposite to the upper sepal; anthers one-celled, open- ing by a terminal pore, or very rarely by a longitudinal cleft. Ovary bilocular, with placentae in the axis; the cells anterior and posterior, the latter often abortive: ovules one, rarely two, pendulous; style simple, curved; stigma simple. Fruit loculicidic, or sometimes indehiscent. Seeds pendulous, with a caruncula next the hilum. Al- bumen copious, fleshy, rarely reduced to a thin gelatinous plate. Embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum. —Leaves without stipules.—Ex. Polygala, Securidaca.

The petal being inferior, and the sepal superior, distin- guish this family from the Leguminosae, to which, in some respects, they bear greater affinity than to any other. Krameria, usually referred here, has, we think, been mis- understood, and we therefore exclude it.—Bitterness is the principal property, but the roots of Polygala Senega and sanguinea are stimulant, diuretic, emetic, purgative, expectorant, salagogue, sudorific, and emmenagogue.

Order 22. Tremandreae. R. Brown.

Sepals 4-5, nearly equal, slightly cohering at the base, deciduous; estivation valvate. Petals 4-5, alternate with the sepals, deciduous; in estivation involute, much larger than the sepals, and including the stamens. Stamens dis- tinct, 8-10; two before each petal; anthers 2-4-celled, Perhaps nearest allied to Polygala, but differing in several particulars. They are all from New Holland.

Order 23. *Tamaricaceae*. Desv.

Calyx 4-5-partite, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, inserted on the receptacle, marcescent; estivation imbricated. Stamens equal to the petals in number, or twice as many, free or monadelphous. Ovarium one-celled; style short; stigmas three. Capsule three-valved, one-celled, loculicidal, polyspermous. Placenta sometimes only at the base of the capsule. Seeds erect or ascending, comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs or herbs. Leaves alternate, like small scales.—Ex. *Tamarix*, *Myricaria*.

Placed by De Candolle and most botanists among the orders with perigynous stamens; but Ehrenberg has lately shown that these organs are there hypogynous. To us also they appear hypogynous, and we have therefore inserted this order next the Frankeniaceae. The insertion of the petals is more difficult to be traced, whether they be like the stamens, as is most probable, or, as some state, inserted into the very base of the calyx.—The bark is slightly bitter and astringent. The ashes of some species contain much sulphate of soda. The manna of Mount Sinai, consisting wholly of mucilaginous sugar, is produced by a variety of *Tamarix Gallica*.

Order 24. *Frankeniaceae*. St Hil.

Sepals five, slightly cohering at the base. Petals five, alternate with the sepals. Stamens opposite to the sepals, five, eight, or indefinite; filaments usually very short, free; anthers bilocular, extrorse, bursting longitudinally, or by two terminal pores. Ovarium one-celled, with three parietal placentas; style slender, simple, or trifid. Capsule one-celled, three-valved, septicidal. Seeds numerous, very minute. Embryo straight, cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle turned towards the hilum.—Leaves alternate or verticillate, usually furnished with stipules; but which are wanting in *Frankenia*.—Ex. *Frankenia*, *Sauvagesia*.

The flowers are regular, except in *Luzemburgia*. In *Larrea* there is an internal monopetalous corolla; in *Sauvagesia* an internal pentapetalous one, between which and the true corolla are many capillary or clavate filaments; these accessory parts being abortive stamens. This family is closely allied to the Cistaceae, Violariace, and Droseraceae, from which it differs by the septical dehiscence.

Order 25. *Elatiaceae*. Cambess.

Sepals 3-5, distinct, or slightly connate at the base. Petals alternate with the sepals. Stamens equal in number to, or twice as many as, the petals. Ovarium 3-5-celled; styles 3-5; stigmas capitate. Placenta in the axis. Capsule 3-5-celled, 3-5-valved, loculicidal. Seeds numerous. Albumen 0. Embryo cylindrical; radicle next the hilum.—Annual marsh plants. Leaves opposite, with small inconspicuous stipules.—Ex. *Elatine*, *Bergia*.

The capitate stigmas, want of albumen, and loculicidal dehiscence, have caused this small group to be separated from the Caryophyllaceae. The seeds are usually cylindrical and curved; and the embryo has the same shape, and is not straight, as some have described it.

Order 26. *Caryophyllaceae*. Juss.

Sub-order 1. *Vivianiae*. Sepals five, united into a monophyllous, campanulate, 3-toothed calyx, persistent. Petals five, unguiculate, persistent. Stamens ten; filaments filiform; anthers erect, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium 3-celled; ovules two in each cell, horizontal, approximated; style short; stigmas three, linear, papillose on the inner surface. Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved, loculicidal. Seeds two in each cell, attached closely together about the middle of the axis, campylotropous. Albumen fleshy, copious. Embryo filiform, curved round the albumen.—Under shrubs. Leaves opposite, tomentose beneath.—Ex. *Viviania*.

Suborder 2. *Caryophyllaceae*. Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering in a tube, persistent. Petals 4-5, unguiculate, sometimes wanting. Stamens usually double the number of the petals, or, if equal, alternate with them. Filaments subulate, sometimes cohering. Anthers erect, bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovarium one, syncarpous, often stipitate. Stigmas 2-5, sessile, filiform; papillose on their inner surface. Capsule 2-5-valved, one-celled, or imperfectly (rarely completely) 2-5-celled, opening usually by twice as many teeth as stigmas, sometimes by valves. Placenta in the axis of the fruit. Seeds indefinite, or rarely definite, campylotropous. Albumen mealy, round which the embryo is curved.—Leaves opposite and entire, often connate at the base, without stipules.—Ex. *Dianthus*, *Cerastium*.

After Don, we unite *Viviania* (*Macrea*, Lindl., and *Cassarea*, St Hil.) to this order; but perhaps its affinity is greater with *Ledocarpum*, which most authors place in the great group of Geraniaceae. The petals of *Viviania* are scarios. We are very doubtful if any of the true Caryophyllaceae have complete dissepiments. *Hymenella* and *Physa* are little known, and most of, if not all, the genus *Mollugo* must be removed, the definite stamens being alternate with the sepals, as in Portulacae. The number of teeth at the apex of the capsule demonstrate that the dehiscence, if perfect, would have been loculicidal.—A few have saponaceous properties. They are all very insipid.

Order 27. *Malvaceae*. Juss.

Sepals five, rarely 3-4, more or less cohering at the base, often bearing an external calyx or involucre; estivation valvate. Petals equal in number to the sepals; estivation twisted. Stamens monadelphous, indefinite, or rarely as few as the petals. Anthers one-celled, reniform, bursting transversely. Ovarium formed by the union of several carpels round a common axis, either distinct or cohering. Styles as many as the carpels, united or free. Fruit capsular or baccate; carpels one or many-seeded, sometimes closely united, sometimes separate or separable. Dehiscence loculicidal or septical. Albumen 0, or in very small quantity. Embryo curved; cotyledons twisted and doubled up.—Leaves alternate, stipulate. Hairs stellate.—Ex. *Locusta*, *Hibiscus*, *Sida*.

The affinity between Malvaceae and Caryophyllaceae is very obscure. De Candolle considered the Linaceae as a connecting order; but that differs exceedingly from both in the structure of the seed, and, according to St Hilaire, ought to form a part of the Geraniaceae.—All abound in mucilage, and are destitute of unwholesome qualities. Cotton is the covering of the seed in the genus *Gossypium*. From the *Althaea officinalis* is prepared, in France, the valuable tracing paper, known by the name of *papier vége*.

Order 28. *Bombaceae*. Kunth.

Calyx gamosepalous, campanulate or cylindrical, truncate or quinque-partite, with a few minute bracteas on the outside. Petals five, regular, or none; estivation twisted. Stamens five, ten, fifteen, or more; filaments cohering at the base into a tube, which is soldered to the tube of the petals, divided above into five parcels, each of which bears one or more anthers, intermixed sometimes with barren filaments; anthers one-celled, linear. Ovary of five (rarely ten) carpels, either strictly cohering or partly distinct: styles as many as the carpels, free, or more or less cohering. Placentae in the axis. Fruit variable, capsular, or indehiscent, usually with five valves and loculicidic. Seeds often inclosed in a woolly or pulpy covering; sometimes with a fleshy albumen and flat cotyledons; sometimes exalbuminous with wrinkled or convolute cotyledons.—Leaves alternate, with stipules. Pubescence on the herbaceous parts stellate.—Ex. Bombax, Helicteres.

These were separated from Malvaceae by Kunth and De Candolle, but again united by St Hilaire: they chiefly differ by the calyx not being decidedly valvate in estivation, and by the polyadelphous stamens.—Like the Malvaceae, they are mucilaginous, and possess no deleterious properties. The dried leaves of Adansonia, or the Baobab tree, have been used in cases of diarrhoea and fevers; its fruit also is frequently eaten; and the expressed juice mixed with sugar has been valued in putrid fevers. The seeds of some are covered with long hairs, as in the true cotton plant.

Order 29. Hydrantheae. R. Brown.

Calyx naked, or with an involucrum: sepals five, more or less united at the base: estivation valvate. Petals five or none, often saccate as the base, and variously lengthened at the apex: estivation convolute. Stamens equal to the number of the petals, or some multiple of them, more or less monadelphous, some of them often sterile: anthers bilocular, extrorse. Ovarium of five (rarely three) carpels, more or less syncarpous: styles as many as the carpels, free or united: ovules ascending, 2-3 or many in each carpel. Capsule 3-5-celled, 3-5-valved. Seeds with a strophiolate apex, often winged. Albumen oily or fleshy, rarely wanting. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous, flat and plaited, or rolled round the plumula; or, in the exalbuminous seeds, very thick.—Trees or shrubs. Pubescence often stellate. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate.—Ex. Sterculia, Byttneria, Lasiopetalum, Hermannia, Dombeya, Wallachia.

The six genera we have cited as examples have been made the types of as many sections, and even, by some botanists, of as many different orders. As a group, however, on the other hand, they have been united by St Hilaire to the Malvaceae, although differing in their bilocular anthers. They form the passage to the next order, from which they differ by their monadelphous stamens. In Sterculia and Erythropogon the carpels are distinct, and in Waltheria there is but one, four being abortive.—They abound in mucilage. The Kola of the African travellers is got from the seeds of Sterculia acuminata, and Chocolate from those of Theobroma Cacao.

Order 30. Tiliaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Tiliaceae. Sepals 4-5: estivation valvate, rarely imbricated. Petals 4-5, rarely wanting. Stamens free, usually indefinite: anthers bilocular, dehiscing longitudinally. Torus with 4-5 carpels at the base of the petals. Ovary solitary, of 4-10 carpels: style one: stigma with as many lobes as carpels. Fruit dry, multilocular, with several seeds in each cell; or by abortion unilocular and one-seeded. Embryo erect, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, stipulate. Petals entire.—Ex. Tilia, Corethrus.

Suborder 2. Elaeocarpaceae. Juss. Sepals 4-5, without an involucrum: estivation valvate. Petals 4-5: estivation imbricated. Torus large, discoid, usually with glands. Stamens 15-20: filaments short, free: anthers long, bilocular, opening at the apex by a double fissure. Ovary multilocular: style one: stigmas equal to the number of carpels, sometimes united. Fruit various, indehiscent, dry, drupaceous, or valvular and loculicidic, sometimes by abortion one-celled. Seeds two or more in each cell. Albumen fleshy. Embryo erect: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, sometimes approximated in pairs, with deciduous stipules. Petals lobed or fimbriated, sometimes entire.—Ex. Eleocharpus, Aristotelia.

The large discoid torus, distinct stamens, and bilocular anthers, serve to distinguish this order from the Malvaceae and others allied to them; at the same time De Candolle very properly suggests that Malvaceae, Bombacae, Byttneriaceae, and Tiliaceae, may all form one group or class, remarkable, as he says, for the valvate estivation of the calyx; for although it be now known that Sloanea and Ablania have it imbricated, yet these have so much affinity with Bixa, that the three may be considered as intermediate between the Bixineae (or more properly Prockinaceae) and Tiliaceae.—The Tiliaceae are mucilaginous. The fruit of some is succulent and eatable.

Order 31. Dipterocarpaceae. Blume.

Calyx tubular, five-lobed, unequal, naked, persistent, and afterwards enlarged: estivation imbricated. Petals sessile, slightly connected at the base: estivation twisted. Stamens indefinite: filaments dilated at the base, free or irregularly cohering: anthers erect, bilocular, subulate, opening by terminal fissures. Torus small, not discoid. Ovarium with few cells: ovules in pairs, pendulous: style and stigma simple. Fruit coriaceous, one-celled by abortion, three-valved or indehiscent, surrounded by the calyx. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons twisted and crumpled, or unequal and obliquely incumbent.—Trees abounding in resin. Leaves alternate: vernation involute. Stipules deciduous, convolute.—Ex. Dipterocarpus, Shorea.

Allied to Elaeocarpaceae, and also to the Malvaceae, and in some few respects to Guttiferae, but easily distinguished by the enlarged foliaceous unequal segments of the calyx investing the fruit.—The camphor tree of Sumatra belongs to this order. The fruit of the Vateria indica, when boiled, yields a kind of tallow.

Order 32. Chlenaceae. Thouars.

Involucrum 1-2-flowered, persistent. Sepals three, small. Petals 5-6, broader and sometimes cohering at the base. Stamens rarely 10, usually indefinite: filaments united at the base into a tube, or adhering to the base of the petals: anthers roundish, syngenenses or free, bilocular. Ovary solitary, trilocular: style one, filiform: stigma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or by abortion one-celled. Placentae central. Seeds solitary or numerous, suspended. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy or horny albumen: cotyledons foliaceous, undulated.—Leaves alternate, with stipules.—Ex. Sarcolana, Leptoloma.

From this order Hugonis ought certainly to be excluded, it only differing from the Byttneriaceae (Suborder Dombeyaceae) by the imbricated, and not valvular, estivation of the calyx. Jussieu, from considering the union of the petals at the base, refers Chlenaceae to the neighbourhood of the Ebenaceae. All the species are natives of Madagascar, and very little known.

Order 33. Ternariaceae. Mirb.

Sepals five, concave, coriaceous, deciduous, the innermost often the largest: estivation imbricated. Petals five, often combined at the base, alternate with the sepals. Stamens indefinite: filaments often cohering at the base into one or more parcels, and united to the petals. Ovary plurilocular, usually sessile on a discoid torus: ovules two or more, pendulous at the inner angle of each cell: styles 2-5: stigma simple. Fruit 2-5-celled, coriaceous and indehiscent, or capsular and opening by valves. Seeds large, few, sometimes arillate. Albumen 0, or in very small quantity. Embryo either straight, or bent, or folded back: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons very large, Cochlospermum has the dissepiments imperfect, and consequently the ovarium spuriously one-celled. In Camelias, from the effect of luxuriant cultivation, there are often six or seven petals, styles, and cells to the fruit. This order is allied to the Auranitaceae, and also to the Guttiferae; but they also osculate with the Hypericinæ, Marcgrævinaeæ, and Tiliaceæ.—The properties of most of the species are little understood. An excellent table oil is obtained from the seeds of Camellia oleifera. The tea of commerce is produced by several species of Thea and Camellia.

Order 34. Olacineæ. Murr.

Calyx small, of one piece, entire, or toothed, often finally becoming large and fleshy: estivation imbricated. Petals 3-6, distinct, or adhering in pairs by the intervention of stamens: estivation valvate. Stamens (fertile) definite, 3-10, alternate with the petals, mixed with others that are sterile and opposite to the petals: filaments compressed: anthers erect, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium 1-3-4-celled: ovules 3-4, pendulous from the top of a central placenta: style simple: stigma 3-4-lobed. Fruit drupaceous, indehiscent, often surrounded by the enlarged calyx, one-celled, one-seeded. Seed pendulous. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo small, at the base of the albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, sometimes abortive.—Ex. Olac, Ximenia.

A very distinct order, although it be somewhat difficult to discover its proper place. Brown supposes the calyx above described to be bracteæ, and the petals a perianth, and consequently it would be placed near the Santalaceæ. Jussieu, again, admits the presence of both calyx and corolla, but that the last is monopetalous, and places the order near the Sapotaceæ.—Nothing is known of their medical properties.

Order 35. Aurantiaceæ. Corr.

Calyx urceolate or campanulate, short, 3-5-toothed, withering. Petals 3-5, broad at the base, sometimes slightly combined: estivation imbricated. Stamens equal in number to, or a multiple of, the petals: filaments flattened at the base, distinct, monadelphous, or polyadelphous: anthers erect. Torus conspicuous, discoid. Ovarium multilocular: style one: stigma one, somewhat divided, thickish. Fruit a hesperidium. Seeds attached to the axis, solitary or numerous, usually pendulous: raphe and chalaza usually very distinct. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons thick, fleshy: plumula conspicuous.—Trees or shrubs, abounding in volatile oil. Leaves alternate, often compound, articulated with a usually winged petiole.—Ex. Citrus, Limonia.

The oily receptacles dispersed over the whole plant, deciduous and compound leaves (always indicated by the joint connecting them with the petiole) distinguish this family from its allies.—The pulp of the fruit is more or less acid. The oil is volatile, fragrant, bitter, and exciting. The orange, lemon, citron, and lime, belong to this order.

Order 36. Hypericinæ. Juss.

Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering, unequal, persistent, with glandular dots: estivation imbricate. Petals 4-5, often dotted with black; veins oblique: estivation twisted. Stamens indefinite, polyadelphous (very rarely ten monadelphous): anthers versatile. Ovarium solitary: styles several, rarely connate: stigmas simple, sometimes capitulate. Placentæ in the axis. Fruit baccate or capsular, of many cells and valves, septicide. Seeds minute, indefinite, very rarely solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum, inferior.—Juice resinous. Leaves dotted, usually opposite, and entire. Flowers generally yellow.—Ex. Hypericum, Vismia.

Allied on the one hand to Guttiferae, and on the other, but more distantly, to Cistinææ. The juice of many species is purgative and febrifugal.

Order 37. Reaumurieæ. Ehrenb.

Calyx 5-partite, persistent, surrounded externally with imbricated bracteæ. Petals five. Stamens definite and monadelphous, or indefinite and polyadelphous. Torus with or without glands. Ovarium solitary: styles slender, 2-4-5. Placentæ at the base. Capsule of two, four, or five cells, and as many valves, loculicide. Seeds definite, erect, hairy, large. Embryo straight, in the axis of a farinaceous albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves fleshy, small, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers solitary.—Ex. Reaumuria, Holachna.

The petals and stamens are hypogynous. Reaumuria has peltate anthers, and was formerly placed at the end of the Ficoideæ; Holachna was the Tamarix Songarica of Pallas.—Saline matter exists in great abundance.

Order 38. Guttiferae. Juss.

Sepals 2-6, usually persistent, round, frequently unequal, and coloured: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-10. Stamens indefinite, or rarely definite, free, or variously united at the base: filaments unequal: anthers adnate, introrse, or extrorse; sometimes very small, sometimes unicellular, and sometimes opening by a pore. Torus fleshy, occasionally five-lobed. Ovarium solitary, one or many-celled: ovules solitary, erect or ascending; or numerous and attached to central placentæ: style none, or very short: stigmas peltate or radiate. Fruit capsular, or fleshy, or drupaceous, one or many-celled, one or many-seeded, valvar and septicide, or indehiscent. Seeds definite, in a pulp, apterous, often arillate: testa thin and membranous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle pointing to (or from?) the hilum: cotyledons usually cohering.—Trees or shrubs, sometimes parasitical: juice resinous. Leaves exstipulate, opposite, or rarely alternate, coriaceous, with a strong midrib, and many oblique lateral parallel veins. Flowers articulated with their peduncle.—Ex. Clusia, Calophyllum.

In Calophyllum the petals seem opposite to the sepals, but in the other genera they are alternate. This order approaches most to the Hypericinæ, but differs in several particulars: it is also allied to the following family.—A yellow, viscid, acrid, and purgative gum-resinous juice abounds in all. The powerfully drastic and cathartic gamboge is obtained from Stalagmitis cambogioides.

Order 39. Marcgraeviææ. Juss.

Sepals 2-7, usually coriaceous and persistent: estivation imbricated. Corolla five-petaled, or sometimes monopetalous, calyptriform, entire, or torn at the point. Stamens indefinite, very rarely only five: filaments free, dilated at the base: anthers long, erect, bursting inwards. Ovarium solitary, unilocular: style one or none: stigma lobed or stellate. Placentæ 4-12, parietal, prominent, and forming spurious dissepiments, more or less complete. Fruit coriaceous, indehiscent, or of several valves, separating from below, loculicide. Seeds indefinite, minute, in a pulp. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, almost sessile, and coriaceous.—Ex. Marcgravia, Norantea.

Some botanists describe the structure of the fruit differently, by supposing the lamellate placentæ to be imperfect, but true dissepiments; and this idea is confirmed by the ovules being only attached to the free extremity of this part. But the above is Professor Richard's hypothesis, and few have examined the tribe with such accuracy. Order 40. Hippocrataceae. Juss.

Sepals five (rarely four or six), small, combined to their middle, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals equal in number to the stamens; estivation imbricated. Stamens three (rarely four or five): filaments united almost to their apex, forming a tube round the ovary. Ovary triangular, trilocular; ovules erect, four in each cell; style one; stigmas 1-3. Placentae in the axis. Fruit fleshy, 1-3-celled, or of three samaroid carpels. Seeds about four in each cell or carpel. Albumen none. Embryo straight; radicle next the hilum; cotyledons flat, elliptical, oblong, somewhat fleshy, cohering (at least in the dried plant).—Shrubs arborescent or climbing. Leaves opposite, simple, somewhat coriaceous. Flowers small.—Ex. Hippocratea, Salacia.

The ternary number of the stamens, combined with the quinary number of the sepals and petals, form the grand feature of this order. By most botanists it is supposed to be principally allied to the Acerineae and Malpighiacae; but Brown asserts that it is scarcely distinct from Celastrineae, notwithstanding the hypogynous stamens.—The fruit of Tomella pyriformis is rich and sweet flavoured; the nuts of Hippocratea conososa are also eatable.

Order 41. Erythroxyleae. Kunth.

Sepals five, combined at the base, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals five, broad, and with a small scale at the base; estivation slightly twisted. Stamens ten; filaments united at the base into a cup; anthers erect, bilocular, longitudinally and laterally dehiscing. Ovary three-celled, of which two are sometimes abortive; ovule one; styles three, distinct or united; stigmas three. Drupe one-seeded. Seed angular, pendulous. Embryo linear, straight, in the axis of a corneous albumen; radicle elongated, next the hilum; cotyledons linear, flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, rarely opposite.—Ex. Erythroxylon, Setia.

Closely allied to Malpighiacae by the presence of albumen, sessile petals, and general appearance.—A reddish brown dye is prepared from the bark of Erythror. suberosum.

Order 42. Malpighiacae. Juss.

Sepals five, slightly combined, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals five, unguiculate, occasionally wanting. Stamens ten (rarely fewer); filaments distinct, or slightly monadelphous; anthers roundish. Torus usually discoid. Ovary one, usually three-lobed, consisting of three carpels, more or less combined; ovules solitary; styles three, distinct or united. Placentae in the axis. Fruit dry or fleshy, of three distinct carpels or three-celled, occasionally 1-2-celled by abortion. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen 0. Embryo curved or straight; radicle short, next the hilum; cotyledons foliaceous or thickish.—Small trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing. Leaves simple, opposite, or very rarely alternate, not dotted, usually with stipules. Pedicels articulated in the middle.—Ex. Malpighia, Hiptage, Banisteria.

The sepals are often furnished externally with glands at the base, on which account, and the often samaroid fruit, this order seems allied to Acerineae. In Aspicarpa there is but one stamen.—Little is known of their properties. The Barbadoes cherry, the fruit of the Malpighia glabra, is used in Jamaica by way of dessert.

Order 43. Acerineae. Juss.

Calyx 5-, or rarely 4-9-partite; estivation imbricated. Petals equal in number to the lobes of the calyx with which they alternate, rarely wanting. Stamens definite, usually eight, rarely five or twelve; anthers oblong. Torus discoid. Ovary two-lobed, two-celled; ovules in pairs, attached to the inner angle; style one; stigmas two, subulate. Fruit of two samaroid carpels, of which the membranous appendage has the lower margin incrassated. Seeds solitary or in pairs, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo curved or convolute; radicle next the hilum; cotyledons foliaceous, wrinkled.—Trees. Leaves opposite, simple, lobed, or pinnatisect, without stipules. Flowers often polygamous.—Ex. Acer, Negundo, Dobinea.

Sugar is extracted in abundance from the Acer saccharinum and some other species.

Order 44. Hippocastaneae. D. C.

Calyx campanulate, five-lobed; estivation imbricated. Petals five or (by abortion) four, distinct, unequal. Stamens 7-8, distinct, unequal; anthers oval, versatile. Torus discoid. Ovary roundish, three-celled; ovules in pairs; style one, filiform, acute. Fruit coriaceous, 1-2-3-celled, 1-2-3-valved, loculicid. Seeds solitary, large; testa shining or smooth; hilum broad and pale coloured. Albumen 0. Embryo curved, inverted; radicle conical, curved, turned towards the hilum; cotyledons thick, gibbous, fleshy, cohering, hypogeous; plumula large, two-leaved.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, 5-7-palmate. Pedicels articulated.—Ex. Aesculus, Pavia.

Richard, with some justice, unites this to the Malpighiacae; indeed they agree in almost every important point, except the habit or general appearance.—The seeds abound in starchy matter, which renders them nutritive; they also contain much potash; they are bitter. The bark of Aesculus hippocastanum or Horse-chestnut is bitter, astringent, and febrifugal.

Order 45. Rhizoboeae. D. C.

Sepals five, more or less combined; estivation imbricated. Petals five, thickish, unequal. Stamens indefinite, slightly monadelphous, in a double row, of which the inner is often abortive; anthers roundish, bursting longitudinally. Torus discoid. Ovary four-celled; ovules solitary, peritropous; styles 4; stigmas simple. Fruit of four (or by abortion fewer), indehiscent, one-celled, one-seeded nuts, with a thick, double putamen. Seed reniform, with the funiculus dilated into a spongy excrecence; albumen 0. Embryo very large; radicle constituting nearly the whole of the kernel; caulinus long, two-edged; cotyledons small, foliaceous, lying in a furrow of the radicle.—Trees. Leaves opposite, palmately compound.—Ex. Caryocar.

Somewhat allied to Mangifera among the Terebinthaceae, but particularly to Sapindaceae. To Hippocastaneae it has also some affinity.—The Souari nut, the produce of the Car. tomentosum, is well known as the most delicious of the nut tribe; other species yield a nut perhaps almost as good.

Order 46. Sapindaceae. Juss.

Sepals 4-5, distinct or slightly cohering at the base; estivation imbricated. Petals generally 4-5, occasionally wanting, sometimes naked, sometimes villous or glandular in the middle, or sometimes with a petaloid scale. Stamens twice as many as the petals, distinct, ascending. Torus discoid, plane, lobed. Ovary roundish, trilocular; ovules usually in pairs, one above the other, ascending; styles three, more or less united at the base; stigmas three. Placentae in the axis. Fruit fleshy, vesicular, or capsular, 3- (or by abortion 1-2-) celled. Seeds solitary, erect, or resupinate. Albumen 0. Embryo; radicle next the hilum; cotyledons more or less curved on the radicle, sometimes straight.—Leaves alternate, having frequently pellucid lines or dots.—Ex. Sapindus, Paullinia, Dodonaea.

Near to Meliaceae, and also to some of the Terebinthaceae.—The leaves and branches are poisonous, but the fruit is eatable, and, of several, is used in desserts. The Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan, are from the genus *Eu-* phoria*. The fruit of the soap-berry, *Sapindus saponaria*, is saponaceous.

Order 47. *Meliaceae*. Juss.

Suborder 1. *Meliceae*. Sepals 4–5, more or less united: estivation imbricated. Petals 4–5, conniving or cohering at the base: estivation valvate. Stamens as many as the petals, or two, three, or four times as many: filaments cohering in a long tube: anthers sessile within the orifice of the tube. Torus sometimes large and cup-shaped. Ovarium single, plurilocular: ovules suspended, solitary, or in pairs: style one: stigmas free or combined. Fruit baccate, drupaceous, or capsular, many- (or by abortion one-) celled: valves when present loculicidal. Seeds ap- terous. Albumen 0. Embryo straight, inverted: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate or stipulate.—Ex. *Melia*, *Trichilia*.

Suborder 2. *Humiriaceae*. Ad. Juss. Calyx five-cleft: estivation imbricated. Petals five, alternate with the se- pals: estivation imbricated. Stamens five times as many as the petals: filaments combined into a tube: anthers two- celled, with a fleshy connective extended beyond the lobes. Torus annular or toothed. Ovarium five-celled: ovules suspended, solitary, or in pairs: style simple: stigma lobed. Fruit drupaceous, five- (or by abortion fewer) celled. Seed with a membranous integument. Embryo straight, oblong, lying in a fleshy albumen: ra- dicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate: pe- tiole winged.—Ex. *Humiria*.

Suborder 3. *Cedreleae*. R. Brown. Calyx five-cleft, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sessile: estivation imbricated. Stamens ten, combined below into a tube: anthers somewhat sessile, acuminate, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Torus cup-shaped, ten-plaited. Ovarium five-celled, each cell semibilocular by the inflec- tion of the placenta: style simple: stigma peltate, five- lobed. Capsule of five valves, septifragal: dissepiments obliterated, except at the base. Placenta laminary, in- flected, finally becoming loose, and having two or more seeds on each side. Seeds erect or suspended, winged at one extremity: testa coriaceous. Albumen fleshy, thin, or wanting. Embryo straight, transverse: radicle very small, distant from the hilum: cotyledons flat, very large. —Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. *Swietenia*, *Cedrela*.

We again unite these three orders, because we do not find any good marks between them. The albuminous seeds and slender embryo chiefly distinguish Humiriaceae from Meliceae: but in Cedreleae the seeds have albumen and want it, and in this tribe the dehiscence of the capsule is not so con- stant as one would wish; for in *Chloroxylon* (or *Swietenia chloroxylon*) the fruit is loculicidal. The seeds of all, we believe, are anatropous.—The medical properties of this family are little understood; and to judge by those that are known, they are very dissimilar. Thus the bark of *Cannela alba* (or false Winter's bark) is aromatic and sti- mulant; that of *Melia* is nauseous; and of *Swietenia febril- fuga*, bitter and febrifuge. The fruits of some few are edible, and delicious. Mahogany is the wood of *Swie- tenia Mahogoni*.

Order 48. *Ampelidea*. Rich.

Calyx small, nearly entire. Petals 4–5, sometimes coher- ing above, and calyptriform: estivation valvate. Stamens 4–5, opposite to the petals: filaments distinct, or slightly cohering at the base: anthers ovate, versatile. Torus an annular disc, bearing the petals on its exterior, and the stamens on its surface. Ovarium two-celled: ovules in pairs, erect: style one, very short: stigma simple. Berry globose, pulpy, two- (or often by abortion, one-) celled. Seeds 1–4, erect: testa osseous. Albumen horny. Em- bryo erect: radicle slender: cotyledons lanceolate.— Climbing shrubs. Leaves, lower ones opposite, upper Arrange- alternate, with racemes opposite to them, which are some- times abortive, and change into tendrils.—Ex. *Cissus*.

This order approaches closely to the Meliaceae; indeed it is difficult to say to which *Leea* ought to be referred, or if it ought not to form a small connecting group. If in that genus we consider the torus to be cup-shaped, bear- ing the petals on its outside about the middle, we shall have above the insertion of the petals five sessile, adnate, extrorse, anthers; by which view we should have a true member of the Ampelidea: but then the anthers are al- ternate with the petals, and the plants are not climbing; from Meliaceae it differs rather more. As to *Lasiandra*, too little is known of it to decide upon its affinities.—The vine is so well known that we need not detail its properties.

Order 49. *Geraniaceae*. Juss.

Suborder 1. *Geranieae*. St Ht. Sepals five, persis- tent, more or less unequal, or sometimes spurred at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals five (or, by abor- tion, 4, rarely 0), unguiculate: estivation twisted. Sta- mens monadelphous, twice or thrice as many as the pe- tals (some occasionally abortive). Ovarium of five carpels, placed round an elongated axis: ovules pendulous, sol- itary: styles five, cohering round the axis. Fruit cohering round the axis; of five pieces, with a membranous, inde- hiscent pericarp and indurated style, which finally twists and carries the pericarp along with it. Seed solitary, erect: chalaza close to the hilum. Albumen 0. Embryo curved: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum, but point- ing towards it: cotyledons next the hilum, foliaceous, convolute, and plaited.—Leaves simple, stipulate, opposite, or alternate, with peduncles opposite to them.—Ex. *Ge- ranium*.

Suborder 2. *Linæae*. D. C. Sepals 3–4–5, persis- tent: estivation imbricated. Petals 3–4–5, unguiculate, fugitive: estivation twisted. Stamens as many as the petals, and alternate with them (with intermediate teeth or abortive stamens), arising from an annular torus: an- thers ovate, erect. Ovarium with as many (rarely fewer) cells and styles as stamens: stigmas capitate. Capsule generally pointed with the hardened base of the styles, plurilocular: each cell spuriously bilocular, and opening by two valves at the apex. Seeds solitary in each spu- rious cell, compressed, pendulous. Albumen thin, fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves entire, alternate, without stipules, sometimes with two glands at the base. Flowers terminal.—Ex. *Linum*.

Suborder 3. *Balsaminæae*. Rich. Sepals five, irregular, deciduous, the two inner and upper connate, the lower spurred: estivation imbricate. Petals four (five, but the fifth abortive), united by pairs. Stamens five: filaments subulate: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium solitary, five-celled: ovules numerous: stigma sessile, more or less five-lobed. Fruit capsular, five- celled, five-valved, elastically septifrage. Seeds numerous, suspended. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Succulent herba- ceous plants. Leaves simple, opposite or alternate, ex- stipulate. Flowers axillary.—Ex. *Impatiens*.

Suborder 4. *Hydrocerceae*. Blume. Sepals five, deci- duous, coloured, unequal, the lowermost spurred: esta- vation imbricated. Petals five, unequal; the upper arched. Stamens five: filaments connate at the apex: anthers slightly connate, bilocular, bursting at the apex. Ovarium five-celled: ovules pendulous, 2–3 in each cell: stigmas five, sessile, acute. Fruit succulent, five-celled: endo- carp hard and osseous. Seeds solitary. Albumen 0. Em- bryo: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex. —Herbaceous, with angular stems. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Hydrocoeca.

Suborder 5. Tropoecoeae. Juss. Sepals five, the upper spurred: estivation imbricate, or rarely valvate. Petals five, unequal, irregular, the two upper sessile, the three lower stalked, or sometimes abortive. Stamens eight, free: anthers erect, bilocular. Torus discoid, almost united with the calyx. Ovarium one, triquetrous, of three carpels: ovules solitary, pendulous: style one: stigmas three, acute. Fruit indehiscent, separable from the axis into three pieces (or, by abortion, of one piece). Albumen 0. Embryo large: radicle next the hilum, lying within the projections of the cotyledons, which are straight, thick, and consolidated into one body.—Herbaceous trailing or twining plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers axillary.—Ex. Tropocotum.

Suborder 6. Oxalideae. D. C. Sepals five, equal, sometimes slightly cohering at the base, persistent: estivation imbricate. Petals five, equal, unguiculate: estivation twisted. Stamens ten, more or less monadelphous; those opposite the petals longer than the others: anthers erect, bilocular. Ovarium five-angled, five-celled: styles five, filiform: stigmas capitate, or slightly bifid. Placentae in the axis. Capsules membranous, five-celled, 5-10-valved. Seeds several: testa fleshy, bursting elastically. Albumen between cartilaginous and fleshy. Embryo straight, as long as the albumen: radicle long, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves compound (or by abortion simple), alternate, seldom opposite or whorled.—Ex. Oxalis, Averrhoa.

All these suborders may be either considered as parts of one order, or as orders belonging to one class. They are allied on the one hand to Caryophyllaceae and Malvaceae, and on the other to Rutaceae. Rhynchothecae has no petals, but certainly belongs to the Geraniaceae; although it be difficult to say with which of the above sections it ought to be ranked: the seeds pendulous, albumen fleshy, embryo straight, stamens distinct, and two ovules in each cell, militate against it being placed in Geraniaceae; and the cohering styles separate it from Linaceae and Oxalideae. In Tropoecoeae the stamens may almost be called perigynous.—Geraniaceae possess an astringent principle, and an aromatic and resinous flavour. The mucilaginous diuretic seeds of Linum, and the purgative leaves of L. catharticum, are well known. The fleshy fruit of Tropoecoeae is acid, and used as a cress. The Oxalideae are acid, and supply the place of sorrel. The leaves of Ox. acetosella contain pure oxalic acid.

Order 50. Pittosporaceae. R. Brown.

Sepals five, deciduous, distinct, or partially cohering: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sometimes slightly cohering: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, distinct, alternate with the petals. Ovary solitary, 1-2-5-celled: style one: stigmas 2-5, equal in number to the placentas. Fruit capsular or baccate, cells polyspermous, sometimes incomplete, loculicidal. Seeds often covered with a glutinous or resinous pulp. Embryo minute, contained in a fleshy albumen near the hilum: radicle long: cotyledons very short.—Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers sometimes polygamous.—Ex. Pittosporum, Billardiera.

De Candolle arranges this next Polygaleae, probably on account of the tendency of the fruit to become unilocular, with parietal placentae. We, however, agree with Richard, that its place ought to be at no great distance from the Rutaceae.—The berries of Billardiera are eatable, but nothing further is known of the properties of the order.

Order 51. Brexiaceae. Lindl.

Sepals five, small, persistent, cohering at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals five: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, arising from a narrow cup, which is toothed between each stamen: anthers introrse, two-celled, opening longitudinally. Ovary five-celled: ovules numerous: placenta in the axis: style one: stigma simple. Fruit a five-celled drupe. Seeds indefinite: testa and tegmen distinct. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle cylindrical, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons ovate, obtuse.—Trees. Leaves coriaceous, alternate, with small deciduous stipules.—Ex. Brexia.

The solitary genus of this order appears to be the same with the Venana of Lamarck, which name ought perhaps to be adopted. Du Petit Thouars describes a fleshy albumen.

Order 52. Rutaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Zygophyllum. R. Brown. Flowers bisexual, regular. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation convolute. Petals alternate with the sepals: estivation usually convolute. Stamens twice as many as the petals: filaments distinct, dilated at the base, and usually arising from scales. Ovarium simple, 4-5-celled: ovules in pairs or more, pendulous, or rarely erect: style simple, 4-5-furrowed: stigma simple, or 4-5-lobed. Fruit capsular, or rarely fleshy, with 4-5 angles or wings, 4-5-valved and loculicidal, or indehiscent: endocarp and sarcocarp combined. Seeds usually fewer than the ovules. Albumen between fleshy and horny, rarely 0. Embryo green: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves opposite, stipulate, not dotted, rarely simple.—Ex. Zygophyllum, Tribulus.

Suborder 2. Rutaceae. Juss. Flowers bisexual, regular. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals alternate with the sepals: estivation between twisted and convolute. Stamens twice or thrice as many as the petals. Torus sometimes discoid. Ovarium 3-5-lobed, 3-5-celled: ovules in each cell two, or 4-20, pendulous or adnate to the placentae: styles several, combined upwards: stigma 3-5-angled, or furrowed. Capsule either three-valved and loculicidal, or 4-5-lobed, opening internally at the apex: sarcocarp and endocarp combined. Seeds often fewer than the ovules. Embryo lying within the fleshy albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Leaves (with one exception), exstipulate, alternate, usually with pellucid dots.—Ex. Rutia, Peganum.

Suborder 3. Diosmaceae. R. Brown. Flowers bisexual. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals (rarely wanting), as many as the sepals, distinct, or combined below into a spurious monopetalous corolla: estivation twisted-convolute, or rarely valvate. Stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals (or fewer by abortion), hypogynous, or rarely perigynous. Torus discoid or urceolate, surrounding the base of the pistillum, free or attached to the calyx, often wanting. Ovaria as many or fewer than the petals, syncarpous, or more or less apocarpos: ovules two, rarely four or one in each, peritropial: styles combined above: stigma simple or dilated. Fruit of 1-5 capsules, cohering, or somewhat distinct: endocarp two-valved, dehiscing at the base, separating from the two-valved sarcocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs. Albumen 0. Radicle superior.—Leaves exstipulate, opposite or alternate, covered with resinous dots.—Ex. Dictamnus, Diosma, Correa, Erodia, Monnieria.

Suborder 4. Zanthoxyloceae. Ad. Juss. Flowers unisexual, regular. Calyx 3-4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals equal in number (rarely none) to the sepals: estivation usually twisted-convolute. Stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals. Ovaria as many (or fewer) as petals, syncarpous, or partially apocarpos. Ovules in each two, or rarely four: styles more or less combined. Fruit either baccate or membranous, sometimes of 2-5 cells, sometimes of several drupes or two- valved capsules, of which the fleshy sarcocarp is partly separable from the endocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs, pendulous. Embryo lying within a fleshy albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons ovate, flat.—Leaves exstipulate, alternate or opposite, with pellucid dots.—Ex. Zanthoxylum, Brucea, Ptelea.

Suborder 5. Simaroubae. Rich. Flowers usually bisexual. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals as many as the sepals, spreading, or connivent into a kind of tube: estivation twisted. Stamens twice as numerous: filaments arising from scales: anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovarium stipitate, 4-5-lobed, 4-5-celled: ovules solitary: style simple: stigma 4-5-lobed. Fruit of 4-5 indehiscent drupes arranged round a common receptacle. Seeds pendulous: testa membranous. Albumen none. Radicle superior, short, drawn back within the thick cotyledons.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, without dots.—Ex. Quassia, Simarouba.

These five may, if one pleases, be viewed as orders belonging to one class. The last of them is the most distinct, and is closely allied to the Ochnaceae. Some few Diosmee have the stamens perigynous, but the great passage to the Periptalae is through the Zanthoxyliæ, many of which are very closely allied to the Terebinthaceæ.—Of the Zygophyllæ some are anthelmintic; others are acid and bitter, and are employed as sudorifics, diaphoretics, or alternatives. Of the Rutaceæ the common rue is sudorific, anthelmintic, and emmenagogue. The Diosmee of the Cape are considered antispasmodics; of America, febrifuge; and the root of Dicranthus was formerly used as a sudorific and vermifuge. Almost all the Zanthoxyliæ are aromatic and pungent: some are powerful sudorifics and diaphoretics; of others the bark is bitter. Brucia contains a poisonous principle called Brucia. The Simaroubae are all intensely bitter.

Order 53. Ochnaceæ. D.C.

Sepals five, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals equal to or rarely twice as many as the sepals, deciduous, spreading: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, or ten, or indefinite: filaments persistent: anthers two-celled, erect, opening by pores. Torus discoid. Carpels as many as petals, seated upon an enlarged tumid gynoecium: ovules erect: styles combined into one. Fruit (a sarcobase) of several indehiscent drupaceous carpella, articulated with the gynoecium. Seeds solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle short, inferior: cotyledons thick.—Leaves alternate, simple, stipulate. Pedicels articulated in the middle.—Ex. Ochna, Gomphia.

Very closely allied to the Rutaceæ, but differing by the erect ovule, and the anthers opening by pores. Walkera is usually referred here, although the ovules be pendulous and the radicle superior; but perhaps in this order more attention must be paid to the spermic direction of the embryo: for in Ochnaceæ and Walkera, as well as in Rutaceæ, the radicle points to the hilum.—The root and leaves of Walkera serrata are bitter, and a decoction tonic, stomachic, and anti-emetic.

Order 54. Coriariaceæ. D.C.

Calyx campanulate, five-parted: estivation imbricate. Petals five, alternate with the lobes of the calyx, very small, fleshy, carinate internally. Stamens ten (in the female flowers barren): filaments filiform, distinct: anthers oblong, two-celled. Ovarium seated on a thickened torus, five-angled, five-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: style none: stigmas five, opposite the segments of the calyx, long, filiform, glandular. Fruit (in the male flowers abortive) a crustaceous pentachenium, surrounded by the enlarged fleshy petals. Seeds pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo slightly curved: radicle superior: cotyledons vol. v.

plano-convex.—Shrubs with square branches. Leaves opposite, simple, three-nerved. Buds scaly. Flowers racemose, unisexual: the males with abortive pistilla; the females with abortive stamens.—Ex. Coriaria.

Jussieu has pointed out the affinity of this tribe with the Malpighiaceæ: with Rhamnaceæ it is also allied; but we think it would be no difficult matter to demonstrate its close relation to Euphorbiaceæ. The petals are in a very reduced state, and scarcely differ from what we find in several Euphorbiaceæ.—The fruit of Coriaria myrtifolia is poisonous.

Div. II.—Dichlamydeæ Calyciflora. D.C.

(2. Peripetalæ. Juss.)

Order 55. Stackhousiæ. R. Brown.

Calyx five-cleft: equal, with an inflated tube. Petals five, equal, inserted at the top of the tube of the calyx, unguiculate: claws combined into a tube: limb narrow, spreading. Stamens five, unequal, arising from the throat of the calyx. Ovarium superior, 3-5-lobed: lobes distinct: ovules solitary, erect: styles 3-5, sometimes united at the base: stigmas simple. Fruit of 3-5, indehiscent, winged or apericarp pieces, attached to a central persistent column. Embryo erect in the axis of, and about as long as, the fleshy albumen.—Leaves simple, entire, alternate, with lateral minute stipules.—Ex. Stackhousia.

Related to the Celastrinæ, and also to the Euphorbiaceæ; on which last account we have placed it after Coriariæ.

Order 56. Cebrinææ. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Buxoniææ. D.C. Sepals 4-5: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5 (rarely none), with a broad base: estivation imbricated. Stamens alternate with the petals: anthers erect. Torus large, expanded, flat. Ovarium superior, immersed in the torus and adhering to it, 3-4-celled: ovules one or many in each cell, attached by a short funiculus to the axis, ascending. Fruit superior, a capsule 3-4-celled, 3-4-valved and loculicidal, or a dry drupe with a 1-2-celled nut. Seeds one or many in each cell, ascending or resupinate, sometimes arillate. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle short, inferior: cotyledons flat and thick.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, or opposite. Ex. Euonymus, Cebrinus.

Suborder 2. Stapylææ. D.C. Sepals five, connected at the base, coloured: estivation imbricated. Petals five, alternate: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alternate with the petals. Torus a large urceolate disc. Ovarium 2-3-celled, superior: ovules erect: styles 2-3, cohering at the base. Fruit membranous or fleshy, indehiscent, or opening internally, partly abortive. Seeds ascending, roundish, truncate at the hilum: testa bony, hilum large, truncate. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle small, inferior: cotyledons thick.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, pinnate, with common and partial stipules.—Ex. Stapylææ, Turpinia.

Allied to Hippocrateææ, to Euphorbiaceæ, and to Rhamnaceæ. Ilicineæ has been now removed from this to the Hypocoroliææ near to Ebenaceæ.—Their medical properties are unknown. The young shoots of Euonymus Europæus, termed bois carre, when charred, are used as pencils in some kinds of drawings.

Order 57. Rhamnææ. Juss.

Calyx 4-5-cleft: estivation valvate. Petals distinct, cucullate, or convolute, inserted into the throat of the calyx, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, opposite the petals. Torus a large, flat, or urceolate disc. Ovarium superior or half superior, 2-3-4-celled: ovules solitary, erect. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, or dry, and separating in three parts. Seeds erect. Albumen fleshy, rarely none. Embryo about as long as the seed: radicle short, Arrange- inferior: cotyledons large, flat.—Trees or shrubs often ment and thorny. Leaves simple, alternate (or rarely opposite), Characters minutely stipulate.—Ex. Rhamnus, Physica.

Allied to Celestrinæ, to Euphorbiaceæ, to Rosaceæ, and to Byttneriaceæ. The berries of several species of Rhamnus are violent purgatives. The fruit of Zizyphus, however, is destitute of these qualities, and is both whole- some and pleasant to eat: the Jujube is a species of this genus, as also the Lotus of the classics.

Order 58. Terebinthaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Anacardiaceæ. R. Br. Flowers usually uni- sexual. Calyx usually small, persistent, 5- (sometimes 3-4-7-) divided. Petals equal in number to the sepals (sometimes wanting), perigynous: estivation imbricate. Stamens equal in number to the petals, and alternate, or twice as many or more: filaments distinct or cohering at the base, perigynous (or very rarely hypogynous.) Torus fleshy, annular, or cup-shaped, or inconspicuous. Ovarium single (or rarely 5-6), free or rarely adhering to the calyx, 1-celled: ovulum solitary, attached by the funiculus to the base or side of the cell: styles one or three, occasionally four: stigmas as many. Fruit indehiscent, usually drupa- ceous. Seed ascending, or more frequently pendulous. Al- bumen none. Radicle superior or inferior, next the hilum (very rarely at the opposite extremity), sometimes curved suddenly back: cotyledons thick and fleshy, or leafy.— Trees or shrubs: juice resinous, gummy, caustic, or milky. Leaves alternate, not dotted.—Ex. Anacardium (Plate CXIII.), Mangifera, Rhus.

Suborder 2. Spondiaceæ. Kunth. Flowers sometimes unisexual. Calyx 5-cleft, regular. Petals 5: estivation between valvate and imbricate. Stamens ten, perigynous. Torus large, discoid, or annular. Ovarium superior, sessile, 2-5-celled: ovules solitary, ascending or pendulous: styles five, short: stigmas obtuse. Fruit drupaceous, 2-5-celled. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees. Leaves unipar- tinate, alternate, not dotted, exstipulate.—Ex. Spondias.

Suborder 3. Burseraceæ. Kunth. Flowers usually bi- sexual. Calyx persistent, somewhat regular, 2-5-divided. Petals 3-5: estivation usually valvate. Stamens two or four times as many as petals, perigynous. Torus orbicular or an- nular. Ovarium 2-5-celled, superior, sessile: ovules in pairs, collateral, suspended: style one or none: stigma simple or lobed. Fruit drupaceous, 2-5-celled, its outer portion often splitting into valves. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle straight, superior, next the hilum: cotyledons fleshy, or wrinkled and plaited.—Trees or shrubs abound- ing in balsam, gum, or resin. Leaves alternate, usually not dotted, generally with stipules.—Ex. Bursera, Icica.

Suborder 4. Amyridæ. Kunth. Calyx small, regular, persistent, four-divided. Petals four, inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous, Kunth), equal, narrow at the base: estivation imbricated. Stamens twice as many as the petals, and inserted with them, distinct. Torus thin, discoid, covering the base of the calyx. Ovarium super- ior, sessile, one-celled: ovules two, pendulous: stigma ses- sile, capitate. Fruit somewhat drupaceous, indehiscent, glandular. Seed one. Albumen none. Radicle super- ior, next the hilum, very short: cotyledons fleshy.—Resi- nous trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, compound, dotted. —Ex. Amyris.

We look on these suborders as parts of one order, and ge-

1 Homer's Odyssey, ix. line 94. Leaves alternate, with usually two stipules at the base of the petiole, and two at the base of each leaflet in the pinnate leaves. Pedicels usually articulated.—Ex. *Pisum*, *Citrus*, *Mimosa*, *Swartzia*, *Cassia*.

This order touches upon many others, but it is particularly allied to the almond tribe among the Rosaceae, from which, till lately that Mr Brown pointed it out in the relative positions of the calyx and pistillum, no good character had been discovered to separate them.—This family is among the most important to man, whether as affording objects of beauty, of utility, or of nutriment. The bean, the pea, the vetch, and the clover tribe belong to it; as do the logwood, the laburnum, indigo, the tamarind, senna, and the acacias. Its general property is to be wholesome; but there are several exceptions. Thus, the seeds of Laburnum and the juice of *Coronilla varia* are poisonous. Senna, obtained from several species of *Cassia*, is purgative; several other plants are also purgative. The pericarp of some contains much tannin. Several kinds of gums and balsams are got from them. But it would consume pages to enumerate all the uses to which this, one of the most extensive orders in the vegetable kingdom, has been applied.

Order 61. *Moringeae*. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-partite: estivation slightly imbricated. Petals five, nearly equal, the upper one ascending. Stamens ten, perigynous: filaments slightly petaloid, callous, and hairy at the base: anthers simple, one-celled, with a thick convex connectivum. Torus fleshy, lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, stipitate, one-celled: style filiform, terminal, not obliquely inserted: stigma simple. Placentae three, parietal. Fruit a pod-like capsule, one-celled, three-valved, loculicid. Seeds numerous, half-buried in the fungous substance of the valves. Albumen none. Radicle straight, small: cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex.—Leaves twice or thrice pinnate, with an odd leaflet.—Ex. *Moringa*.

Formerly considered as part of Leguminosae, but now separated by Mr Brown. It seems, however, to have more affinity with these than with any others; nor do we see in the fruit very grave objections for such a supposition, as the flowers of *Gleditschia* have occasionally two carpels united in the same manner as the three of *Moringa*. The root of *Moringa pteriogyna*, or horse-radish tree, has a warm, biting, and slightly aromatic taste, and is used as a stimulant in paralytic affections and intermittent fevers.

Order 62. *Rosaceae*. JUSS.

Suborder 1. *Chrysobalanaceae*. R. BROWN. Calyx five-lobed, the fifth lobe superior, sometimes bracteolate at the base. Petals five, or wanting, more or less irregular. Stamens definite or indefinite, usually irregular. Ovarium superior, solitary, 1-2-celled, stipitate, the stalk cohering more or less on one side with the calyx: ovules in pairs, erect: style single, arising from the base of the ovary: stigma simple. Drupe 1-2-celled. Seeds usually solitary, erect. Albumen none, or rarely fleshy. Radicle inferior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate, without glands.—Ex. *Chrysobalanus*, *Hirtella*.

Suborder 2. *Amygdalaceae*. JUSS. Calyx five-toothed, the odd lobe superior. Petals five. Stamens about twenty, in estivation curved inwards: anthers erect, two-celled. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, solitary, simple, one-celled: ovules two, suspended: styles terminal, with a groove on each side: stigma reniform. Fruit a drupe. Seeds usually solitary, suspended from the funiculus, which arises from the base of the cavity, but coheres with its side. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons thick.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. *Prunus*, *Amygdalus*.

Suborder 3. *Neilliae*. Calyx campanulate; five-cleft: arrangement of the odd segment superior. Petals five, sessile. Stamens ment and indefinite, unequal: filaments smooth: anthers erect, bilocular, dehiscing on the outside longitudinally. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, simple, one-celled: ovules several, ascending: style round, terminal, persistent: stigma simple, obtuse. Capsule one-celled, dehiscing at the inner or ventral suture. Seeds several. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo in the axis of the albumen: radicle next the hilum, thick, short: cotyledons plano-convex.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. *Neillia*.

Suborder 4. *Spireae*. JUSS. Calyx 4-5-lobed, fifth lobe superior: estivation imbricated. Petals five, equal. Stamens indefinite, in estivation curved inwards: anthers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus thin or fleshy, lining the whole tube of the calyx, or free in its upper part. Ovaria superior, one or several, apocarpos, or rarely cohering: ovules 1-6 in each carpel, suspended: styles lateral, but near the apex: stigmas simple, emarginate. Fruit usually of distinct follicles, very rarely capsular. Seeds 1-6, apterous, or rarely winged. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, stipulate, or rarely without stipules, simple, or rarely trifoliolate.—Ex. *Spirea*, *Gillenia*.

Suborder 5. *Quillajae*. DON. Calyx five-cleft: estivation valvate. Petals five, alternate with the segments of the calyx, sometimes wanting. Stamens two or three times as many as the segments of the calyx, perigynous: anthers two-celled. Ovaria five, connate at the base, one-celled: ovules indefinite, ascending: styles five: stigmas five, lateral, papillose. Fruit of five follicles, connate at their base. Seeds numerous, ascending, winged at the apex. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle cylindrical, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, convolute, longer than the radicle.—Trees. Leaves alternate, entire. Stipules minute, caduous. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. *Quillaja*, *Kagezieba*.

Suborder 6. *Sanguisorbeae*. JUSS. Calyx 3-4-5-lobed, with a thickened, afterwards indurated, tube: estivation valvate. Petals none. Stamens definite, alternating with the segments of the calyx (though sometimes fewer than them by abortion), rarely indefinite: anthers erect, two-celled and bursting longitudinally, or one-celled and bursting transversely. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium 1-4, with a lateral style proceeding from the apex or base: ovule solitary, attached to the ovarium, close to the base of the style: stigma simple, penicilliform, or bearded, or rarely capitate. Nuts 1-4. Seed solitary, suspended, or ascending. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons large, plano-convex.—Leaves alternate, stipulate, simple, lobed, or compound. Flowers often unisexual.—Ex. *Sanguisorba*, *Aconia*.

Suborder 7. *Potentilleae*. JUSS. Calyx 4-5- (or more-) divided: estivation valvate. Petals as many as the lobes of the calyx, and alternating. Stamens indefinite, sometimes 10-15-20, rarely five, and then alternate with the petals: anthers bilocular. Torus lining the tube of the calyx, sometimes becoming very fleshy: ovaria distinct, indefinite, or rarely definite (2-5): ovules suspended, erect, or ascending, solitary, or rarely in pairs, one above the other: style lateral, attached near the apex: stigma simple or plumose. Fruit of small nuts or achenes. Seeds solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, often compound, stipulate.—Ex. *Potentilla*, *Dryas*, *Fragaria*.

Suborder 8. *Rosae*. JUSS. Calyx five-divided, segments often pinnatisect; tube contracted at the mouth, at length fleshy: estivation spirally imbricated. Petals five. Stamens indefinite: anthers two-celled. Torus Arrange thick, lining the tube of the calyx, bearing at its marginment and the stamens and petals, and on its surface the carpels.

Character. Ovaries superior, indefinite, concealed within the tube of the calyx; ovules in pairs, one above the other, suspended; styles persistent, lateral, attached near the apex of the ovary, protruded beyond the tube of the calyx, and their upper portions free or rarely concrete. Achenia numerous, hairy. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Shrubs. Leaves pinnate, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Rosa.

Suborder 9. Pomaceae. Juss. Calyx five-toothed, the odd segment superior: tube more or less globose, extremely fleshy and juicy. Petals five, unguiculate. Stamens indefinite. Torus thin, lining the tube of the calyx, bearing the petals and stamens on its margin. Ovary 1-5, adhering to the side of the calyx: ovules ascending, two collateral, or rarely solitary: styles 1-5: stigmas simple. Fruit a pomeum, 1-5-celled, or spuriously 10-celled: endocarp cartilaginous, spongy, or bony. Seeds numerous. Albumen none. Radicle short, next the hilum: cotyledons flat, or rarely convolute.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Pyrus, Crataegus.

These nine suborders we do not hesitate in thinking portions of one; nor are genuine marks to be found between them. The most distinct is the Chrysobalanaceae: the Neilliaceae form a passage to the Homalineae; but as for the others, we do not see how they are to be limited inter se. The true Sanguisorbeae have no petals, few stamens, and definite ovaria; while the Potentillaceae ought to have petals, numerous stamens, and numerous carpels: but Cerocarpus having no petals, has many stamens; Sibbaldia has petals, with five stamens and carpels; Arenaria has petals, definite stamens, and two carpels; thus leaving between the two suborders no character but in the presence or absence of the petals. Nor is Roseae scarcely distinct on the one hand from Potentillaceae, and on the other from Pomaceae. Nearadaceae we have referred to the Ficoidae.—As to properties, the fruit of some of the Chrysobalanaceae is eaten under the name of the coca-plum. Amygdalaceae, including the Plum, Cherry, Almond, Peach, &c., are well known: the leaves and kernel contain hydrocyanic acid, and are usually poisonous. The other suborders are in general wholesome: they contain an astringent principle, on account of which some are used as febrifuges: the roots of a few are emetic.

Order 63. Calycanthaceae. Lindl.

Sepals and petals confounded, indefinite, combined in a fleshy tube: estivation imbricate. Stamens indefinite, perigynous: anthers extrorse, bursting longitudinally. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovaria several, simple, one-celled, adhering to the tube of the calyx: ovules solitary, or in pairs, one above the other: style terminal. Achenia inclosed within the fleshy tube of the calyx. Seed solitary. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons convolute.—Shrubs with square stems. Leaves opposite, simple, scabious, exstipulate. Flowers bisexual, axillary, solitary.—Ex. Calycanthus, Chimomanthus.

Most nearly allied to the Rosaceae, although in some points they bear a resemblance to the Monimiaceae: even to the Magnoliaceae there is an affinity through Illicium. The aromatic fragrance of the flowers is the only known property.

Order 64. Salicaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Lythraceae. Juss. Calyx tubular or campanulate, lobed, the lobes sometimes with intermediate accessory lobes or teeth: estivation valvate. Petals alternate with the lobes of the calyx, very deciduous, sometimes wanting. Stamens inserted a little below the petals, equal in number to them, or two, three, or four times as many, rarely fewer: anthers introrse, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium superior, 2-4-celled: ovules numerous: style filiform: stigma usually capitate. Placentae in the axis. Capsule membranous, surrounded by, but not combined with, the calyx: usually one-celled by the obliteration of the dissepiments, bursting longitudinally or irregularly. Seeds numerous, small, anterous or winged. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat and foliaceous.—Herbs or shrubs with usually tetragonal branches. Leaves opposite or (seldom) alternate, entire, exstipulate, and without glands. Flowers bisexual.—Ex. Lythrum, Lagerstroemia.

Suborder 2. Ceratophyllaceae. Gray. Calyx 10-12-partite, lobes equal. Petals none. Stamens 12-20: anthers ovato-oblong, bilocular, bicuspitate, sessile. Ovarium free, ovate, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform, oblique: stigma simple. Nut one-celled, indehiscent, terminated by the indurated style. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons four! alternately smaller.—Aquatic herbs. Leaves verticillate, cut into filiform lobes. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. Ceratophyllum.

Much as these two suborders differ in appearance, we have the authority of Richard for uniting them. It must be confessed, however, that their chief great resemblance is in the persistent calyx, free from, but surrounding, the fruit.—Lythrum Salicaria is astringent: a few species of the order are used for dyeing.

Order 65. Rhizophoraceae. R. Brown.

Calyx 4-13-lobed: estivation valvate, or sometimes cryptipetal. Petals inserted on the calyx: alternate with the lobes, and equal to them in number. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice or thrice as many: filaments distinct, subulate: anthers erect, straight, or incurved. Ovarium two-celled, adherent to the calyx, or (rarely) free: ovules two or more in each cell, pendulous. Fruit indehiscent, one-celled. Seed pendulous, solitary. Albumen none. Radicle long: cotyledons flat.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, opposite, with stipules between the petioles.—Ex. Rhizophora.

Allied on the one hand to Salicaceae; and on the other to Saxifragaceae (Cunoniaceae): to Vochysiaceae and Combretaceae its affinity is also strong.—The bark is astringent, and in some cases is used for dyeing black.

Order 66. Vochysiaceae. St Hilaire.

Sepals 4-5, unequal, united at the base, the upper one spurred: estivation imbricated. Petals one, two, three, or five, alternate with and inserted into the base of the sepals, unequal. Stamens 1-5, opposite to or alternate with the petals, for the most part sterile, one having an ovate, fertile, four-celled anther. Ovarium free, or adherent to the calyx, three-celled: ovules solitary or in pairs, rarely more: style and stigma one. Placentae in the axis. Capsule trigonous, three-celled, three-valved, loculicidic, or rarely septicidic. Seeds usually 1-2 (rarely many) in each cell, erect (Lindl.). Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons large, foliaceous, convolute, plicate.—Trees. Leaves opposite, entire, stipulate (very rarely exstipulate).—Ex. Vochysia, Qualea.

An order as yet ill understood, but seemingly most allied to Combretaceae and Onagraceae.

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1 We have arranged this and the fifteen following orders somewhat differently from what De Candolle has done; but we trust they are disposed in a more natural series. Order 67. Combretaceae. R. Brown.

Calyx 4-5-lobed, lobes deciduous. Petals alternate with the lobes, or wanting. Stamens twice as many as the lobes, rarely equal in number to them or thrice as many; filaments distinct, subulate; anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium adherent with the tube of the calyx, one-celled; ovules 2-4, pendulous from the apex of the cavity; style one, slender; stigma simple. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or nut-like, one-celled, indehiscent, often winged. Seed solitary (by abortion), pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons leafy, usually convolute, sometimes plicate.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Combretum, Terminalia.

Allied to Onagraceae, Mecynocleae, Myrtaceae, and even to Santalaceae and Elaeocarpaceae.—The species of this order are mostly astringents: the bark, therefore, of some is used for tanning; others are employed in dyeing. Terminalia Vernix is said to furnish the Chinese varnish, which is poisonous.

Order 68. Mecynocleae. D. C.

Calyx 4-5-lobed or toothed. Petals 4-5, alternate with the sepals. Stamens twice as many as the petals: filaments distinct; anthers incurved, two-celled. Ovarium 2-3-celled, adherent with the tube of the calyx: ovules solitary: style one, filiform: stigma simple. Berry (balausta?) crowned by the limb of the calyx, one, four, or eight-celled. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous, convolute.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, without stipules or dots, pennimarginated or rarely three-nerved.—Ex. Mecynoclyon, Mourria.

Near Myrtaceae and Melastomaceae, and in some respects intermediate.

Order 69. Melastomaceae. Juss.

Calyx with four or five teeth or divisions, which are more or less deep, or are sometimes united and separate from the tube like a lid. Petals equal to the segments of the calyx, perigynous. Stamens equal in number to the petals, and alternate with them, usually with intermediate sterile ones: filaments in estivation bent downwards between the carpels and the calyx: anthers long, two-celled, usually bursting by two terminal pores, sometimes longitudinally. Ovarium with several cells, more or less cohering with the calyx by its angles, but otherwise free: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple, entire, punctiform or capitate. Placenta in the axis. Fruit plurilocular, either free, and then capsular, valvate, and loculicidal, or adherent, baccate (a balausta), and indehiscent. Seeds numerous, minute. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons equal or unequal.—Leaves opposite, undivided, not dotted, 3-9-nerved.—Ex. Melastoma, Rhexia, Charianthus.

Bordering on both the Salicariaceae and Myrtaceae, but differing from these and other allied orders in several particulars. The great characteristic of this order is the singular situation of the filaments in estivation.—There are no unwholesome species in this large family, and the succulent fruit of several is eatable and pleasant. They all possess a slight degree of astringency.

Order 70. Alangiacae. D. C.

Calyx campanulate, 5-10-toothed, with an annular fleshy disc, or continuation of the torus at the base of the segments. Petals as many as the segments of the calyx, linear, reflexed: estivation twisted. Stamens long, exserted, two or four times as many as the petals: filaments distinct, villous at the base: anthers introrse, two-celled, often sterile. Ovarium globose: style one, subulate: stigma capitate or conical. Berry (balausta) oval, ment and coherent with the tube of the calyx, and somewhat crowned by its limb, fleshy, slightly ribbed, 1-3-celled: endocarp sometimes osseous, and separating from the sarcocarp like a putamen. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen fleshy, brittle. Embryo straight: radicle long, ascending: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, entire, not dotted.—Ex. Alangium.

Closely allied to the Melastomaceae, from which they differ in very few particulars. To Myrtaceae they also bear so strong a resemblance, that till lately they were inserted in that order.—The fruit is eatable. The juice of the root is said to be vermifuge and hydragogic; and the root itself, in powder, efficacious against the bite of serpents.

Order 71. Philadelphaceae. Dox.

Calyx 4-10-divided. Petals alternate with the segments of the calyx, and equal to them in number: estivation convolute-imbricate. Stamens indefinite, in one or two rows, or rarely ten. Ovarium coherent with the tube of the calyx: styles distinct, or united into one: stigmas 4-10. Capsule free above, 4-5-celled. Seeds indefinite, scrobiform, subulate, smooth, pendulous, heaped in the inner angle of the cells upon an angular placenta: arillus loose, membranous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight, about as long as the albumen: radicle superior, obtuse: cotyledons flat, shorter than the radicle.—Shrubs. Leaves deciduous, opposite, without dots or stipules.—Ex. Philadelphus, Deutzia, Decumaria.

This small order borders on the Myrtaceae, and also on the Saxifragaceae. Decumaria is usually described with a fruit of 7-10 cells, but Mr Don't asserts it has but four. Mr Lindley doubts if the cover to the seed be an arillus; but if it were the testa, then the interior portion could not have been attached next the hilum, as in these plants, in order to have produced a radicle pointing also towards it.

Order 72. Myrtaceae. Juss.

Calyx 4-5-6-8-cleft; the limb sometimes cohering in two portions, sometimes in one, and then falling off like a cup or lid. Petals perigynous, as many as the segments of the calyx, and alternating with them, sometimes slightly united at the very base; rarely none: estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many as the petals, or (usually) indefinite: filaments either all distinct, or monadelphous, or variously polyadelphous, in estivation curved inwards. Anthers ovate, bilocular, small, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, formed of two, four, five, or six carpels, the dissepiments rarely imperfect, and hence one to six-celled: style and stigma simple. Placenta in the axis. Fruit dry or fleshy, dehiscent or indehiscent, 2-6 or many-celled, or by the obliteration of the dissepiments one-celled. Seeds rarely solitary, or few, usually indefinite. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons distinct, or sometimes consolidated into one mass with the radicle.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves usually opposite, entire, and with transparent dots, sometimes alternate, rarely serrated, and rarely without dots.—Ex. Chamaeleoicum, Calytrix: Leptospermum, Eucalyptus: Myrtus, Eugenia: Barringtonia, Gustavia: Bertholletia, Lecythis.

This very extensive family has been separated into five sections by De Candolle; but, however desirable it might be to erect these into independent orders, no good characters have yet been pointed out. We shall here give a summary of the sections. 1. Chamaeleoicum has a one- celled ovarium and capsule, with leaves opposite, and dotted. 2. *Leptospermum* has a plurilocular capsule, opposite or alternate leaves, which are usually dotted. 3. *Myrtaceae* has a berry or balausta, distinct stamens, opposite leaves, which are almost always dotted. 4. *Barringtonia* has a fleshy, one-celled fruit, monadelphous stamens, opposite or verticillate leaves without dots. 5. *Leechthideae* has a plurilocular woody capsule that opens with a lid or remains closed; monadelphous stamens, and leaves alternate, and not dotted. To the Myrtaceae we, with Mr Lindley, unite the Granatæce, because *Punica* or the pomegranate only differs by having its two verticels of carpels developed instead of one, as in plants not in a state of cultivation; the inner series (or those at the bottom of the fruit) have their placenta in the axis; but the outer series, forced to the top of the fruit by the contraction of the mouth of the tube of the calyx, having their placenta in the ovary at the back of the inner carpels, exhibit them in the ripe fruit in a horizontal position on the upper surface of the lower cells.—The dots on the leaves and other parts indicate the presence of a volatile oil, which is aromatic and pungent, and gives the perfume to the cloves of commerce, and to several fruits of this order. The fleshy seeds of the Leecheideae are eatable, and highly esteemed.

Order 73. *Onagraceae*. Juss.

Calyx tubular, with the limb usually quadripartite; sometimes sexpartite, very rarely 2-3-partite, the lobes sometimes cohering in various degrees: estivation valvate. Petals usually equal in number to the lobes of the calyx, regular (or rarely irregular), inserted at the top of the tube: estivation twisted. Stamens definite: filaments distinct: anthers oblong or ovate: pollen triangular. Ovarium plurilocular, cohering with the tube of the calyx: ovules indefinite, rarely definite: style filiform: stigma capitate or lobed. Fruit baccate or capsular, indehiscent or indehiscent, 1-2-4-celled. Seeds indefinite, rarely definite, or solitary in each cell. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle long and slender, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons short, equal, or rarely unequal.—Leaves alternate or opposite, not dotted.—Ex. *Montinia*, *Fuchsia*, *Epilobium*, *Jussiaea*, *Circeea*, *Trapa*.

Distinguished from Salicaceae by the adherent fruit; from Myrtaceae by the definite stamens and leaves not dotted; from Haloragaceae by the filiform style and absence of albumen; and from Lassaceae by the seeds attached to the central axis, and not to the wall of the fruit. With all these, however, Onagraceae are intimately allied. Lindley has separated from this family *Circeea* and *Trapa*; the former on account of its solitary seeds, but then *Gaura* is in the same predicament. *Trapa* is chiefly remarkable for its very large seeds and unequal cotyledons.—Almost no properties have been recorded of these beautiful plants. The seeds of *Trapa*, which are very large, are eatable.

Order 74. *Haloragaceae*. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. *Cercodendron*. Rich. Calyx with the limb 3-4-partite or entire. Petals inserted at the top of the tube of the calyx, and alternate with its segments, or wanting. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many, or equal to them in number, rarely fewer. Ovarium closely cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-3-4-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: style 0: stigmas equal in number to the cells, papillose on their inner surface, or penicilliform. Fruit dry and indehiscent, membranous or bony, with as many cells as stigmas (rarely fewer by abortion). Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen fleshy, sometimes thin. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen: radicle superior, long: cotyledons minute.—Leaves alternate, opposite, or whorled. Flowers axillary, sessile, occasionally unisexual.—Ex. *Halorogis*, *Hippuris*, *Myriophyllum*.

Suborder 2. *Callitrichæ*. Link. Calyx exceedingly minute, inconspicuous, surrounding the ovarium, soon rupturing. Petals wanting. Stamen one, rarely two: filaments filiform, grooved in the inside: anther reniform, one-celled, bursting transversely. Ovarium solitary, tetragonal, compressed, two-celled (of two carpels, the dorsal sutures being slightly inflexed towards the axis): ovules in pairs, peltate: styles none: stigmas two, filiform, papillose on their inner surface. Fruit two-celled, contracted at the dorsal sutures, at once loculicidal and septicidal (thus as if composed of four achenia, attached round the base of the stigmas by the centre of their inner angle). Seeds, two in each cell, divaricating (or in each achene solitary), peltate. Embryo slightly curved, in the axis of a thin fleshy albumen: radicle superior, long: cotyledons very short.—Aquatic herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite, simple, entire. Flowers axillary, very minute, usually unisexual, sometimes with two small bracteas at the base of the short peduncle.—Ex. *Callitriche*.

Between these two suborders there is little difference except the seeds solitary or in pairs; the last is usually described with four cells to the fruit, although with only two stigmas, an incongruity too obvious to require discussion; the structure is as in the Boraginae and Labiatae. The nearest affinity is with the Onagraceae, from which they only differ by the presence of albumen, which, however, is sometimes very thin indeed.

Order 75. *Loasaceae*. Juss.

Calyx five-parted, persistent, in estivation spreading. Petals five, cucullate, arising from the top of the tube of the calyx, and alternate with its segments, sometimes with an inner series of five, either similar to the outer or dissimilar: estivation inflexed, valvate. Stamens indefinite, in several rows, distinct, or polyadelpheus, each parcel opposite the outer petals: filaments subulate, unequal, the outer ones often sterile. Ovarium adherent with the tube of the calyx, or (rarely) only inclosed within it, one-celled: ovules several: styles 3-7, combined into one: stigma one or several. Placentæ parietal. Fruit capsular or succulent, one-celled, 3-7-valved, septicidal. Seeds usually indefinite, rarely definite, without an arillus. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen, straight: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons small, flat.—Herbaceous plants, hispid, with sharp stinging hairs. Leaves opposite or alternate. Peduncles axillary, one-flowered.—Ex. *Loasa* (Plate CXVIII.), *Mentzelia*.

This family is most readily distinguished from those, with which it might be otherwise confounded, by the parietal placentæ. With Onagraceae it has much, but with Cucurbitaceae, as we conceive, little affinity. The cuticle of the stem sometimes separates readily while growing.—The stinging property is the only one known.

Order 76. *Cucurbitaceae*. Juss.

Calyx 5-toothed, sometimes obsolete. Petals five, distinct or more or less united, sometimes scarcely distinguishable from the calyx, strongly marked with reticulating veins, sometimes fringed. Stamens five, distinct or tridelphous: anthers 2-celled, usually long and sinuous, rarely ovate. Ovarium adhering to the tube of the calyx, of 3-5-carpels, spuriously, one-celled: ovules solitary or indefinite: style short: stigmas 3-5, two-lobed, very thick, velvety or fringed. Fruit a peponida. Seeds usually ovate and flat, enveloped in a juicy, or dry and membranous, arilla: testa coriaceous, often thick at the margin. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, palmatinerved.—Stem succulent, climbing by means of lateral tendrils formed of abortive stipules. Leaves palmatinerved, alternate. Flowers usually unisexual.—Ex. *Cucumis*, *Bryonia*.

This order bears considerable affinity to the last. Brown and Jussieu consider the calyx and corolla together as a double calyx; and were it not for the obvious affinity of Boliviaceae, we would have removed it to the Monochlamydeae.—The melon, the cucumber, and the gourds, come here, of which the uses are well known. Some, as the colocynth, are extremely bitter and purgative. The seeds of all are sweet and oily, and from some a considerable quantity of fine flavoured oil may be expressed.

Order 77. Papayaceae. Agardh.

Flowers unisexual. Calyx minute, five-toothed. Corolla monopetalous, inserted into the base of the calyx, in the male tubular and five-lobed, in the female divided nearly to the base into five segments. Stamens ten, inserted on the throat of the corolla: anthers introrse, two-celled, bursting longitudinally; those alternate with the lobes of the corolla on short filaments, those opposite to the lobes sessile. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules indefinite: stigmas sessile, five-lobed, lacerated. Placentas five, parietal. Fruit succulent, indehiscent, one-celled. Seeds indefinite, parietal, enveloped in a loose mucous coat: testa brittle, pitted. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle slender, turned towards the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Trees without branches. Leaves alternate, lobed, on long slender petioles.—Ex. Carica (Plate CXXIV.)

Formerly referred to the neighbourhood of the Urticaceae, but now considered as more allied to the Cucurbitaceae and Passifloraceae, especially in the structure of its fruit.—The tree yields an acrid milky juice. The fruit is cooked and eaten. Its juice, when unripe, is a very powerful vermifuge. When newly-killed meat of any kind is suspended among the leaves, it in the course of a few hours becomes quite tender.

Order 78. Beleziaceae. R. Brown.

Calyx monosporalous, persistent: limb divided. Corolla monopetalous, plaited, deciduous, inserted on the summit of the tube of the calyx. Stamens either indefinite, or ten with an outer row of abortive ones converted into a much laciniated inner monopetalous corolla, distinct or polyadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium adhering to the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules indefinite: style one, short: stigma one, lobed or angular. Placentas parietal. Fruit a fleshy berry, crowned by the lobes of the calyx, one-celled. Seeds numerous, parietal.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate. Flowers axillary and solitary, bisexual.—Ex. Belesia, Asteranthos.

This small order exhibits much affinity to both Cucurbitaceae and Passifloraceae. Belesia is the same genus as Napolianaceae, an older name, and which ought therefore to be retained. A comparison of Asteranthos will readily show that the inner corolla of Belesia is, as we have stated, formed of an outer row of stamens.

Order 79. Passifloraceae. Juss.

Sepals five or ten, united below into a more or less elongated tube, in one or two series, the outer being larger and foliaceous, the inner more petaloid, and sometimes wanting. Petals perigynous, usually represented by an annular or many filamentous processes, rarely five, distinct, and with the usual appearance of petals. Stamens five (very rarely indefinite), monadelphous, usually with processes from the torus between them and the petals: anthers versatile, turned outwards, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules indefinite: styles three, or four, or none. Fruit naked or surrounded by the calyx, one-celled, usually three-valved, sometimes dehiscent and loculicidal, sometimes fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds indefinite, compressed, with an arilus or strophiida: testa brittle, sculptured. Embryo straight, in the centre of a thin fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.

Tribe 1. Paropsiaceae. Petals five, membranaceous. Stamens five or numerous: ovarium sessile: stigma of three, Arrangement four, or five divisions: capsule with as many valves as ment and divisions of the stigma. Seeds with a thick fleshy arillus: Characters. cotyledons foliaceous.—Shrubs, not climbing, without tendrils. Leaves alternate, without glands, exstipulate.—Ex. Patrisia, Smuthamnia.

Tribe 2. Passifloraceae verae. Petals deformed. Stamens five, opposite the outer divisions of the calyx: ovarium stipitate: stigma sessile, three-lobed: capsule three-valved: seeds with a pulpy arillus: cotyledons foliaceous.—Usually climbing plants, with tendrils. Leaves alternate, stipulate, usually with glands on the petioles.—Ex. Passiflora, Tucsonia.

Tribe 3. Malesherbiaceae. Calyx tubulous: petals changed into a ten-toothed membranous corona: stamens five, opposite the inner segments of the calyx (Dox) or ten: ovarium stipitate: styles three, inserted below the apex of the ovary: capsule three-valved: placenta not higher up than the dehiscence of the valves: seeds strophiolate, cotyledons fleshy.—Suffrutescent plants, not climbing, without tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate, without glands.—Ex. Malesherbia.

We think the view we have taken of the corolla is borne out by a comparison of the different genera in this with all those in the allied neighbouring orders. There is a considerable affinity between these and the Violariaceae, Flacourtianae, and Capparideae; but through Malesherbia it is strongest with the Turneraceae.—In several species the succulent arillus and pulp has been found to be fragrant, cooling, and agreeable to the taste.

Order 80. Turneraceae. D. C.

Calyx with five equal lobes: estivation imbricated. Petals five, inserted into the tube of the calyx: estivation twisted. Stamens five, inserted a little below the petals, and alternating: filaments distinct: anthers oblong, erect, two-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules indefinite: styles three, more or less cohering, or bifid: stigmas multifid. Placentae three, parietal. Capsule one-celled, three-valved, loculicidal, bursting only halfway down. Seeds indefinite, crustaceous, reticulated, with a thin arillus on one side. Embryo slightly curved, in the middle of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants, pubescent, but not stinging. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, sometimes biglandular at the apex of the petiole.—Ex. Turnera, Piriqueta.

Considerably allied in habit to the Clatinereae, but differing in several respects in character. Kunth makes it a section of Losseae; but the hairs are not stinging, the estivation of the corolla is twisted, and the styles only united at the base.

Order 81. Fouquieriaceae. D. C.

Sepals five, persistent, ovate, or roundish: estivation imbricated. Petals five, regular, combined in a long tube, arising from the base of the calyx. Stamens 10-12, inserted, distinct, inserted with the petals, but not cohering with them: anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, sessile, somewhat three-celled: ovules indefinite: style filiform, trifid. Capsule triangular, imperfectly three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal. Seeds partly abortive, compressed, winged, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a thin fleshy albumen: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves fleshy, clustered in the axilla of a spine or cushion.—Ex. Fouquieria, Bromia.

A family very little known, chiefly allied to the Portulacae and Crassulaceae: to Turneraceae their affinity is slight, as the fruit is really trilocular, and not one-celled.

Order 82. Portulacaceae. Juss.

Sepals two, seldom three or five, cohering at the base. Petals usually five, sometimes three, four, or six; or rarely wanting, distinct, or cohering at the base, inserted at the very base of the sepals, sometimes hypogynous, alternate with the sepals when of the same number. Stamens inserted with the petals, variable in number, all fertile; filaments distinct, when definite opposite to the petals or alternating with the sepals; anthers versatile, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium one, free, one-celled; style single or none; stigmas several. Capsule one-celled, dehiscing transversely (a pyxidium), or by three valves. Seeds numerous or three (solitary? by abortion), in one plant scarcely known, attached to a central placenta or to the base of the fruit, campylotropous; tests usually crustaceous and black. Embryo curved round the circumference of a farnaceous albumen; radicle long.—Succulent plants. Leaves usually alternate, without stipules, or with scariosus ones at each side at the base.—Ex. Portulaca, Talinum, Calendrinia (Plate CXVI.), Montia.

This family bears so much affinity to the Caryophyllaceae, and to Illecebræ, that it is difficult to discriminate them. Caryophyllaceae have, however, no stipules, nor a pyxidium, nor a calyx of two sepals; and the stamens (when few) are opposite to the sepals, and hypogynous. Illecebræ and Scleranthæ, on the other hand, have fertile stamens opposite the sepals, alternating with others that are either fertile or sterile, or with petals, which are sometimes wanting. We exclude from this order the genus Aymeria, of which the two bracteas, five sepals, alternately sterile stamens and scarious stipules, mark it to belong to the Illecebræ near to Cerda.—Insipidity and want of smell are the usual qualities of this tribe.

Order 83. Paronychiaceæ. St Hil.

Suborder 1. Illecebræ. R. Brown. Sepals five, sometimes distinct, sometimes more or less cohering. Petals between the lobes of the calyx, sometimes conspicuous, usually small, and resembling sterile stamens, sometimes wanting. Stamens perigynous or hypogynous, opposite the sepals (when equal to them in number), some of them occasionally wanting; filaments distinct, or rarely united; anthers two-celled. Ovarium superior; styles two or three, distinct or partially combined. Fruit small, one-celled, an utricle, or a 3-5-valved capsule. Seeds either numerous upon a free central placenta, or solitary and pendulous from a long funiculus arising from the bottom of the fruit. Embryo lying on one side of a farnaceous albumen, more or less curved; radicle pointing to the hilum; cotyledons small.—Leaves opposite or alternate, entire, with scariosus stipules.—Ex. Telephium, Illecebrum, Polygarpæa, Pollichia.

Suborder 2. Scleranthæ. R. Brown. Sepals 4-5, more or less cohering. Petals between the lobes of the calyx, perigynous, resembling sterile or fertile stamens, sometimes wanting. Stamens equal to the sepals in number, and opposite to them, sometimes fewer; filaments distinct; anthers two-celled, or rarely one-celled. Ovarium superior; styles 2-3, distinct, or combined into one. Fruit one-celled, either an utricle covered by the calyx, or a three-valved capsule. Seeds campylotropous, solitary, pendulous from a long funiculus proceeding from the base of the utricle; or one or several attached to a central placenta. Embryo cylindrical, curved round a farnaceous albumen.—Leaves opposite, usually setaceous, without stipules.—Ex. Scleranthus, Queria, Minuartia.

Upon carefully examining these suborders, they will be found to present no difference but the presence or absence of the membranaceous stipules. These, however, will distinguish the Illecebræ from both the Caryophyllaceae and Amaranthaceæ, and the accessory stamens or petals will separate the Scleranthæ from the Chenopodiæ. The Paronychiæ, as a whole, form the passage to the Monochlamydeæ; for what are here termed petals or abortive stamens, constitute in the Amaranthaceæ what are often called processes or teeth between the stamens, nor is there any practical difference between them. Lithophila, referred here by De Candolle, having three scarious bractæ, a calyx of five unequal sepals, no corolla, two stamens united at their base with a membranous tube round the ovary, unicellular anthers, an utricular fruit, two long subulate stigmas, and no stipules, evidently belongs to the Amaranthaceæ, next to Gomphrena.

Order 84. Crassulaceæ. D. C.

Suborder 1. Sempervivæ. Juss. Sepals 3-20, more or less united at the base. Petals equal in number to the sepals, and alternate with them, inserted in the bottom of the calyx, either distinct or cohering in a gamopetalous corolla. Stamens inserted with the petals, equalling them in number, and alternate, or twice as many, those opposite the petals being shortest, and arriving at perfection before the others. Filaments distinct, subulate; anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Nectariferous scales (abortive stamens), one at the base of each ovary, sometimes obsolete. Ovaria equal in number to the petals, and opposite to them, one-celled, tapering each into a short style, distinct, or slightly connected at the base. Fruit of several follicles, opening by the ventral suture. Seeds variable in number. Embryo straight, in the axis of a thin, fleshy albumen; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves succulent (or very rarely membranaceous), entire, or pinnatifid, exstipulate.—Ex. Crassula, Sempervivum, Cotyledon, Penkhorum.

Suborder 2. Galaxiæ. Dox. Sepals 4-5, united at the base, persistent. Petals as many as the sepals, and inserted upon their bases, alternate with them, caducous. Stamens fertile, either equal in number to and alternate with the petals, or twice as many, inserted along with them, with sterile filaments alternating with them, either distinct or monadelphous; anthers two-celled bursting longitudinally, or one-celled bursting transversely. Ovary 3-4-celled, free; ovules indefinite, attached to the inner angles of the carpels; stigma three-cornered or four-lobed. Fruit of 3-4 follicles attached to each other by their inner angles and the stigma, dehiscing at their ventral and dorsal sutures. Seeds indefinite, minute. Embryo (only observed in Galax) straight in the midst of a copious fleshy albumen; radicle long, pointing to the hilum; cotyledons very short.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves radical, simple or pinnatifid, with glandular serratures; stipules none.—Ex. Francoa, Galax.

These two suborders are principally allied by their carpels not being attached to a central axis or column, and thus bear affinity to the Saxifragæ. The Galaxiæ perhaps merit being considered as distinct; but in Galax the sterile filaments opposite to the petals have an affinity with the alternate fertile stamens of Sedum, a relation which is confirmed by the similarly-situated stamens in Francoa being also fertile. In this last genus the sterile filaments are placed between the stamens and petals, and therefore belong, a pair to each petal, and are the choristate lepals of Dumal: in neither genera are there hypogynous scales, as is usual in the Sempervivæ.—This order possesses refrigerant and ablergent properties, mixed sometimes with a good deal of acridity.

Order 85. Picoidæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Aizoideæ. Sprang. Sepals definite (usually five, but varying from four to eight), more or less combined at their base, equal or unequal; estivation valvate or imbricate. Petals indefinite, coloured, sometimes wanting. Stamens perigynous, distinct, definite or indefinite; anthers oblong, incumbent. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, or free, plurilocular (usually five-celled): stigmas several, distinct. Capsule of several cells bursting in a stellate form at the apex. Seeds usually indefinite, rarely definite, or even solitary. Embryo on the outside of a mealy albumen, curved, or rarely spiral.—Leaves succulent, opposite or alternate, simple.—Ex. *Mesembryanthemum*, *Aizoön*.

Suborder 2. *Nitrariaceae*. Lindl. Calyx five-toothed, fleshy, persistent. Petals five, perigynous; estivation inflexed, valvular. Stamens perigynous, three times the number of the petals; anthers erect, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, three- (rarely six-) celled; ovules pendulous, attached by a long funiculus; style none; stigmas sessile on the attenuated apex of the ovary, as many as there are cells. Fruit drupaceous, one-celled; sarcocarp bursting at the apex by 3-6 valves; endosperm osseous. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight; radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves deciduous, succulent, alternate, sometimes fascicled.—Ex. *Nitraria*.

Suborder 3. *Neuradaceae*. Calyx five-cleft, persistent; estivation slightly imbricated. Petals five, perigynous; estivation imbricated. Stamens ten, perigynous. Ovarium syncarpous, cohering at the base with the short tube of the calyx, 5-10-celled; ovules solitary, pendulous; styles 5-10. Capsule 5-10-celled, depressed, indehiscent. Seeds solitary, pendulous, germinating within the capsule. Albumen none. Embryo slightly curved; radicle small, superior, next the hilum; cotyledons large.—Leaves pinnatifid or bipinnatifid, membranaceous, tomentose, stipulate.—Ex. *Neurada*, *Grielium*.

This order is much allied to the Crassulaceae, but is distinguished by the truly syncarpous ovarium; and also to the Portulacaceae. The Nitrariaceae show an affinity with the Rhamnaceae, and the Neuradaceae with the Rosaceae.—The succulent leaves of a few are eaten; some yield an abundance of soda.

Order 86. *Cactaceae*. Juss.

Sepals numerous, usually indefinite, and confounded with the petals, either crowning the ovarium or covering its whole surface. Petals numerous, usually indefinite, sometimes irregular, inserted at the orifice of the calyx. Stamens indefinite, cohering more or less with the petals and sepals; filaments long, filiform; anthers ovate, versatile. Ovarium fleshy, cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled; ovules indefinite; style filiform; stigmas several. Placentae parietal, as many as the stigmas. Fruit succulent, one-celled. Seeds many, after having lost their adhesion nestling in a pulp, ovate or obovate; albumen none. Embryo straight, curved, or spiral; radicle thick, obtuse, next the hilum.—Succulent shrubs. Leaves almost always wanting; when present fleshy, smooth, entire, or spiniform. Flowers sessile.—Ex. *Cactus*, *Rhipsalis*.

Connected chiefly with Grossulariaceae, and somewhat with Portulacaceae; there is also an affinity with the Ficoideae. The ovules in *Rhipsalis* are decidedly parietal, notwithstanding that this has been made an exception by De Candolle.—The fruit of several, known under the name of Indian Figs, is eaten; it resembles somewhat that of the Grossulariaceae, but is more insipid, and is entirely destitute of the acidity found in that order. It is upon the *Cactus* (*Opuntia*) *Tuna*, and *cochinillifera*, principally, that the cochineal insect feeds.

Order 87. *Grossulariaceae*. D. C.

Calyx 4-5-cleft, regular, coloured. Petals perigynous, as many as the segments of the calyx, alternate with them. Stamens 4-5, alternate with the petals, and inserted with them; filaments equal, distinct, usually short; anthers bicellular, bursting longitudinally (or occasionally transversely). Ovarium one-celled, cohering with the tube of the calyx; ovules indefinite; style one, 2-4-cleft. Placentas two, parietal, opposite. Berry crowned with the remains of the flower, one-celled, filled with pulp. Seeds numerous, suspended among the pulp by long filiform recurved fimbrii; testa externally gelatinous. Albumen horny. Embryo straight, very minute at the opposite extremity from the hilum; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, lobed; vernation plicate.—Ex. *Ribes*.

From the Cactaceae they may be distinguished by the structure of the seed, and the habit; and from Onagraceae, Homalineae, and Loasaceae, to all which they are related, by the same and various other characters.—Gooseberries and currants are well known as agreeable acid fruits, owing to the presence of malic acid in them. The black currant is tonic and stimulant, and the leaf is sometimes used to heighten the flavour of bad tea.

Order 88. *Saxifragaceae*. Juss.

Sepals usually five (rarely three, four, seven, or nine), more or less cohering at their base; the limb usually persistent. Petals as many as sepals (except in *Donaia*), inserted on the tube of the calyx, alternate with its lobes, deciduous or persistent, very rarely wanting. Stamens perigynous, either equal to (or rarely fewer than) the petals, and alternate with them; or twice as many as the petals, some alternate, some opposite to them (in one species, by the abortion of the alternating stamens, there are only five, and opposite to the petals); or (in *Baueria*) indefinite; filaments subulate; anthers ovate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally (in *Baueria*) by two pores. Ovarium partly coherent with the tube of the calyx, formed of two (rarely 3-5) carpels, cohering by their introflexed sides, or margins; styles as many as the carpels, distinct, or more or less combined; stigmas capitate or clavate. Placentae along the introflexed margins of the carpels, either throughout the whole length, or at the base only, or at the apex, usually separating with the carpels, rarely attached to a central axis. Fruit capsular, usually of two (rarely 3-5) carpels or valves, the margins of which are either entirely introflexed, or partly introflexed, or scarcely at all when the fruit is one-celled; carpels dehiscing at the ventral suture, separating from each other, either from the base upwards, or from the apex downwards. Seeds usually numerous, rarely definite; albumen fleshy. Embryo small, in the midst of the albumen; radicle pointing towards the hilum.

Tribe 1. *Escalloniaceae*. R. Br. Petals and stamens five (rarely six); ovary adherent, or rarely free; styles two or three combined into one.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate.—Ex. *Escallonia*, *Rea*.

Tribe 2. *Cunoniaceae*. R. Br. Petals 4-5, or none; stamens 8-10; ovary usually free; styles 2-3, distinct, or rarely combined.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, with interpetiolar stipules.—Ex. *Cunonia*, *Weinmannia*.

Tribe 3. *Bauerae*. Lindl. Petals 7-9; stamens indefinite; anthers biporse; ovarium almost free; styles 2-3, distinct.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, ternate, exstipulate.—Ex. *Bauera*.

Tribe 4. *Hydrangeae*. D. C. Petals five; stamens ten; ovarium adherent, or rarely free; styles 2-3, distinct, or rarely combined.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers corymbose; the exterior, and sometimes all of them, sterile and dilated.—Ex. *Hydrangea*, *Broussaisia*.

Tribe 5. *Saxifragae*. D. C. Petals 4-5, or wanting; stamens 8-10, or 3-5; ovarium adherent or free; styles 2-3, distinct, or rarely combined.—Herbs. Leaves exstipulate, alternate, or rarely opposite. Flowers in a raceme or panicle, rarely solitary, all fertile.—Ex. *Saxifraga*, *Chrysosplenium*, *Heuchera*.

We follow De Candolle in not breaking up this large order, each tribe passing imperceptibly into another. It seems to form a central point between several other or- Thus, through Escalloniæ it is allied to the Grossulariæ and Vacciniæ; to the Philadelphiæ and Caprifoliæ through Hydrangeæ; and to Hypericinæ through Saxifragæ. De Candolle also compares it with the Umbelliferae. The albumen of Escallonia, though fleshy, is very oily; and the embryo is in the centre of the albumen, with the radicle pointing to the hilum. Mr Lindley says, erroneously, that the embryo is "in the apex of the albumen, and the radicle at the opposite extremity of the hilum."—The species of Saxifragæ are astringent; the properties of the other tribes are unknown.

Order 89. Bruniaceæ. R. Brown.

Calyx five-lobed; estivation imbricated. Petals alternate with the segments of the calyx, inserted on its throat; estivation imbricated. Stamens alternate with the petals, arising with them, or from a discoid torus; anthers turned inwards, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, or usually cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-3-celled; ovules suspended, solitary, or two collateral ones in each cell, very rarely numerous; style simple or bifid; stigmas one, or 2-3, small, and papilliform. Fruit dry, biccocous, or indehiscent and one-celled, usually crowned by the persistent calyx. Seeds (some of them usually abortive) suspended, sometimes with a short aril. Embryo minute, at the base (next the hilum) of a fleshy albumen; radicle pointing to the hilum; cotyledons short, fleshy.—Branched, heath-like shrubs. Leaves small, imbricated, rigid, entire. Flowers small, capitate, or rarely panicled, spiked, or terminal, and solitary.—Ex. Brania, Stauria, Berardia.

An order thought by De Candolle to be allied to Rhamnææ, but now considered as much nearer to Hamamelidææ, or even Myrtaceæ. Thamnæa has a one-celled ovary with a central columnar axis, from the apex of which the ovules hang, indicating a tendency in this order to have a plurilocular fruit.

Order 90. Hamamelidææ. R. Brown.

Calyx four-lobed or truncate, with 5-7 callous teeth. Petals inserted on the calyx, usually long and linear, equal in number to (rarely by abortion fewer), and alternating with, the calycine segments, rarely changed into fertile stamens. Stamens twice as many as the petals; all fertile when the petals bear anthers, half of them (those opposite to the petals) sterile when there are true petals; anthers erect, two-celled, each cell dehiscing longitudinally at the side, either by a valve opening inwards, or by a simple fissure. Ovarium coherent at the base with the tube of the calyx, two-celled; styles two (rarely by accident three). Capsule two-celled, two-valved, loculicidæ. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle superior, next the hilum; cotyledons foliaceous, plane, or slightly involute at their base.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, petiolate, penninerved, with two stipules. Flowers axillary, nearly sessile, fasciculate, usually with bracteas, sometimes unisexual.—Ex. Hamamelis, Fothergilla.

The above character is perhaps a little strained to include Fothergilla, a genus, however, referred here both by Nuttall and Brown; perhaps it must be even still more modified when Trichocladus, another genus of the order, becomes better known. The relation of Fothergilla to Pachysandra shows some affinity between this family and Euphorbiaceæ; and there is a manifest connection also between it and the Amentaceæ. There is likewise an affinity to the Alangieæ, Bruniaceæ, the Rhamnææ, and the Haliuraceæ.

We keep the subdivisions Epipetala, Epigynomina, and Epistaminæ, although the plants belonging to them have in reality the stamens and petals as much perigynous as the Grossulariæ, Ficodææ, &c., which have a perfectly adherent fruit. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers umbelled or capitulate.—Ex. *Aralia*, *Adoxa*, *Hedera*.

This borders strongly on the Umbelliferae; Ampelidea, and also the Cornaceae.—The famed Ginseng, which, when first introduced into Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century, sold for its weight in gold, is a species of *Panax*; it is supposed to have a stimulating and invigorating property when fresh, but when dry has now been found of little use. The berries of *Hedera* are purgative.

Order 93. *Corneae*. D.C.

Calyx four-lobed. Petals four, oblong, broad at the base, regular, inserted on the top of the tube of the calyx: estivation valvate. Stamens four, alternate with the petals, inserted with them: anthers two-celled. Ovarium closely cohering with the tube of the calyx, two-celled: ovules pendulous, solitary: style filiform: stigma simple. Fruit fleshy, crowned by the remains of the calyx, two-celled (or rarely one-celled by abortion): endocarp thick and bony. Seeds solitary, pendulous: albumen fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle superior, shorter than the oblong cotyledons.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite (in two species only alternate). Flowers capitate, umbelled, or corymbose, naked or with an involucre.—Ex. *Cornus*.

Approaching to the Hamamelideae and Araliaceae (from which it is best distinguished by the opposite leaves, bony endocarp, and a ternary arrangement of the parts of the flower); and also to Caprifoliaceae; but this last has a gamopetalous corolla, and a quinary arrangement in the flowers. One species among the Cornaceae, however, the *Mastixia pentandra*, is said to have the quinary arrangement and alternate leaves, but is not well known.—The fleshy part of the fruit is sometimes eaten. The bark of *Cornus florida* and *C. sericea* is tonic and febrifuge, and has been substituted in North America for the Peruvian bark.

Div. II.—Dichlamydeae Calyciflora. D.C.

(4. Epicorollae Corisantherae. Juss.)

Order 94. *Loranthaceae*. Rich., and Juss.

Calyx with a smaller calyx or bracteae at the base of its tube; limb short, entire or lobed. Petals 4-8, free or more or less united: estivation valvate. Stamens as many as the petals, and opposite to them: filaments more or less combined with the petals: anthers versatile, or erect, or adnate to the corolla. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform or none: stigma capitate. Fruit fleshy, crowned by the calyx, one-celled: endocarp membranaceous. Seed one, pendulous. Embryo straight in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum.—Shrubs almost all parasitical. Leaves fleshy, entire, opposite, rarely alternate or wanting.—Ex. *Viscum*, *Loranthus*.

Distinguished from Caprifoliaceae, Cornaceae, and the other orders in the neighbourhood, by the position of the stamens before the petals. Mr Brown suggests their relation to Proteaceae.—The berries contain a viscid matter, that is insoluble in water and alcohol. The bark is usually astringent. The well known Mistletoe of the oak is the *Viscum album*. *Loranthus tetrandrus* (the *Lonicera* corymbosa of authors), is used in Chili for dyeing black.

Order 95. *Caprifoliaceae*. Juss.

Calyx with its limb 5- (very rarely 4-) lobed. Corolla of one piece, lobed, sometimes irregular; the divisions alternate with those of the calyx: estivation not valvate (D.C.). Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the Arrangement and Characters. Stamens (or sometimes one of them abortive), alternating with them, and inserted towards its base: filaments subulate: anthers ovate, bilocular. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, three-celled (rarely four or five-celled): ovules few in each cell, pendulous: style one, exserted, or none: stigmas as many as the cells, either distinct or combined into one capitate stigma. Fruit crowned by the limb of the calyx, fleshy, or rarely almost dry, plurilocular, or one-celled (either by the disappearance of the dissepiments, or by the abortion of the other cells). Seeds solitary, in pairs, or several (some often abortive) in each cell, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the centre of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite without stipules (or rarely with two small stipules or glands at the base of each petiole). Flowers terminal, corymbose, or axillary.—Ex. *Sambucus*, *Viburnum*, *Lonicera*, *Linnaea*.

Tribe 1. *Sambuceae*. Kunth. Corolla regular, rotate, seldom tubular: style none: stigmas three, sessile; raphe on the inner side of the ovule.

Tribe 2. *Lonicereae*. R. Brown. Corolla more or less tubular, often irregular: style filiform: raphe on the outer side of the ovule. (Br.)

In *Sambucus* and *Viburnum* the testa of the seed is membranous, but the endocarp is bony: in *Lonicera* and *Triosteum* the testa itself is bony; and care must be had to distinguish whether the bony part belong to the carpel or the seed. This order bears a striking relation to the Rubiaceae: it is also allied to the Apocynaceae.—The flowers of the elder (*Sambucus nigra*) are fragrant and sudorific, but the leaves emetic and purgative. The fruit of *Viburnum* has an austere astringent pulp, which becomes eatable after fermentation. The honeysuckle is a purgative.

Order 96. *Rubiaceae*. Juss.

Tube of the calyx adherent with the ovarium, the limb variable, truncate, or lobed, consisting of as many sepals as petals, rarely with accessory intermediate teeth. Petals 4-5, rarely 3-8, united, inserted upon the summit of the tube of the calyx: estivation twisted or valvate. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla, alternate with them (rarely some of them suppressed): filaments more or less combined with the tube: anthers oval, two-celled, turned inwards: pollen elliptical. Ovarium adherent, usually two-celled, or with several cells, rarely (by abortion) one-celled, crowned by a fleshy urceolate disc: style single, sometimes partly divided: stigmas usually two, rarely several, distinct, or more or less concrete. Fruit a cremocarpium, or capsular, or baccate, or drupaceous, two or many-celled. Seeds one or many in each cell, in the former case attached to the apex, or more usually to the base of the cell; in the latter to a central placenta. Albumen horny or fleshy, copious. Embryo straight or slightly curved, inclosed in the albumen: radicle turned to the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves simple, entire, opposite (very rarely verticillate): stipules two at the base of each leaf; entirely distinct, or cohering either with the leaf or with each other, or both ways; their apex sometimes produced into setæ, sometimes into foliaceous expansions, resembling verticillate leaves.—Ex. *Cinchona*, *Gardenia*, *Hedyotis*, *Isertia*, *Hamelia*, *Cordiera*, *Guettarda*, *Pederia*, *Coffeea*, *Spermacoce*, *Anthospermum*, *Rubia*, *Opercularia*.

The above thirteen genera have been taken by De Candolle as the types of as many tribes, but our limits do Arrange not permit us to give the characters. The Rubiaceae are allied to the Caprifoliaceae, to Valerianaceae, Dipsacaceae, and Compositae; but perhaps it was with the Apocynaceae and Gentianaceae that they were most generally confounded, previous to the separation of the Loganiaceae. *Hous- tonia*, referred still by De Candolle to the Gentianaceae, has an inferior (adherent) ovary, interpretorial stipules, a bilocular polyspermous capsule, and seeds not winged, and consequently must be arranged here, at the end of the Hudytideae.—The roots (as in *Rubia* or the Madder) sometimes yield an excellent red dye; in others they are acrid, emetic, purgative, or diuretic. The bark (as in Cinchona or Peruvian bark) is sometimes bitter, tonic, astringent, and aromatic, and eminently powerful in intermittent fevers. The horny albumen of the *Coffea Arabica* is what is roasted, and made use of, under the name of Coffee; and it is probable that such other seeds, of this order, as have a horny albumen, might be used as a substitute. The fruit of a few is succulent and eatable.

Order 97. *Valerianaceae*. Juss.

Calyx with a limb of various kinds, either membranous, or resembling a pappus. Corolla inserted into the top of the ovary, tubular, usually five-lobed, rarely 3-4-lobed, lobes obtuse; tube equal, or gibbous, or spurred, at the base. Stamens 1-5, inserted into the tube of the corolla, and alternate with its lobes; anthers ovate, two-celled. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx (inferior), 1-3-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous; style filiform; stigmas 1-3, distinct or combined. Fruit dry, indehiscent, crowned with the limb of the calyx, one-celled, or three-celled (two being abortive). Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight; radicle superior; cotyledons flat.—Leaves opposite, exstipulate.

—Ex. *Patrinia*, *Valeriana*.

Most intimately connected with Dipsacaceae, but distinct by having no albumen, and by the absence of an involucreum.—The roots of several are tonic, bitter, vermifuge, and antispasmodic; and some seem to be even febrifugal. The smell is disagreeable, although esteemed in some countries; thus the *Nardostachys Jatamansi* is the spike-nard of the ancients. The young leaves of *Valerianella olitoria* make a good spring salad.

Order 98. *Dipsacaceae*. Juss.

Calyx with a limb short or elongated, entire, or toothed, or pappose. Corolla inserted on the apex of the tube of the calyx, tubular, limb oblique, 4-5-lobed, rarely ringent; estivation imbricated. Stamens four, inserted on the tube of the corolla, alternate with its lobes, almost always distinct; anthers two-celled. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, either closely, or only by the apex, or at first free and afterwards cohering, one-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous; style filiform; stigma simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, crowned by the limb of the calyx, usually covered by an outer calyx or involucellum, one-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle superior.—Leaves opposite, very rarely verticillate, variable in shape on the same plant. Flowers densely capitate, or very rarely verticillate.—Ex. *Morina*, *Scabiosa*.

The involucellum to each flower in this order is of a very singular kind, and may be distinguished into three parts: the base, or the lower portion; the tube, which is furnished with several deep furrows or grooves; and the crown, or the portion above the grooves,—the modifications of which are well suited for generic characters. This family is most allied to the Calyceraceae and Valerianaceae. The tensel (the head of *Dipsacus fullonum*) is used by fullers in dressing cloth.

Div. II.—*Dichlamydeae Calyciflora*. D. C.

Order 99. *Calyceraceae*. R. Brown.

Calyx with a limb of five unequal segments. Corolla regular, funnel-shaped, with a long slender tube and a five-lobed limb; the lobes with three principal veins. Stamens five, inserted on the tube, with as many alternating glands inserted a little below them: filaments united: anthers introrse, partially connate. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, crowned by a disc, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style single, smooth: stigma capitata. Fruit an acheneum, crowned by the rigid teeth of the calyx. Seed solitary, pendulous. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle superior.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers sessile, capitate, surrounded by an involucreum; sometimes the ovaria mutually cohere into one mass.—Ex. *Calycera Boopis*.

In this, the preceding order, and the following, the flowers are sometimes termed florets, and the whole capitulum a flower; but this is incorrect. From Compositae this order is easily known, by the radicle being superior.

Order 100. *Compositae*. Adanson.

Limb of the calyx either wanting or membranous, and divided into bristles, pales; or hairs, and called pappus. Corolla monopetalous, five-toothed or lobed, tubular, or ligulate, or bilabiately, inserted on the top of the ovary, alternate with the lobes, which have each two marginal nerves: estivation valvate. Stamens five, alternate with the teeth of the corolla: filaments distinct: anthers connate (very rarely free), erect, articulated with the filaments. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style single: stigmas two, distinct or united. Fruit an acheneum, crowned with the limb of the calyx. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen none. Radicle inferior.—Leaves alternate or opposite, usually simple, exstipulate. Flowers bi- or unisexual, capitate, surrounded by a many-leaved involucreum (bracteoles), the scales of which are sometimes also interspersed with the flowers on the receptacle, and are then called pales.—Ex. *Carduus*, *Centaurae*; *Achillea*, *Artemisia*; *Trixis*, *Chotonthera*; *Senecio*, *Hieracium*.

Of these there are four principal groups: 1. *Cynarocephalae*, where the flowers are all tubular, the receptacle hairy or pitted, the style swollen and furnished with hairs below the stigma; 2. *Corymbiferae*, where the external flowers are usually ligulate, and the inner ones tubular; 3. *Labiatiflorae*, where the flowers have two deep unequal lips to the corolla; 4. *Cichoraceae*, where all the flowers are ligulate. Various subdivisions have been also attempted, but their limits are hitherto very unsettled.—All the Compositae are bitter. The Cynarocephalae are some of them stomachics, others febrifugal, and others sudorific and diaphoretic; but the bitter principle is not found in the unexpanded leaves or receptacle. The Corymbiferae possess tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal qualities; some are sudorific, others diuretic: the roots of *Helianthus tuberosus*, or the Girasole (vulgo Jerusalem) artichoke, are eatable. The Cichoraceae have usually a milky, bitter, astringent, and narcotic juice, which induces sleep; but before this is formed, many of the species may be used as articles of food.

Div. II.—*Dichlamydeae Calyciflora*. D. C.

Order 101. *Brunoniaceae*. R. Brown.

Calyx five-partite, with four bracteas at its base, persistent: tube very short, afterwards enlarged: Corolla in- inserted in the base of the calyx (truly hypogynous?); monopetalous, infundibuliform, nearly regular, marcescent; tube ultimately split at the back, with the primary nerves opposite its divisions; limb five-partite, the upper segments most deeply divided; nerves central, dividing at the top into two recurrent marginal branches; estivation valvular. Stamens five, inserted with, but free from, the corolla, alternating with its segments; filaments very short, distinct; anthers connate, erect, articulated with the filaments, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled; ovule solitary, erect; style single; stigma single, inclosed in a two-valved cup (indusium). Fruit a utricle, inclosed in the indurated tube of the calyx. Seed one, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight; radicle small, inferior; cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex.—Herbaceous plants, without stems. Leaves radical, exstipulate. Flowers capitate, on a scape; heads surrounded by an involucre of enlarged bracteae.—Ex. Brunonia.

Very nearly allied indeed to the Dipsaceae and Compositae, but having the ovary free. We do not feel quite certain that the corolla is hypogynous, having observed a kind of disc at the base of the calyx, to which it seemed attached; but although it were so, it would be impossible to remove this order from the side of the Goodenoviae. The habit is that of the Globulariaceae. Perhaps this and the three following ought to be made suborders of one great order.

Order 102. Goodenoviae. R. Brown.

Calyx five-lobed, sometimes 5-3-partite, sometimes obsolete, equal, or rarely unequal, persistent. Corolla inserted into the calyx, sometimes at its base; monopetalous, more or less irregular, marcescent or deciduous; its tube split at the back, and sometimes separable into five petals when the ovarium is almost free; its limb five-partite, with one or two lips, the edges of the segments being thinner than the middle; primary nerves of the tube alternate with the divisions; the thick part of the lobes with lateral nerves; estivation valvate. Stamens five, distinct, inserted with, but free from, the corolla, alternate with its lobes; anthers distinct or cohering, continuous with the filaments, two-celled, bursting longitudinally; pollen simple or compound. Ovarium more or less cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-2 or four-celled, sometimes with a gland between the two anterior filaments; ovules erect; style one, simple (rarely divided); stigma fleshy, simple, or two-lobed, surrounded by a membranous cup. Fruit various. Seeds erect, definite or indefinite; testa thick, sometimes bony. Embryo straight, inclosed in a fleshy albumen; radicle inferior; cotyledons foliaceous.—Plants without milky juice. Leaves scattered, exstipulate. Flowers distinct, never capitate.

Tribe 1. Goodeniaceae. R. Brown. Ovarium of two (rarely four) carpels, 2-4-celled; ovules indefinite; fruit a two or rarely four-celled capsule, septicidal, rarely loculicidal; seeds numerous, attached to the axis.—Ex. Goodenia, Velleia.

Tribe 2. Scroedaceae. R. Br. Ovarium of two or four carpels, 1-2 or four-celled; ovules solitary in each carpel; fruit indehiscent, drupaceous, or nut-like; seed one, or two (by abortion of the dissepiment), in each cell, attached to the bottom of the cell.—Ex. Screeoda, Dampiera.

The above two tribes, differing little from each other, but agreeing in a multitude of extraordinary characters, we cannot consider even as suborders. We consider the indusium to the stigma as an abortive gynandrous column, both in this order and the last.

Order 103. Styliaceae. R. Brown.

Calyx with 2-6 divisions, bilabiately or regular, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, falling off late; its limb 5-6-partite, irregular, or rarely equal; lobes with a central nerve; estivation imbricated. Stamens two; filaments longitudinal; anthers didymous, rarely simple, lying over the stigma; pollen globular, simple, sometimes angular. Ovarium cohering with the side of the calyx, crowned often with one gland in front or two opposite ones, two-celled, or, by the contraction of the dissepiment, sometimes one-celled; ovules indefinite; style one; stigma entire or bifid. Capsule two-valved, two or one-celled, septicidal. Seeds indefinite, small, erect. Embryo minute, inclosed in a fleshy, somewhat oily albumen.—Plants, destitute of milky juice. Leaves alternate, scattered, or apparently verticillate.—Ex. Stylium, Forsteria.

The position of the anthers in this order, combined with the tube at the base of the style in some of the Campanulaceae, serves to explain the structure of the indusium to the stigma in the two preceding. This family is readily distinguished by the gynandrous stamens, from those in its vicinity.

Order 104. Campanulaceae. Juss.

Calyx usually five-lobed (sometimes 3-8-lobed), rarely entire, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, inserted on the calyx, usually five (sometimes 3-4-6-8) cleft, deciduous or marcescent; lobes with a central principal nerve; estivation valvate. Stamens inserted with the corolla, alternating with its lobes, and equal to them in number; anthers two-celled, distinct or cohering, erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium cohering, wholly or by its lower half, with the tube of the calyx, of two or more carpels; ovules indefinite; style simple; stigma naked, simple, or with as many lobes as cells to the ovarium. Placentae in the axis of the plurilocular, or parietal in the one-celled ovaria. Fruit capsular, one or more celled, loculicidal, dehiscing either by lateral fissures, or by valves at the apex. Seeds indefinite. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants, yielding a milky juice. Leaves alternate or rarely opposite, exstipulate.

Tribe 1. Lobeliaceae. Juss. Odd segment of the calyx anterior; corolla irregular; anthers cohering; pollen ovate, elongated, smooth, marked by a longitudinal furrow; style glabrous, with a fringe of hairs below the stigma.—Ex. Lobelia.

Tribe 2. Campanulaceae. D. C. Odd segment of the calyx posterior; corolla regular; anthers free, or rarely cohering; pollen spherical, papillose; style pubescent.—Ex. Campanula.

The distinguishing characters of these two tribes are perhaps too few to afford ordinal characters. The hairs on the style or under the stigma seem to be intended for the absorption of the vivifying part of the pollen. There is an expansion of the torus (or abortive stamens) at the insertion of the corolla and stamens, and this sometimes not only covers the top of the ovary, but even forms a tube round the style (as in Adenophora). The cells of the fruit are usually opposite the calycine segments, rarely alternate with them. In the Lobeliaceae the odd sepal is really anterior, although by a twist in the pedicel it appears posterior.—The milky juice is acrid, and in some cases poisonous.

Order 105. Gesneriaceae. Rich. and Juss.

Calyx five-parted; estivation valvate. Corolla monopetalous, tubular, more or less irregular, five-lobed; estivation imbricate. Stamens four (rarely two), two being longer than the others, with the rudiment of a fifth inserted on the corolla; anthers two-celled, with a thick tumid connectivum. Ovarium partly free, surrounded by glands alternating with the stamens, of two carpels whose margins are introflexed and placentaferous; ovules indefinite; style continuous with the ovary; stigma capitate, Arrange concave. Fruit capsular or succulent, one-celled, two- valved, loculicid. Seeds minute, indefinite: testa thin, finely and obliquely veined. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves opposite, rugose, exstipulate.—Ex. Gesneria, Sarmienta, Gloxinia.

More allied to the Bignoniaceae, and especially Oro- banchece, from which last order the present is most readi- ly distinguished by the usually adherent ovarium: per- haps, as hinted by Richard, the two orders may be con- joined. Being allied, however, to the Orobanchece, the Gesneriaceae form a link between the Campanulaceae and the following order (Monotropoe).

Order 106. Ericaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Monotropoe. Nutt. Calyx 3-4-5-partite, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, regular, deciduous, more or less deeply 4-5-lobed, inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous?): estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted with the corolla, twice as many as its lobes, dis- tinct, free from the corolla: anthers two (often imperfect- ly) celled, dry, opening by fissures or pores, with or with- out appendages. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, 4-5-celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple, discoid. Fruit capsular, 4-5-celled, 4-5-valved, loculicidal: axis 4-5-lob- ed. Seeds indefinite, minute: tests long and linear, loose, membranous, largely reticulated with veins: nucleus glo- bose in the centre of the testa. Albumen fleshy. Embryo at one extremity of the albumen, extremely minute.—Her- baceous, or rarely suffrutescent plants. Leaves simple, entire, or toothed, or wanting.—Ex. Pyrola, Monotropa.

Suborder 2. Ericoea. Calyx 4-5-cleft, nearly equal, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx (hy- pogynous?), monopetalous, 4-5-cleft (occasionally separ- able into four or five petals), regular or irregular, often marcescent: estivation imbricated. Stamens definite, equal in number to the segments of the corolla, or twice as many, distinct, inserted with the corolla, free from it, or attached to its base: anthers two-celled, hard and dry, usually (rarely not) bifid and furnished with some kind of appendages, dehiscing by terminal pores, or rarely by clefts. Torus discoid, or in the form of scales. Ovarium free, plurilocular: ovules indefinite, very rarely solitary in each cell: style one, straight: stigma one, entire or toothed. Placentae central. Fruit capsular or baccate, with several cells, loculicidal, or septicidal. Seeds inde- finite, minute, very rarely definite, testa adhering closely to the tegmen and nucleus. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Shrub- by or suffrutescent plants. Leaves evergreen, rigid, en- tire, whorled, or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Erica, Arbu- tus, Rhododendron, Andromeda (Plate CXXIV.)

Suborder 3. Vacciniaceae. D. C. Calyx entire, or 4-6- lobed. Corolla monopetalous, with as many lobes as the calyx. Stamens distinct, twice as many as the lobes of the corolla: anthers dry, two-celled, deeply bifid, with narrow horn-like lobes. Torus forming a disc round the top of the ovarium. Ovarium adherent to the tube of the calyx; 4-5-celled: ovules indefinite: style simple: stigma simple. Fruit baccate, crowned by the persistent limb of the calyx, succulent, 4-5-celled. Seeds numerous. Em- bryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle long, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons very short.—Ex. Vaccinium, Oxycoccus.

Suborder 4. Epacrideae. R. Ba. Calyx five- (rarely four-) parted, often coloured, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous?), deciduous or marcescent, monopetalous, sometimes separable into five petals; limb five (rarely four), divided, sometimes by the cohesion of the segments, bursting transversely: estiva- tion imbricated or valvular. Stamens as many as, and al- ternate with, the segments of the corolla, rarely fewer, in- serted with or on the corolla: anthers dry, simple, entire, without appendages, bursting longitudinally: pollen round or three-lobed, attached to a single central receptacle. Torus in the form of scales. Ovarium sessile, free, pluri- locular: ovules solitary or indefinite: style one: stigma simple, or sometimes toothed. Fruit drupa- ceous, baccate, or capsular. Embryo slender, straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen, and about half its length. —Shrubs or small trees. Leaves usually alternate, exsti- pulate.—Ex. Epacris, Styphelia.

Between Monotropoe and Ericoea there is no certain character but in the tests of the seed; the mode by which the anthers dehisce being variable in both, even although we exclude Pyrola, as has been already done by Don. Ericoea is usually described with indefinite ovules; but Cy- rilla, usually referred here, has them solitary in each cell. Between Ericoea and Vacciniaceae no character can be given, farther than the ovarium free or adherent: the habit of several species in both is the same. Between Ericoea and Epacrideae, again, there is almost nothing but the structure of the anthers and a difference of habit; we therefore consider them all as suborders. As a whole, it is difficult to say what are the affinities. In some points they slight- ly approach to the Campanulaceae, and in others to the Saxifragaceae (Escalloniaceae and Cunoniaceae).—Their gen- eral properties are astringent and diuretic. The berries of the succulent fruited species are mostly grateful and eat- able: the Bilberries, Cranberries, Bearberries, &c. belong to this family. The fruit of the Arbutus unedo (so called because one was sufficient) is, however, exceedingly dis- agreeable.

Order 107. Columelliaceae. Don.

Calyx turbinate: limb persistent, five-lobed, or multi- partite (10-11-) partite. Corolla perigynous, rotate, 5-8-lobed: estivation convolute. Stamens two, inserted in the throat of the corolla: anthers linear, sinuous, and one-celled, or straight and two-celled. Torus expanded into a perigyn- ous disc. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, two-celled: ovules indefinite (Don): style simple, decli- nate: stigma capitate. Fruit capsular, two-celled, two- valved, septicidal, each valve often splitting at the apex. Seeds indefinite, ascending: testa coriaceous, smooth. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves opposite, entire, exstipu- late. Flowers solitary, yellow.—Ex. Columellia, Menodora.

A very little known order, lately established, and im- perfectly characterised. Thus, Don says of Menodora, that the ovarium is adherent (inferior), and the ovules indefinite; while Kunth, and Bonpland, who formed the genus, says the stamens are hypogynous, the ovarium su- perior, and the ovules only two in each cell. The near- est affinity of this order is with Styracaceae, Jasminaceae, and Ebenaceae.

Order 108. Sympleceae. Juss.

Calyx monopetalous, limb entire or divided, persistent. Corolla perigynous or rarely hypogynous (2), monopeta- lous, regular: estivation imbricated or valvate. Stamens definite or indefinite, inserted into the tube of the corolla, unequal, mono- or polyadelphous at their base. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx either entirely or in part, or free, three, four, or five-celled: ovules four in each cell, of which two are ascending and two suspended: style simple: stigma simple: placenta central. Fruit sur- rounded by or included in the calyx, being a carcerulus, or a one- (by abortion) celled, three-valved, loculicidal, coriaceous capsule. Seeds usually solitary in the capsule, or in each cell of the carcerulus, erect or suspended: testa membranous or bony. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons In *Styrax* there is usually but one bony seed, but that genus, although the corolla be certainly perigynous, is by some referred with *Strigilia* to the Meliaceae. Don asserts that *Haleia* forms a very distinct group, so that the present order would thus consist of *Symlocos*, to which Kunth joins *Ciponima*, of which the characters are however still less understood than the other two. It may be therefore considered as a dubious order, of which the genera chiefly agree in the position of the ovules.—Storax and benzoin are derived from the genus *Styrax*.

**Div. III.—Dichlamydeae Corolliflora.** D. C.

(7. Hypocorollae.) Juss.

Order 109. *Ebenacea*. Vent.

Flowers uni- (rarely bi-) sexual. Calyx 3-6-divided, nearly equal, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, regular, deciduous, somewhat coriaceous, 3-6 divided; estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted on the corolla, or hypogynous, definite (two or four times as many as the segments of the corolla, and rarely of the same number when they alternate with them), filaments usually in two rows: anthers erect, linear-lanceolate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, sessile, plurilocular; ovules one or two in each cell, pendulous: style divided, rarely simple: stigmas simple or bifid. Fruit fleshy, round or oval, the pericarp sometimes opening regularly. Seeds few; testa membranous. Embryo straight, nearly in the axis of a cartilaginous albumen: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs, without milky juice. Leaves coriaceous, alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. *Diospyros*, *Ferrea*.

Allied to the Symlocosce, to the Sapotace, and several others that we have placed in the neighbourhood.—The fruit is eatable, but the chief peculiarity of this order consists in the extreme hardness of its wood. Ebony and iron-wood both belong to it.

Order 110. *Illicineae*. Brongniart.

Sepals 4-6; estivation imbricated. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 4-5-partite; estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted into the base of the corolla, alternate with its lobes, and equal to them in number: filaments straight: anthers introrse. Torus not discoid. Ovarium free, fleshy, somewhat truncate, 2-6-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous from a cup-shaped funiculus: stigma nearly sessile, lobed. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, containing from two to six one-seeded nucules. Seed suspended. Embryo small, lying at the end next the hilum of a large fleshy albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons small.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves coriaceous, alternate, or opposite.—Ex. *Illex*, *Prinos*.

Separated by Brongniart from the Celastrineae. They are much allied to the Ebenaceae.—The leaves of some species are used as tea. The bark and berries of others are tonic, astringent, and antiseptic.

Order 111. *Sapotaceae*. Juss.

Flowers bisexual. Calyx divided, regular, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, deciduous, monopetalous, regular, its lobes usually equal to, rarely twice or thrice as many as those of the calyx. Stamens inserted on the corolla, definite, distinct; the fertile ones as many as (rarely more than) the segments of the calyx, with which they alternate; the sterile ones between them rarely wanting. Ovarium plurilocular: ovules solitary, erect: style one: stigma simple, sometimes lobed. Fruit fleshy, plurilocular, or, by abortion of the dissepiments, one-celled. Seeds solitary, erect: testa bony, shining. Embryo large, erect, white, usually inclosed in a fleshy albumen, which, however, is sometimes wanting: radicle short, straight, or slightly curved, turned towards the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous (in the albuminose seeds), or fleshy (in the exalbuminose seeds).—Trees or shrubs, with copious milky juice. Leaves coriaceous, entire, alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. *Achras*, *Lucuma*.

Closely allied to the Ebenaceae, from which, however, they differ by their having milky juice, bony seeds, bisexual flowers, and various other important characters.—The fruit of many, as the star-apple, the sappodilla plum, and others, is much prized in their native countries. The bark of some species of *Achras* is astringent and febrifugal.

Order 112. *Myrsineae*. R. Brown.

Flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual. Calyx 4-5-cleft, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 4-5-cleft, equal. Stamens 4-5, inserted into the corolla, and opposite its segments: filaments distinct, rarely connate, short, sometimes wanting, with sometimes five sterile petaloid alternating ones: anthers sagittate, erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules definite or indefinite, peltate, immersed in the placenta: style one: stigma simple or lobed. Placenta free, central, fleshy. Fruit fleshy. Seed usually solitary, sometimes 2-4, peltate: hilum concave: testa membranous, incorporated with the tegmen. Albumen horny. Embryo slender, slightly curved, heterotropous (or lying across the hilum): radicle horizontal when the seed is solitary, or inferior when there are several seeds: cotyledons short.—Trees or shrubs, rarely suffrutescent. Leaves coriaceous, exstipulate, usually alternate.—Ex. *Myrsine*, *Ardisia*.

Allied to Sapothee, but particularly to Primulaceae in the structure of the fruit, though with a very different habit.—Bread is prepared from the pounded seeds of *Theobroma cacao* in St Domingo.

Order 113. *Jasminaceae*.

Suborder 1. *Jasminae*. Juss. Flower bisexual. Calyx divided or toothed, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, monopetalous, regular, hypocateriform, 5-8-divided; estivation imbricated and twisted. Stamens two, inserted on the corolla, inclosed within its tube: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules solitary, rarely in pairs, at first pendulous, afterwards erect: style one: stigma two-lobed. Fruit a double berry, or pyxidium, or a bivalved capsule. Seeds usually solitary, rarely in pairs, erect. Albumen none, or very thin. Embryo straight: radicle inferior.—Shrubs, with usually twining stems. Leaves opposite, pinnate.—Ex. *Jasminum*, *Bolivaria*.

Suborder 2. *Oleinae*. Hoffm. and Link. Flowers bisexual, or sometimes unisexual. Calyx gamosepalous, divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, and four-cleft, sometimes of four petals, connected in pairs by the intervention of the filaments, rarely wanting: estivation somewhat valvate. Stamens two, alternate with the segments of the corolla: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules in pairs, collateral, pendulous: style one or none: stigma entire or bifid. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or capsular. Seeds often by abortion solitary. Albumen dense, fleshy, abundant. Embryo straight, about half the length of the albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite.—Ex. *Olea*, *Ligustrum*, *Fraxinus*.

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1 Such orders as Brunoniaceae, &c., which have the insertion of the corolla doubtfully hypogynous, but the stamens free from it, we, with De Candolle, have referred to the Peripetalae. Plumbaginaceae, however, we have retained. These two suborders are so very much allied that few separate them. *Bolivaria* has two seeds in each cell, and thus partakes of the character of both. In both the radicle points to the hilum. Their affinities extend on the one side to the Ebenaceae and Columelliaceae; and on the other to the Verbenaceae.—The flowers are usually fragrant. The bark of the olive and ash is astringent and highly febrifuge. Olive oil is expressed from the pericarp; the oil of Jasmine from the flowers.

Order 114. *Asclepiadaceae*. R. Brown.

Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, regular, five-lobed, deciduous: estivation contorted-imbricate: rarely valvate. Stamens five, inserted into the base of the corolla, and alternate with its segments: filaments usually connate: anthers two-celled, each cell sometimes divided by incomplete septa: pollen, when the anther bursts, coalescing into masses which are as numerous as the cells, or sometimes confluent by pairs, and sticking to the five processes of the stigma, either by twos, by fours, or singly. Ovaria two: ovules indefinite: styles two, close to each other, often very short: stigma one, common to both styles, dilated, with five corposcular angles. Placentas at the ventral sutures. Follicles two (sometimes one by abortion). Seeds indefinite, imbricate, pendulous, usually with a coma at the hilum. Albumen thin. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Plants, with usually a milky juice, often twining. Leaves entire, usually opposite, with interpetiolar cilia instead of stipules.—Ex. *Asclepias*, *Stapelia*.

Separated by Mr Brown from the Apocynaceae on account of the very remarkable structure of the anthers and stigma.—The milky juice is usually acid and bitter, and must always be regarded with suspicion, even although it seems in some few species to be used as aliment. The roots are generally acid and stimulating; some few are diaphoretic and sudorific. The root and bark of the madder plant (*Calotropis Mucorea*), is a powerful purgative and alterative; and an extract, a new principle, called *madderine*, has the singular property of diliquescing by cold and congealing by heat.

Order 115. *Apocynaceae*. Juss.

Calyx five—rarely four-divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, regular, five—rarely four-lobed, deciduous: estivation contorted-imbricate, rarely valvate. Stamens five, rarely four, inserted on the corolla, alternate with its lobes: filaments distinct: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally: pollen granular, globose, or three-lobed, immediately applied to the stigma. Ovaria two and each one-celled, or one and bilocular: ovules usually indefinite, rarely solitary or few: styles two or one: stigma one. Fruit follicular, or capsular, or baccate, or drupaceous, double or single. Seeds indefinite or rarely definite: albumen fleshy, cartilaginous, or horny, rarely wanting. Embryo foliaceous: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants, with usually a milky juice. Leaves entire, generally opposite, without stipules, but with interpetiolar cilia or glands.—Ex. *Apocynum*, *Vincet*, *Strychnos*.

We have now entered upon a group to be distinguished with great difficulty, so much do the orders run into each other; and indeed more than one botanist have suggested that the Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae, Loganiaceae, and Gentianaceae, may form one class. Gentianaceae, however, touches upon Scrophulariaceae, and this again on various others, so that we scarcely know what limits to impose on the series. *Strychnos*, *Carissa*, and some others, have been separated by Jussieu as a distinct order, having a simple fruit, and peltate seeds without a coma. To this, perhaps, *Gardneria* belongs, having a quaternary divided flower, valvate corolla, like *Strychnos*, simple fruit, and comose seeds. But then, some still referable to Apocynaceae have a simple fruit and comose seeds, others a double fruit and comose seeds, all of which might as well be made orders; besides, we doubt if, by having only one stigma, the ovarium ought to be ever considered as different from a syncarpous one.—The milk seems still more deleterious than that of the last order, being known to be used as food in only two plants. The root of some is poisonous, in others cathartic; in some the bark has these properties, in others the fruit. One seed of the Tanghin tree of Madagascar is sufficient to poison twenty persons. The nux-vomica is prepared from the seeds of the *Strychnos*. Of some species the bark is febrifugal.

Order 116. *Loganiaceae*. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. *Loganiaceae*. Calyx quinque-partite. Corolla hypogynous, regular, or irregular: estivation convolute. Stamens inserted on the corolla, five or one (and therefore not corresponding with the divisions of the corolla): anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally: pollen marked by three bands (*Martius*). Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules indefinite: style continuous: stigma simple. Fruit either a two-celled capsule, with placentae finally becoming loose; or a nucellum with one or two-seeded nucleus. Seeds peltate: testa finely reticulated, sometimes winged. Albumen fleshy or cartilaginous. Radicle turned towards the hilum.—Leaves entire, opposite, usually with interpetiolar sheathing stipules.—Ex. *Logania*, *Gaertneria*.

Suborder 2. *Potaliceae*. *Martius*. Calyx 4-5-6-partite. Corolla hypogynous, regular, 5-10-divided (not corresponding with the segments of the calyx): estivation contorted-convolute. Stamens inserted on the corolla: pollen elliptical, simple. Ovarium free: style continuous: stigma simple. Placentae central, four-lobed. Fruit succulent, two- (or spuriously four-) celled. Seeds indefinite, peltate: testa and tegmen distinct. Albumen cartilaginous. Embryo heterotropous (*Mart.*).—Trees or shrubs. Leaves entire, opposite, with interpetiolar sheathing stipules.—Ex. *Potato*, *Fagreus*.

Suborder 3. *Spigeliaceae*. *Martius*. Calyx quinque-partite, regular. Corolla hypogynous, five-lobed: estivation valvate. Stamens five, inserted into the corolla: pollen triangular, the angles globular. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules few: style articulated with the ovarium: stigma simple. Fruit capsular, two-celled, two-valved, septicidal, valves separating from the central placentae. Seeds few, nearly definite, small. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo very minute: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves entire, opposite, with stipules or a tendency to produce them.—Ex. *Spigelia*.

The genera of these three suborders have perhaps no very great affinity with each other. Some have been lopped off the Apocynaceae, some taken from the Gentianaceae, others from the Rubiaceae. All botanists now agree that they are osculating eccentric plants; and we have therefore brought them all here under the head of Loganiaceae. Their general character lies in the free, two-celled ovary, and opposite stipulate leaves.—Their properties seem to be bitter, like the Gentians: some are acid and emetic like the Apocynaceae. The root of *Spigelia marilandica* is vermifuge, and in large doses cathartic.

Order 117. *Gentianaceae*. Juss.

Calyx gamosepalous, usually 5—(sometimes 4-6-8 or 10)—divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, usually regular, marcescent, or deciduous: limb divided into as many lobes as the calyx: estivation imbricate-twisted. Stamens inserted upon the corolla, alternate with the segments, and equal to them in number, some of them occasionally abortive: pollen three-lobed or triple. Ovarium single, of two carpels, the edges of which are either slightly inflexed, or meet in the axis, hence Botany

Arrangement and Characters.

1-2-celled; ovules indefinite; style one, continuous; stigma one or two. Fruit capsular or fleshy, one-celled, usually two-valved, septicidal, or rarely (in Menyanthes) loculicidal. Seeds small, indefinite. Embryo straight, in the axis of a soft fleshy albumen; radicle next the hilum. Leaves exstipulate, opposite, and entire (in Menyanthes and Villarsia, usually alternate, toothed, or divided).—Ex. Gentiana, Chloris.

From an examination of very imperfectly ripe fruit, we had concluded that the capsule of Villarsia was loculicidal, and thought ourselves confirmed by Brown, "Valvularum axibus seminiter." But Gartner and others assert the contrary: otherwise this character might serve to remove both Menyanthes and Villarsia, and form a distinct suborder. Martius says that the two carpels of the Gentianae are right and left, and not anterior and posterior; but certainly the one is (at all events where the quinary arrangement holds) opposite to the odd sepal, and the other to the odd petal, which again, with regard to the bracteas, appear to us anterior and posterior. The torus presents a disc or gland in Tachia and Villarsia.—The Gentianae are intensely bitter; and this renders them, without exception, tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal.

Order 118. Bignoniaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Bignoniaceae. Calyx divided or entire, sometimes spathaceous. Corolla hypogynous, usually irregular, 4-5-lobed. Stamens five, unequal (one and sometimes three of them being sterile); anthers two-celled. Torus discoid. Ovarium superior, one or two-celled, each cell being often spuriously divided; ovules indefinite: style one; stigma bilamellate. Capsule one or two-celled, sometimes spuriously two or four-celled, two-valved. Seeds transverse, compressed, winged. Albumen none. Embryo straight, foliaceous; radicle next the hilum.—Trees or shrubs, or rarely herbaceous. Leaves opposite or rarely alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Bignonia, Spatodea, Ecdysoecarpus.

Suborder 2. Didymocarpaceae. Dox. Calyx five-divided, equal. Corolla tubular, irregular, five-lobed, more or less bilabiata; estivation imbricate. Stamens four, didynamous (two sometimes sterile), rarely with the rudiment of a fifth; anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium superior, one-celled, of two carpels, the contiguous introflexed margins of which diverge, and form two or four spurious cells; ovules indefinite: style filiform: stigma two-lobed or bilamellate, or infundibuliform and entire. Fruit succulent, or capsular or silique, and two-valved. Seeds indefinite, small, ovate, or cylindrical, suspended, aperous, sometimes with a coma. Albumen none. Embryo straight; radicle next the hilum.—Usually herbaceous, sometimes shrubby plants. Leaves in general opposite, or radical.—Ex. Didymocarpus, Cyrtandra, Fieldia.

Suborder 3. Pedaliaceae. R. Brown. Calyx five-divided, nearly equal, rarely spathaceous. Corolla irregular, the tube ventricose, the limb five-lobed, bilabiata. Stamens four, didynamous (two sometimes sterile), with the rudiment of a fifth; anthers bilocular. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium one or two-celled, of two carpels, the introflexed margins of which, by splitting and diverging, constitute several spurious cells; ovules few in each spurious cell: style one; stigma bilamellate or 2-4-cleft. Fruit drupaceous, or rarely capsular and two-valved, spuriously many-celled. Seeds few, large, aperous; pendulous, erect, or transverse. Albumen none. Embryo straight, next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite.—Ex. Pedalium, Sesamum.

Most botanists now agree that these three form but one order. The true Incarvillea has winged and perhaps transverse seeds, and belongs to Bignoniaceae; while other species, by some united to it, have pendulous, aperous seeds, and belong to Didymocarpaceae. Remondia is referred to Didymocarpaceae by Martius, but we know of none who has examined the mature seeds. If these be exalbuminose, then the character of the order may be slightly altered for its reception; in the mean time, on account of the anthers dehiscing by terminal pores, we refer it to the Solanaceae. Bignonia seems to have a one-celled fruit, with a transverse septum or projection from its parietal placenta. Arragon is too imperfectly known for any one to judge of its place. The Bignoniaceae are nearly allied to Scrophulariaceae and Solanaceae, but have no albumen.—Nothing almost is known of their medical properties.

Order 119. Polemoniaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Cobeeae. Don. Calyx foliaceous, five-lobed, equal. Corolla campanulate, equal, limb five-lobed; estivation imbricate. Stamens five, equal, inserted on the base of the tube; anthers entire, two-celled. Torus large, discoid, five-angular. Ovarium free, simple, of three carpels, one-celled (spuriously three-celled, by means of the placenta of each carpel being introflexed and attached to the sides of a solid triangular centre axis): ovules indefinite, ascending: style simple; stigma trifid. Capsule somewhat fleshy, spuriously three-celled, three-valved, septicidal: placenta attached to the central axis, and separating from the valves. Seeds flat, winged, ascending, in a double row. Albumen thin, fleshy, soft. Embryo straight, large; radicle cylindrical, pointing to the hilum, inferior; cotyledons broad, compressed, cordate.—Climbing diffuse shrubs. Leaves alternate, pinnate, terminated by a tendril.—Ex. Cobea.

Suborder 2. Polemoniaceae. Juss. Calyx five-divided, persistent, sometimes irregular. Corolla regular, rarely irregular, five-lobed. Stamens five, inserted on the middle of the tube of the corolla, and alternate with its segments. Anthers entire. Torus discoid, lobed. Ovarium free, of three carpels, three-celled, or one-celled (and spuriously three-celled by the introflexed placenta being united with a triangular central axis): ovules ascending: style simple; stigma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or spuriously so, three-valved, loculicidal: placenta in the axis, and separating from the valves. Seeds few or numerous, angular or oval, often enveloped in mucus, ascending, in a single row. Embryo straight, in the axis of a horny albumen; radicle inferior, next the hilum; cotyledons elliptical, foliaceous.—Herbaceous, erect plants. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple or variously divided.—Ex. Polemonium, Phlox, Bomplandia.

This order borders very close on the Bignoniaceae, especially Cobea, in which genus, had the seeds been attached to the margins of the valves, and consequently the septa been merely projections of the placenta, as in Bignonia, we should have referred it to that order, notwithstanding the trifid stigma, and the presence of some albumen. On the other side, Polemoniaceae are allied to Convolvulaceae, but from this the shape of the embryo is sufficient to distinguish them.

Order 120. Hydrocleaceae. R. Brown. Calyx five-parted, persistent: estivation imbricated. Corolla regular, not always agreeing with the calyx in... the number of its divisions: estivation plicate or imbricate. Stamens five, inserted on the corolla, equal; anthers deeply lobed at the base, two-celled. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, 2-3-celled; ovules indefinite; styles two or three; stigmas incrassated. Fruit capsular, 2-3-celled, loculicidal. Seeds indefinite, very small. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, often covered with glandular or stinging hairs.—Ex. Hydroclea, Diapensia.

Almost exactly intermediate between Polemoniaceae and Convolvulaceae; like the former, having the placenta often adhering to the axis and separating from the valves, and principally differing in the plurality of styles. From Convolvulaceae the dehiscence of the capsule, the number of seeds, the albumen, and flat cotyledons, will distinguish them.

Order 121. Convolvulaceae. Juss.

Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla deciduous, regular, five-lobed; estivation usually plicate. Stamens five, inserted on the base of the corolla, alternate with its segments. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, of two, three, or four carpels, usually syncarpous, rarely apocarpous, usually with two, three, or four cells, rarely by abortion one-celled: ovules erect, definite; when more than one, collateral: style one, sometimes entire, usually bifid, rarely two: stigmas obtuse or acute. Capsule 1-4-celled, septifragal and septicidal; sometimes without valves, or a pyxidium. Seeds at the base of the placentae. Albumen mucilaginous. Embryo curved: radicle inferior: cotyledons corrugated, rarely inconspicuous.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs, usually twining and with a milky juice. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Convolvulus, Falkia, Cuscuta. (Plate CIX.)

Cuscuta, from its having no leaves developed, has, as may be presumed, no conspicuous cotyledons. Analogy, however, enables us to assert that they do exist, although in an abortive state. In Cuscuta the calyx and corolla are sometimes four-lobed, the stamens four. Dichondra and Falkia, usually described as with apocarpous ovaria, ought rather, by analogy, to be considered as syncarpous, with a deeply-divided style.—An acid, purgative, milky juice abounds in the roots: the Jalap and Scammony are obtained from those of species of Convolvulus. The roots of C. batatas (or sweet potato) and C. edulis are eaten.

Order 122. Cordiaceae. R. Brown.

Calyx five- (rarely four-) toothed. Corolla with the limb 5-4- (rarely 10-) cleft. Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers versatile. Ovarium free, four-celled: ovule solitary: style continuous: stigma four-cleft. Fruit with a fleshy epicarp; sarcocarp bony, four-celled (some of them occasionally abortive). Seed erect, attached to a long funiculus that proceeds from the apex of the cell to the base. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons plaited longitudinally.—Trees. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers panicled.—Ex. Cordia, Varonia.

Perhaps not distinct from Boraginaceae, but somewhat allied to Convolvulaceae by the plaited cotyledons.—The flesh of the fruit is mucilaginous and emollient. The Sebestena plums are produced by Cordia Myxa and C. Sebestena.

Order 123. Boraginaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Ehrteae. Mart. Calyx five-parted: estivation imbricate. Corolla tubular, limb five-divided: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, inserted on the base of the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers erect. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, simple, two or four celled: ovules four, suspended: style terminal: stigma simple, two-lobed. Fruit a nuculanum. Seeds four, suspended, some occasionally abortive. Albumen very thin and fleshy, or wanting. Embryo straight or curved: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, scabrous, or harshly pubescent, exstipulate. Flowers in corymbose spikes, or panicles.—Ex. Echites, Tournefortia.

Suborder 2. Heliotropieae. Mart. Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla regular, five-lobed: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers erect. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, entire, or two-lobed, four-celled: ovules four, pendulous: style terminal or between the lobes, simple: stigma simple or bifid. Fruit dry, separable into four achenea. Seed pendulous, solitary. Albumen none, or very thin and fleshy. Radicle minute, next the hilum, superior: cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex, or convolute.—Somewhat shrubby or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers in terminal, fasciculated or corymbose spikes.—Ex. Heliotropium, Tiaridium, Coldenia.

Suborder 3. Borageae. Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla regular, five-cleft: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers erect. Ovarium four-lobed, four-celled: ovules four, each suspended from the inner angle and near the summit of the cell: style simple, arising from the base of the lobes of the ovarium: stigma simple or bifid. Fruit a microbasia, separable into four acheneum-like, or two bilocular bony, portions. Seed suspended. Albumen none. Radicle superior, short: cotyledons plano-convex.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs: stem terete. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers usually spicate.—Ex. Borago, Myosotis.

There is scarcely any good character between these. The first may be best distinguished by its fleshy fruit, the last by the fruit being a microbase, and the second by the fruit being dry and yet not a microbase. In the Boraginaceae, as may be easily seen in Ceratula, a placenta, or rather a conducting thread, passes up through the sarcocarp at the inner angle of each part of the fruit, and enters the cell between the middle and the summit, bearing the seeds, which are thus suspended, not erect as some botanists say. In Tiaridium the fruit has two divercating lobes, between which the style is inserted: a cord passes from its base along the middle of each lobe, to near the apex, where it enters each cell, forming a double placenta. Coldenia seems to have a thin albumen, and sometimes convolute cotyledons. The Ehrteae, on account of the fleshy fruit, formed part of the original family of Sebestenieae (Cordiaceae) of Venetian. Although we have termed the fruit in all these four-celled, it, however, consists only of two cells, each of which is divided into two by an incrassation and inflexion of the dorsal nerve. A fifth part is sometimes suppressed from the calyx, corolla, and stamens.—The Boraginaceae are mucilaginous and emollient. Some contain nitrate of potash, which gives a coolness to the beverage in which their leaves are steeped. The roots of others give out a reddish brown dye.

Order 124. Hydrophyllaceae. R. Brown.

Calyx five- or ten-divided, persistent. Corolla regular or nearly so, five-lobed, with two lamellae towards the base of each constituent petal. Stamens alternate with the lobes of the corolla: anthers ovate, two-celled, versatile, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, simple, one-celled: ovules definite or indefinite, suspended: style terminal, bifid: stigmas two. Placenta two, parietal, or on stalks from the base of the cavity. Fruit capsular, one-celled, two-valved, loculicidal. Seeds definite or indefinite. Embryo small at the umbilical extremity of a copious cartilaginous albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous hir... Closely allied to Boragineae, from which Mr Brown separated them in the *Prodrumus Flora Nov. Holl.* and in the appendix to Franklin's *Overland Expedition*. What are termed here stalked placenta; are, we suspect, the parietal placenta detached from the back of each valve, but remaining attached to the base of the cell.

Order 125. Solanaceae. Juss.

Calyx five- (rarely four-) parted, persistent. Corolla with the limb five- (rarely four-) cleft, regular, or somewhat unequal, deciduous: estivation plicate, or in some imbricate. Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments, sometimes one abortive: anthers bursting longitudinally or by terminal pores. Ovarium two or more celled, rarely one-celled: ovules usually indefinite: style continuous: stigma obtuse, rarely lobed. Fruit either a capsule, which is 2-4-celled, 2-4-valved, and septicidal, or opening transversely with a double dissepiment; rarely one-celled, two-valved, the margins introflexed, and bearing the placenta; or a 2-4-celled berry, with the placenta adhering to the dissepiment; or a nuculanium, with five or more nucleae which have spurious one or more cells with one seed in each. Seeds sessile. Embryo more or less curved, often eccentric, lying in a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves alternate.—Ex. Solanum, Nicotiana; Nolana; Verbascum, Anthocereis.

Allied to both Convolvulaceae and Boragineae, with which last, and also with Hydrophyllaceae, it has sometimes been proposed to associate Nolana: this genus, indeed, merits being made into a suborder. As to Verbascum, Ramondia, Celsia, Anthocereis, and Duboisia, they have the habit of the Solanaceae, but the imbricate corolla, unequal stamens, and almost straight embryo, of the Scrophulariaceae; and if they are not conjoined with these, and the character of the present order thus made more rigorous, we cannot point out a decided distinguishing character between the two families. Ramondia has a unilocular fruit. Trigona seems to have an irregular, plicate corolla, and the fruit a tetrachenum; but this genus is little known.—Upon the whole, the leaves of the Solanaceae are narcotic and acrid: those of Verbascum, however, and probably of the others with an imbricate corolla, are mucilaginous. The roots are usually poisonous. The fruit is also in general very poisonous, although, whether by the effects of cultivation, or some peculiarity in the plants themselves, that of the Love-apple, Tomato, Capsicum, and a few others, are eaten without inconvenience. The tubers formed on the potato-plant are, when boiled, highly alimentary. The dominant property of these vegetables is their stupifying action, which is usually joined to an acrid principle. The *serpens* of Homer (*Od.* iv. L 221), supposed by some to be the poppy, seems rather to be the *Hyoscyamus*, which has still a similar name applied to it in some eastern languages.

Order 126. Orobancheae. Vent.

Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla irregular, usually bilabiata, persistent: estivation imbricated. Stamens four, didynamous. Torus a fleshy disc. Ovarium free, one-celled, of two carpels, whose edges are sometimes slightly introflexed and divaricated: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma two-lobed. Fruit capsular, inclosed within the withered corolla, one-celled, loculicid. Seeds indefinite, minute. Embryo very minute, lodged in a lateral hollow near the apex of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, leafless, parasitical plants.—Ex. Orobanche, Lathraea.

Richard, and Nuttall (under his genus *Epiphagus*), describe the embryo situated as above: Gärtner, however, figures it in *Lathraea* at the base of the albumen; but the character is too minute to be of much use.

This order approaches very close to the following, from which, however, it is easily distinguished; and also to the Gesneriaceae.—Orobanche major is powerfully astringent.

Order 127. Scrophulariaceae. Juss.

Calyx divided, unequal, persistent. Corolla usually irregular and bilabiata or personate, deciduous: estivation imbricate. Stamens usually four, didynamous, rarely equal, sometimes two. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules definite or indefinite: style simple: stigma two-lobed, rarely entire. Fruit capsular (rarely fleshy), two-celled (rarely, by the obliteration of the dissepiments, one-celled), 2-4-valved, loculicidal or septicidal: dissepiment distinctly double, or apparently single. Placenta central in maturity, either remaining attached to the dissepiment, or becoming loose. Seeds definite or indefinite. Embryo straight, included within a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, seldom shrubby, plants. Leaves usually opposite.—Ex. Veronica, Erinus, Scrophularia, Rhinanthus, Melampyrum.

After Brown, we unite the Pediculares of Jussieu to the Scrophulariaceae, the two kinds of dehiscence of the capsule being found sometimes in the same genus. Richard, in 1828, proposed to make use of another character, viz. the direction of the embryo, which he supposes to be orthotropous in the true Scrophulariaceae, and heterotropous or inverted in the Pediculares or Rhinanthaceae. Mr Lindley has therefore lately availed himself of this structure. But the only genera we can discover with a heterotropous embryo are, Rhinanthus, Melampyrum, and Pedicularis; Euphrasia and Bartisia, so allied to them, having it orthotropous. In the above three the embryo is minute, while in all the others it occupies a great part of the length of the albumen.—This family presents no great uniformity in its properties; the greater number, nevertheless, containing a principle more or less acrid, purgative in *Gentiana* and some *Scrophularia*, but so powerful in *Digitalis purpurea* (the fox-glove), that this plant is very poisonous unless in small doses. *Euphrasia* is slightly astringent and aromatic, without the deleterious qualities of the other genera.

Order 128. Labiatae. Juss.

Calyx tubular, regular, or bilabiata, persistent. Corolla bilabiata; upper lip entire or bifid, lower three-cleft: the upper in estivation overlapping the lower. Stamens four, didynamous (two being sometimes abortive), inserted on the corolla; alternate with the lobes of the lower lip: anthers two-celled, sometimes apparently one-celled, either by the obliteration of the septum, or by the abortion of a cell. Ovarium free, deeply four-lobed: ovules four: style one, proceeding from the base of the lobes: stigma bifid, usually acute, sometimes unequal or dilated. Fruit a microbasis, separable into four achena. Seeds erect, some of them occasionally abortive. Albumen none, or very thin. Radicle inferior: cotyledons flat.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants, with quadrangular stems. Leaves opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Salvia, Teucrium, Scutellaria.

The Labiatae approach to the Boragineae, and also to the Verbenaceae. The leaves are full of little utricles of oil.—Two principles are found in these plants; the one aromatic and stimulant owing to the abundance of the essential oil, the other bitter; and, according as the one or the other predominates, so they are cordial, sudorific, and antispasmodic, or tonic and stomachic. The order contains no dangerous plants.

Order 129. Verbenaceae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Myoporinae. R. Brown. Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla nearly equal, or bilabiata. Stamens four, didynamous, with the rudiment of a fifth some- Arrange times bearing pollen. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, 2-4-celled; ovules four, pendulous; style one; stigma scarcely divided. Fruit an osteocarpium, with a fleshy epicarp and bony sarcocarp, with 2-4-cells; seeds four. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a firm albumen; radicle superior.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Myoporum, Bontia.

Suborder 2. Verbenaee. Calyx tubular, persistent. Corolla tubular, deciduous, limb usually irregular. Stamens four, didynamous, rarely equal, sometimes only two. Ovarium free, 2-4-celled; ovules four, erect, rarely pendulous, and then becoming erect after fecundation; style one; stigma bifid or entire. Fruit an osteocarpium, or nucellum, or a tetrachenium (the epicarp being sometimes extremely thin). Seeds erect, four, or by abortion three or one. Albumen none, or very thin. Embryo straight; radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs, rarely herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Verbena, Vitea, Acanthia.

Suborder 3. Selaginaceae. Juss. Calyx tubular, rarely of two sepals, persistent. Corolla tubular; limb five-lobed, irregular. Stamens four, usually didynamous, seldom only two, inserted on the top of the tube of the corolla; anthers one-celled. Ovarium free, very minute; style one, filiform. Fruit membranous, two-celled, one cell often abortive. Seed solitary in each cell, erect. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle superior, at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Herbaceous or shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Selago, Heterostichia.

These have a somewhat similar habit, and only differ from each other by very minute characters. Through Verbena they are allied to the last order; and through Selaginaceae to both Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae.—Their properties are of little importance; the Verben has long since fallen into disrepute; and the fruit of the Vitea Agnus-castus, being hot and aromatic, may be expected to produce a contrary effect from that from which the plant derived its name. The bark of Acanthia tomentosa is used in Brazil for tanning. The Teak-tree of East India belongs to this family.

Order 130. Acanthaceae. Juss.

Calyx 5-4-divided, equal or unequal, rarely either multifid or entire and obsolete, persistent. Corolla mostly irregular, with the limb ringent or bilabiata, or occasionally with one lip, sometimes nearly equal, deciduous. Stamens mostly two, sometimes with other two or three shorter ones, two of which are sometimes fertile; anthers either two-celled or one-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium free, two-celled; ovules two or many in each cell; style one; stigma two-lobed or entire. Placentae in the axis. Capsule two-celled, elastically two-valved, loculicidal. Seeds two or many in each cell, sometimes by abortion solitary, ascending, usually subtended by rigid subulate persistent ascending processes from the placenta; testa loose. Albumen none. Embryo curved or straight; radicle cylindrical, descending, next the hilum; cotyledons large, foliaceous.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers with three (or by abortion two) bracteas to each.—Ex. Acanthus, Justicia.

The flowers, as in Thumbergia, have sometimes large bracteas inclosing an obsolete calyx. They approach the Scrophulariaceae in habit, and Bignoniacese in character, from which it is extremely difficult to separate those genera that want the hooked processes of the placenta.—Acanthus mollis is considered emollient. The properties of the other genera of this order are almost unknown.

Order 131. Lentibulariae. Richard.

Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla irregular, bilabiata, with a spur. Stamens two, included within the corolla, Arctagi and inserted into its base; anthers one-celled, sometimes meet contracted in the middle. Ovarium free, of two carpels, Chamaeone-celled; ovules indefinite; style one, very short; stigma unequally bilamellate. Placenta central, erect, globular. Fruit capsular, one-celled, opening transversely, or by a longitudinal cleft at the apex. Seeds minute. Albumen none. Embryo with two (sometimes inconspicuous) cotyledons.—Herbaceous, marsh or water plants, or parasites. Leaves radical, often abortive. Flowers on scapes.—Ex. Pinguiacula, Utricularia.

These are most closely allied to the Scrophulariaceae, from which they are distinguished by the ovary being one-celled, or, in other words, by the inflexed part of the carpelary leaves being at an early age obliterated. The large, central, free placenta allies them to the Primulaceae; but these have more than two carpellary leaves and a copious albumen.

Order 132. Primulaceae. Juss.

Calyx five- (rarely four-) cleft, regular, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, rarely perigynous, with the limb regular, five- (rarely four-) cleft, rarely wanting. Stamens inserted upon the corolla or hypogynous, equal in number, and opposite to its segments. Ovarium free (rarely with its base adherent to the calyx), one-celled, of five (rarely four) carpels; ovules indefinite; style one; stigma capitate. Placenta central, free. Capsule opening by valves, or a pyxidium. Seeds numerous, peltate. Embryo straight, cylindrical, inclosed within a fleshy albumen, transverse, or rarely in the axis.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite.—Ex. Primula, Trientalis.

Closely allied through the last order to Scrophulariaceae and the other Hypocorollae; to Myrsineae however it has the greatest affinity, from which it is best known by its capsular and not fleshy fruit. Samolus has the ovarium only partly free, and has five sterile stamens alternate with the fertile ones, but cannot be confounded with any of the Pericorollae if we consider the structure of the fruit and seed. Glaux has no petals, but the stamens are still alternate with the sepals; Don has united it with the Plantaginaceae on account of the embryo being in the axis of the albumen; but the stamens are erect in estivation, and the fruit one-celled.—The Cowslip is slightly narcotic, and the root of the Cyclamen acrid; but little is known about their properties.

Order 133. Globulariaceae. D. C.

Calyx five-cleft; usually equal, sometimes bilabiata, persistent. Corolla tubular, five-parted, bilabiata, or rarely of one lip. Stamens four, somewhat didynamous, inserted into the top of the tube of the corolla, alternate with the segments of the lower lip; anthers reniform, one-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous; style filiform, persistent; stigma bifid. Fruit indehiscent. Seed pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle superior.—Shrubby or herbaceous plants, with perennial roots. Leaves alternate. Flowers capitate, on a paleaceous bracteated receptacle.—Ex. Globularia.

Jussieu and De Candolle considered this allied to the Primulaceae. Cambessedes has lately demonstrated their affinity with the Verbenaceae (Selaginaceae), and more particularly with the Dipsaceae. Perhaps they ought to be placed in the vicinity of the Brunoniaceae and Goodeniaceae, with which last they agree in the irregular corolla; but in the Dipsaceae and these two the torus surrounds the ovarium, and either appears on its surface in the shape of a disc, or incloses the style and forms a cup under the bottom of the calyx.—Bitter, tonic, and purgative.

Order 134. Plumbaginaceae. Juss.

Calyx tubular, persistent; estivation plicate; corolla gamopetalous, or of five distinct petals, regular. Stamens five, hypogynous when the petals are combined, inserted into the base of the petals when distinct. Ovarium free, one-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous from the extremity of an umbilical cord arising from the bottom of the cell; styles five, seldom three or four, each bearing a subulate stigma. Fruit a utriculus. Seed pendulous; testa and tegmen combined. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fari- naceous albumen; radicle superior.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Leaves alternate or fascicled, somewhat sheathing at the base. Flowers panicled, either loosely or in a capitate manner.—Ex. Plumbago, Statice, Armeria.

Jussieu and De Candolle consider the calyx as a kind of involucremum, and the petals as a perianth, probably on account of other points of resemblance between this order and Nyctagineae, in which there is no corolla.—The genus Plumbago is caustic and acrid. Statice is tonic and astrin- gent.

Order 135. Plantaginaceae. Juss.

Sepals four (rarely three), somewhat unequal, persist- ent: estivation imbricate. Corolla tubular, with a four- (rarely three)-parted limb, scarious, persistent. Stamens four, inserted into the tube of the corolla, or its base, al- ternate with its segments: filaments long, filiform, doubled inwards before fecundation: anthers versatile, two-cell- ed. Torus inconspicuous. Ovarium free, two-seldom four- and very rarely one-celled: ovules solitary, in pairs, or indefinite: style simple capillary: stigma hispid, simple or rarely bifid. Fruit a pyxidium, inclosed within the persistent corolla. Seeds sessile, peltate or erect: testa mucilaginous. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior.—Herbaceous and generally stemless plants. Flowers bisexual in spikes, or unsexual and solitary, the male on a long peduncle, the female sessile.—Ex. Planta- go, Littorella.

We agree with Brown and some others, that this has a true calyx. In the genus Plantago, the filaments, although only freed from the corolla in their upper part, really have the same origin as the corolla, but are adnate to its tube.— The Plantains are bitter, astringent, and slightly febrifugal.

Div. IV.—Monocheilamydeae. D.C.

(8. Hypostaminaceae. Juss.)

Order 136. Nyctagineae. Juss.

Perianth tubular, coloured, contracted in the middle, becoming indurated at the base; limb entire or toothed: estivation plicate. Stamens definite, hypogynous: anthers two-celled. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium free, one- celled: ovule solitary erect: style one: stigma one. Fruit a caryopsis, inclosed within the enlarged persistent tube of the perianth. Embryo rolled round a farinaceous al- bumen: radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves opposite, rarely alternate. Flowers with an involucre, which is either common or proper, one or many-leaved, or sometimes minute.—Ex. Mirabilis, Boerhaavia.

The nearest affinity of this order is with Plumbaginaceae; but particularly with Polygonaceae: it is, however, very dis- tinct from either. The genus Mirabilis, that word being an adjective, ought to be called Nyctago.—The root of the Marvel of Peru, and most others of this family, is purgative.

Order 137. Amaranthaceae. Juss.

Perianth 3-5-partite, scarious, persistent, with usually two bracteoles at the base. Stamens as numerous as the segments of the perianth, distinct, or united into a mem- branous cup or tube, occasionally partly abortive, often with intermediate barren filaments or processes: anthers two-celled or one-celled. Ovarium single, free, one-celled: ovules solitary or several, suspended from a free cen- tral funicle: style one or none. Stigma simple or com- pound. Fruit an utricule or a pyxidium, rarely a berry. Seeds lentiform, pendulous: testa crustaceous. Embryo Character- curved round a central farinaceous albumen: radicle near the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves oppo- site or alternate, exstipulate. Flowers capitate or in spikes, usually bisexual.—Ex. Amaranthus, Gomphrena, Deeringia.

Closely allied in many respects to the Illecebræ: nor is it easy to point out any general distinguishing character. Martius supposes the bracteoles to be a true calyx, and the perianth a corolla.—The leaves are mucilaginous. This order is chiefly cultivated for its showy flowers.

Div. IV.—Monocheilamydeae. D.C.

(9. Peristaminaceae. Juss.)

Order 138. Chenopodaceae. D.C.

Perianth bracteate, deeply divided, sometimes tubular at the base, persistent: estivation imbricate. Stamens in- serted into the base of the perianth, or sometimes hypogy- nous opposite its segments, and equal to them in number, occasionally fewer. Ovarium single, free, or sometimes cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovule solitary, attached to the base of the cell: style 2-4-divid- ed: stigmas simple. Fruit indehiscent, membranous, in- closed in the calyx, which becomes often enlarged or fleshy. Seed erect or resupinate. Embryo curved, placed round a farinaceous albumen, or spiral, or doubled together with- out albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate, sometimes opposite, exstipulate. Flowers bi- or unisexual. —Ex. Chenopodium, Atriplex.

Very difficult to be distinguished by a character from the last order, although usually with a habit very differ- ent.—Some, as the Spinage, are used as pot-herbs; of others, the root, as of the Beet, is eaten.—Many possess an essential oil. The Salsola, Salicornia, and others, yield much soda.

Order 139. Phytolaccaceae. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Phytolaccaceae. Perianth 2-4-5-partite. Sta- mens inserted into the base of the perianth, indefinite, or as few as the segments of the perianth, alternate with them. Ovarium of one or several carpels, syncarpous or apocarpous: ovule one in each carpel, ascending: styles equal to the number of the carpels, terminal in the sim- ple ovarium, lateral in the apocarpous: stigmas simple or divided. Fruit baccate or dry, indehiscent. Seeds so- laritary, ascending. Embryo curved round a mealy (rarely a fleshy) albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alter- nate, exstipulate, often with pellucid dots.—Ex. Phyto- laccæ, Rivina, Gisekia, Theligonum.

Suborder 2. Petiveriae. Ag. Perianth 4-5-partite. Sta- mens perigynous, indefinite; or, if occasionally equal in number to the leaves of the perianth, alternate with them. Ovarium one, free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style one, lateral: stigma simple or penicillate. Fruit dry, one- celled, indehiscent. Seed erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons convolute.—Leaves alternate, often dotted, with minute deciduous stipules (in Petiveria).—Ex. Petiveria, Seguiera.

We do not see why these ought to be separated; their habit is precisely the same. Microtes and Ancestrorcarpus, both with albumen, approach closely to Petiveria by the prickles on the fruit. Rivina also exhibits a tendency to have the cotyledons convolute. We have joined to them Theligonum, although with an oily and somewhat fleshy albumen. De Candolle and Richard do not separate this family from Chenopodaceæ.—Phytolacca decandra is a pur- gative: its root is emetic, as also is a spirit distilled from its berries: but a tincture from them seems to be much Arrange esteemed for chronic rheumatism. The leaves are acid; but young shoots, when boiled, are used instead of asparagus.

Order 140. *Polygonaceae*. Juss.

Suborder 1. *Persicariae*. Flowers solitary. Perianth divided; estivation imbricate. Stamens definite, inserted into the bottom of the perianth; anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovarium one, free; ovule solitary, erect; styles or stigmas several. Fruit a nut, naked, or covered by the enlarged perianth. Seed erect. Albumen farinaceous, rarely very thin and fleshy. Embryo usually on one side of the albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, sheathing at the base, or adhering there to intrafoliaceous stipules, revolute when young. Flowers often unisexual.—Ex. *Polygonum*, *Rumex*.

Suborder 2. *Eriogoneae*. Flowers bisexual, collected in a campanulate involucre. Perianth campanulate, six-cleft; estivation imbricate. Stamens nine, inserted into the bottom of the perianth; anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovary one, free; ovule solitary, erect; stigmas three. Fruit an acheneum, covered by the persistent perianth. Seed erect. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen: radicle superior, remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, usually tomentose, neither sheathing nor with intrafoliaceous stipules.—Ex. *Eriogonum*.

The erect ovule and superior radicle will distinguish this at once from the two last orders. The second suborder contains, in addition to Eriogonum, an allied genus from South America, in which the segments of the involucre terminate in spiny processes, and the fruit is lenticular, although with a triangular beak.—In almost all the species the root and young leaves have an astringent and acid taste, the first owing to the presence of tannin and gallic acid, the second to oxalic acid, which makes them rank among tonic medicines. The roots of some, as the rhubarb, possess, in addition, a purgative property. The seeds of all, with the exception of those of *Polygonum hydropiper*, which are hot and acrid, may be used as food, like those of most other orders with a copious farinaceous albumen.

Order 141. *Begoniaceae*. R. Brown.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth coloured; of four or sometimes 3-9 in the males, or 5-6 in the females, tepals or leaves, of which some are smaller than the others: estivation imbricate. Stamens indefinite, distinct, or united into a solid column: anthers collected in a head, continuous, clavate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally, with a very thick connectiveum. Ovarium coherent with the tube of the perianth, of three carpels, each with the dorsal nerve winged, three-celled: ovules indefinite: stigmas three, sessile, two-lobed, somewhat spirally twisted. Placentae in the axis. Fruit membranous, capsular, triangular, three-celled, loculicidal (bursting at the angles) below. Seeds indefinite: testa thin, reticulated. Albumen 0. Embryo oblong: radicle next the hilum.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Leaves alternate, oblique at the base, with scarious stipules.—Ex. *Begonia* (Plate CXVIII).

Closely allied to the Polygonaceae in several respects, but distinguishable from them by a multitude of characters: some slight relation they also bear to Loasaceae and Onagraceae. Mr Lindley once considered them as having affinity with Saxifragaceae (Hydrangeae), and Link places them near Umbelliferae.—The leaves and young shoots are acid, and may be used, like those of the rhubarb, for tarts. The roots are astringent and slightly bitter.

Order 142. *Laurineae*. Juss.

Perianth 4-6-cleft, the limb sometimes obsolete: estivation imbricate. Stamens perigynous, definite, opposite to the segments of the perianth; more often twice as many, and in two rows, in which case the outer row is almost always fertile, while such of the inner row as are opposite the inner segments of the perianth are sterile: filaments of the inner row often with glands at their base: anthers 2-4 celled, cells opening by a longitudinal persistent valve from the base to the apex, outer row introrse, inner row extrorse. Ovarium single, free or rarely adherent, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style one: stigma obtuse. Fruit fleshy, naked, or covered by the enlarged and fleshy perianth. Seed one, pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle short, superior: cotyledons large, usually plano-convex and peltate near the base, rarely convolute: plumule conspicuously, two-leaved.—Trees. Leaves exstipulate, alternate, or seldom opposite. Sometimes twining, parasitic, suffrutescent, or herbaceous plants, without leaves.—Ex. *Laurus*, *Cassytha*.

Perhaps *Gyrocarpus*, having an adherent ovary, a drupe with two winged processes at its apex, and convolute peltate cotyledons, ought to form a small suborder. The Laurineae are allied to the Berberidaceae and Monimiaceae by their valvular anthers.—Cinnamon, camphor, benzoin, and sassafras, are the products of this family: indeed all the species are aromatic, warm, and stomachic.

Order 143. *Hernandiaceae*. Blume.

Perianth petaloid, tubular, 4-8-parted, deciduous, with a small involucre or outer perianth around the flowers that contain pistils. Stamens perigynous definite, in two rows, of which the outer is often sterile: anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule pendulous: style one or none: stigma peltate. Fruit a fibrous drupe. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons somewhat lobed, shrivelled, oily.—Trees. Leaves alternate, entire.—Ex. *Hernandia*, *Inocarpus*.

Allied to Laurineae and Myristiceae, differing from the former by its anthers, from the latter by its want of albumen. Mr Lindley has also explained its affinity to the Thymelaeae.—The bark, young leaves, and seed of *Hernandia*, are slightly purgative. The seeds of the *Inocarpus* are eaten, and have a taste similar to chestnuts.

Order 144. *Myristicaceae*. R. Brown.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth trifid, in the female deciduous: estivation valvular. Stamens 3-12 (definite): filaments combined closely into a cylinder: anthers connate or distinct, two-celled, extrorse, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style very short: stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit baccate, one-celled, two-valved. Seed solitary, erect, nut-like, covered by a deeply laciniated arillus. Albumen ruminated, between fatty and fleshy. Embryo small, at the base of the albumen. Radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous: plumule conspicuous.—Trees, with often a red juice. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, coriaceous, not dotted.—Ex. *Myristica* (Plate CXX.)

Mr Brown remarks that the stamens or anthers, however numerous, are always a multiple of the number of the segments of the perianth, and therefore definite.—The use of the mace or arillus, and albumen, of the nutmeg, is well known, as highly aromatic. The bark, however, has an acrid juice, and the fleshy part of the fruit is caustic.

Order 145. *Proteaceae*. Juss.

Perianth more or less deeply 4-divided: estivation valvular. Stamens perigynous, four (one sometimes sterile), opposite the segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium solitary, free, sessile or stalked, one-celled: ovules solitary, or rarely in pairs: style simple: stigma discoid, slightly oblique. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent, one-celled. Seed sometimes winged: testa thick. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle inferior, and below the hilum: cotyledons sometimes more than two.—Shrubs or small trees. Leaves hard, dry, opposite or alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Protea, Banksia, Persoonia.

A very distinct order, and scarcely to be confounded with any other.—They are handsome evergreens, much prized by gardeners, but of no use except as firewood.

Order 146. Eleoagaceae. Juss.

Perianth tubular, the limb entire or 2-4-toothed; consisting, in purely staminiferous flowers, of 3-4 tepals; persistent. Stamens three, four, or eight, alternate with the segments of the perianth: anthers nearly sessile, two-celled, erect, bursting on the inner side and longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary, ascending, on a short funiculus: style short: stigma simple, subulate, glandular. Fruit a crustaceous acheneum, inclosed within the persistent, enlarged, and fleshy tube of the perianth. Seed ascending. Embryo straight, surrounded by a thin fleshy albumen: radicle short; inferior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, entire, alternate or opposite, exstipulate, covered beneath with leprous scales. Flowers dioecious or rarely bisexual.—Eleoagus, Hippophae.

This order is allied to several in the neighbourhood, and also to Combretaceae.—The fleshy enlarged perianth of several species is eaten.

Order 147. Penaeaceae. R. Brown.

Perianth coloured, more or less deeply 4-divided, regular, persistent. Stamens perigynous, four (or eight, and then the four additional ones are longer than the others), alternate with the segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, opening inwards and longitudinally. Ovarium free, 4-celled: ovules two, collateral in each cell, resupinate erect, or pendulous: foramina near the hilum: style one, entire or 4-fid: stigmas four, or one entire or 4-lobed. Fruit a capsule, 4-celled, 4-valved, loculicidal, with no persistent axis: seeds erect (by resupination), or pendulous, two in each cell, rarely solitary, with an imperfect fungus-like arillus at the hilum: testa brittle: nucleus fleshy. Radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, exstipulate. Flowers with two or more bracteas at their base.—Ex. Penaea, Sarcoolla.

We have examined the structure of the seeds of this order, and have come to the same conclusions as Gaertner, Lindley, and Kunth. The nucleus seems quite homogeneous, solid, and fleshy. There is no part in particular that one can describe as albumen, or cotyledons, or radicle; but from the situation of the foramen in the ovule, it may be presumed that the radicle points to the hilum. In those with erect seeds, the raphe is on the outer side of the seed, that is, at the opposite side from the placenta, and therefore we consider them resupinate.—The Gum-resin called Sarcoolla is obtained from several species.

Order 148. Thymelaeae. Juss.

Perianth tubular, coloured, 4- (rarely 5-) cleft: estivation imbricate. Stamens definite, perigynous, usually eight, sometimes four (or more rarely two) and then opposite to the segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule one, pendulous: style one: stigma entire. Fruit a nut or a drupe. Albumen none, or thin and fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons plano-convex: plumule inconspicuous.—Shrubs, or rarely herbaceous plants, with a tough bark. Leaves entire, alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Daphne, Passerina.

Allied to Santalaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, and Proteaceae, from which they are readily known by one or two of the characters given.—The bark is caustic: it is composed of tenacious interlaced fibres, easily separable, which are sometimes worked into cordage: in the lace bark tree (Daphne Laghetto), the inner bark resembles a piece of Arranfine lace; that of Daphne Gardneri, and some others, is manufactured into paper. The berries of D. Laureola are poisonous to all animals except birds.

Order 149. Aquilariae. R. Brown.

Perianth coriaceous, tubular, five-lobed. Stamens monadelphous: ten fertile, alternating with ten that are sterile and sometimes petaloid: anthers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, ovate, of two carpels, one-celled: ovules two, suspended, acuminated, with the foramen at the apex: stigma sessile, simple. Placentas parietal. Capsule pyriform, one-celled, two-valved, loculicidal. Seeds two (one to each placenta), arillate, or winged.—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Aquilaria, Gyrinops.

The above account of this little-known order we owe to Mr Lindley: and, if his observations be correct, the seed is probably suspended, and the radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum. On account of the capsule being extremely compressed at the sutures of the valves, it is very difficult to determine whether the margins are not so much introflexed as to meet, and thus form a true dissepiment, and the fruit two-celled, as it has hitherto been described by Gaertner and Lamarck. Gaertner, moreover, describes and figures the seeds of Gyrinops as ascending. Nothing yet is known of the internal structure of the seed. Mr Brown arranges this order next to, if it do not form part of, Chailletiaceae, and mentions its relation to Thymelaeae. The ambiguous kind of capsule, and appendage to the seeds, seem to point out some affinity with Penaeaceae and Polygalaceae. If the above description be correct, this order borders very closely on the Samydce.

Order 150. Chailletiaceae. R. Brown.

Perianth five-partite, tepals persistent: estivation imbricate (D. C.) or valvate (Lindl.). Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, and opposite its lobes, with alternating, sterile, petaloid, often bifid, filaments, each of which has usually a gland at its base on the inside: anthers ovate, versatile, two-celled. Ovarium free, 2-3-celled: ovules two in each cell, collateral, pendulous: styles 2-3, distinct or combined: stigma capitate. Fruit an osteocarpium, with the epicarp rather dry and coriaceous, or a capsule, 2-3-celled, one or two cells being often abortive. Seeds solitary in each cell, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo thick: radicle short, superior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with two stipules. Peduncles axillary, often cohering with the petiole.—Ex. Chailletia, Tapura.

Plants with the appearance of Celtis (Amentaceae): they are allied somewhat to Terebinthaceae, and also to Rosaceae.—Chailletia toxicaria is said to be poisonous.

Order 151. Samydceae. Gaertner.

Perianth usually 5- (sometimes 3-7-) divided, coloured on the inside: estivation somewhat imbricate, seldom completely valvate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the perianth, two, three, or four times as many as its segments, either all fertile, or the alternate ones shorter, villosus or ciliated, and sterile: filaments monadelphous at the base: anthers erect, ovate, two-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules indefinite: style one, filiform: stigma capitate, or slightly lobed. Placentae parietal. Capsule coriaceous, one-celled, 3-5-valved, dehiscing imperfectly; the inside often somewhat pulpy, and coloured. Seeds attached to the valves, not in any evident order, on the papillose or pulpy part, with a fleshy arillus and excavated hilum. Albumen fleshy. Embryo minute: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons ovate, foliaceous, plicate.—Leaves alternate, simple, with round and linear pellucid dots mixed, stipulate.—Ex. Samyda, Cassaria. The structure of the fruit shows great affinity with the Bixineae and Flacourtiaceae; in some respects also it is allied to Rosaceae; but it approaches most to Chailletiaceae.—The bark and leaves are said to be slightly astringent.

Order 152. Homalinea. R. Brown.

Perianth with a short tube, the limb 4-15-partite, with usually as many alternating petaloid segments, either in the same row or forming an inner series. Glands or scales generally present in front of the outer or proper divisions of the perianth. Stamens perigynous, alternating singly, or in parcels of threes or sixes, with the outer segments of the perianth; anthers three-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium partly cohering with the tube of the calyx or free, syncarpous, one-celled; ovules numerous; styles 3-5 (sometimes combined), simple, filiform, or subulate; stigmas 3-5. Placentae 3-5, parietal. Fruit baccate or capsular, one-celled. Seeds sometimes arilate. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle inferior, pointing to the hilum; cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules.—Ex. Homalium, Pinoda, Azara.

This order is closely allied to Bixineae and Samydeae. Some botanists consider the alternate segments of the perianth as petals, and arrange it near to Rosaceae.—The properties are unknown.

Div. IV.—Monochlamydeae. D. C.

(10. Epistaminæ. Juss.)

Order 153. Santalaceae. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Exocarpacea. Perianth five- (rarely four-) partite, or of three tepals. Stamens perigynous, as numerous as the segments of the perianth, and opposite to them. Ovarium free, or partly cohering with the tube of the perianth; style short or none; stigma obtuse or lobed. Fruit a nut or drupe. Seed solitary. Embryo minute, in a fleshy albumen; radicle superior.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Exocarpus, Anthobolus.

Suborder 2. Santalæce. Perianth 4-5-cleft: estivation valvate. Stamens 4-5, opposite the segments of the perianth, and inserted at their base. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules 2-4, pendulous from near the apex of a central placenta: style one: stigma often lobed. Fruit nut-like or drupaceous. Seed solitary. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, or nearly opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Santalum, Thesium.

Suborder 3. Nysseæ. Juss. Perianth 4-5-cleft. Stamens (in the bisexual flowers) opposite the segments of the perianth, as numerous, and inserted at their base; in the male flowers usually twice as many as the segments. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovule one, occasionally two, pendulous from the apex of the cavity: style one: stigma simple or divided. Fruit drupaceous. Seed solitary. Albumen fleshy. Radicle superior; cotyledons broad, foliaceous.—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers polygamous.—Ex. Nysa.

Notwithstanding that Exocarpaceae has the fruit wholly or partly free, and therefore belongs to the Peristaminæ, and that Nysseæ has no central placenta, and has foliaceous cotyledons, these three suborders can scarcely be separated. Cercantasia has petaloid scales alternating with the stamens, and, according to Ruiz and Pavon, an erect seed, an embryo at the apex of the albumen, and an inferior radicle, and therefore may be associated with Exocarpaceae till better understood. Sanders wood is the produce of Santalum album.

Order 154. Aristolochiæ. Juss.

Perianth tubular, three-cleft, regular, or sometimes very unequal: estivation valvate. Stamens (6-12) a multiple of the segments of the perianth, epigynous, distinct, or adhering to the style and stigmas. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, 3-6-celled: ovules indefinite, horizontal: style simple, short: stigmas radiating, as numerous as the cells of the ovary. Fruit dry or succulent, 3-6-celled. Seeds numerous. Embryo very minute, placed at the base of a cartilaginous albumen.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves alternate, with often leafy stipules. Flowers axillary, solitary, bisexual.—Ex. Aristolochia, Ascarum.

In this family the root is the most active part; it has, particularly in Aristolochia, a bitter, aromatic, and sometimes even slightly acid taste. This acridity is predominant in Ascarum, which is emetic, whilst the other plants are generally stimulant.

Order 155. Cyttinæ. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Rhizanthæce. Blume. Perianth divided: estivation imbricated. Male flowers containing a solid central column, from the apex of which arise some horned processes: filaments none: anthers cohering with the column, extrorse, bursting longitudinally or by terminal pores. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovules indefinite. Placentæ several, broad, parietal. Fruit a pulpy berry. Seeds indefinite, very minute.—Parasitic plants. Stem simple. Leaves in the form of scales. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. Cyttinus, Rafflesia.

Suborder 2. Nepenthæce. Link. Perianth four-parted: estivation imbricated. Male flowers containing a solid central column: filaments none: anthers about 16, sessile on an agglomerated into a spherical head at the apex of the column, extrorse, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, four-cornered, spuriously four-celled: ovules indefinite: stigma sessile, somewhat four-lobed. Placentæ parietal, constituting the spurious dissepiments. Fruit a capsule, spuriously four-celled, four-valved, loculicid. Seeds ascending, indefinite, very minute: testa loose, setaceous: tegmen ovate oblong, with a filiform process at each extremity. Embryo oblong, in the midst of a fleshy albumen; radicle pointing to the hilum; cotyledons plano-convex.—Leaves alternate, slightly sheathing at the base, with a foliaceous petiole that is pitcher-shaped at the extremity, with a lid-like lamina. Flowers unisexual, densely mucronose.—Ex. Nepenthes.

Notwithstanding the diversity of habit, we consider these two to be extremely closely allied. In both, the solid central column of the male flowers may be viewed, in whole or in part, as an abortive pistillum. The stamens will thus be epigynous, although in Nepenthes the ovarium be free. Perhaps Mr Brown was right in uniting this order as a section to the last.—The properties of Nepenthes are unknown. Cyttinus and Rafflesia are astringents.

Div. IV.—Monochlamydeae. D. C.

(11. Diclinæ. Juss. § I. Angiospermae.)

Order 156. Datiscæ. R. Brown.

Flowers unisexual. Male: Perianth deeply divided. Stamens several: anthers linear, membranous, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Female: Perianth toothed. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovules indefinite, parietal: styles three or four. Placentæ parietal, as many as the styles. Fruit capsular, opening at the vertex, one-celled. Seeds indefinite, parietal: testa reticulated. Albumen none. Embryo straight; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous branched plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Datiscæ, Tetrameles. Mr Lindley considers this as a connecting link between Rosaceae and Urticaceae; Mr Brown, however, thinks that they differ widely. Both the above genera are dicotyledons.

Order 157. **Empetreae**. Nuttall.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth gamoseous, in four (rarely two) imbricated rows; each series of two or three hypogynous scales alternating with those of the next row; the inner often petaloid. Stamens 2-3; equal in number to the scales of each series, and alternating with the innermost hypogynous; anthers roundish, two-celled, bursting longitudinally at their margin. Ovarium free, seated on the small fleshy discoid torus, with as many cells as stamens, or twice or thrice as many; ovules solitary, ascending; style one, short, deciduous; stigma radiating, multifid. Fruit a nucellum, seated within the persistent perianth. Seeds solitary in each nucule, ascending; testa membranous; embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen, and about the same length; radicle inferior; cotyledons semicylindrical, much shorter than the radicle. —Small heath-like shrubs. Leaves alternate, or somewhat verticillate, exstipulate.—Ex. *Empetrum*, *Corema*, *Ceratiola*.

Closely allied to Euphorbiaceae. It has little or no affinity with the Ericaceae, with which it is usually arranged; and as little with Coniferae, where Nuttall places it. Don and most others view the inner series of the perianth as petals, the next as a calyx, and the outer, when present, as bracteas, and therefore consider them as allied to Celastrineae.

Order 158. **Euphorbiaceae**. Juss.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth lobed (sometimes wanting), with various internal glandular or petaloid scales (abortive petals) alternating with the lobes. Stamens definite or indefinite, distinct or monadelphous; anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, sessile, or rarely stalked, 2-3- or sometimes many-celled; carpels arranged round a central column; ovules solitary or in pairs, suspended; styles equal in number to the cells, distinct or combined, sometimes none; stigmas several, or one with several lobes. Fruit of two, three, or more cocci, which are usually distinct and elastically two-valved, sometimes indehiscent or closely cohering. Seeds solitary or in pairs, suspended, arillate. Embryo inclosed in a fleshy albumen; radicle superior, pointing to the hilum; cotyledons flat.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, often lactescent. Leaves usually with stipules, opposite or alternate, sometimes none.—Ex. *Euphorbia* (Plate CXXI.), *Buxus*, *Croton*, *Ianipha* (Plate CXXII.).

This order is usually arranged among the Monochlamydeae, and next the Urticaceae; but if Coriariaceae belong to the Thalamiflorae, so ought the Euphorbiaceae, for the petaloid bodies, often in this family reduced to mere glands, are of the same nature in both. The stigmas of many Euphorbiaceae resemble much those of Coriariaceae; and perhaps the true place for them in a linear series is between the Coriariaceae and Celastrineae.—The plants of this order are acrid, caustic, and poisonous. Their deleterious effects are owing to the milky juice which most of them possess; but they may be deprived of this very easily by means of heat, so that the root of the *Ianipha Manica* becomes a wholesome food. The albumen of the seed contains much fat and sweet oil, but the embryo is acrid and purgative. It is impossible to give here the various modifications of the properties to be found in this family. They are discussed at length by Ad. de Jussieu, in his treatise on this family.

Order 159. **Urticaceae**. Juss.

Suborder 1. **Urticaceae**. Juss. Flowers unisexual, scattered or clustered. Perianth membranous, lobed, persistent. Stamens definite, inserted into the base of the perianth, and opposite its lobes; filaments sometimes curved inwards during estivation. Ovarium free, one-celled; ovule solitary, erect; stigma simple. Fruit an indehiscent nut, surrounded by the membranous or fleshy perianth. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen 0, or very thin. Embryo straight, or curved, or spiral; radicle superior, remote from the hilum.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, hispid, or scabrous, stipulate.—Ex. *Urtica*, *Cannabis*, *Humulus*.

Suborder 2. **Ulmaceae**. Mirbel. Flowers bisexual or polygamous, scattered. Perianth campanulate, divided. Stamens definite, inserted into the base of the perianth, erect during estivation; ovarium free, two-celled; ovules solitary, pendulous; style 0; stigmas two. Fruit one or two-celled (one of them abortive); a samara or a drupe. Seed one, pendulous; albumen 0, or very thin. Embryo straight; radicle superior; cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. *Ulmus*, *Celtis*.

Suborder 3. **Artocarpeae**. R. Brown. Flowers unisexual, in heads or catkins. Perianth usually divided; sometimes tubular or entire. Stamens solitary or several, straight during estivation. Ovarium free, or rarely cohering with the perianth, 1-2-celled; ovule suspended; style one, filiform; stigma bifid. Fruit a sorus or syconus, which is sometimes, but very rarely, reduced to a single flower. Seed solitary, suspended. Albumen thin or inconspicuous. Embryo straight or curved; radicle pointing superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, with milky juice. Leaves alternate; stipules deciduous, convolute in vernation. Ex. *Artocarpus* (Plate CXXXV.), *Morus*, *Ficus*.

We follow Richard and some others in combining these three. The Ulmaceae, however, from the two-celled ovarium, ought perhaps, as has been done by De Candolle and Duby, to be united to the Amentaceae. Mr Brown says that they should be rejected on account of the pendulous ovules. But then he states Artocarpeae to have the ovules erect. Mr Lindley, however, finds them suspended. We have in several species observed them to be peritropial, and in general attached to a point opposite the base of the style; the radicle is however always superior, wherever be the hilum.—In the Urticaceae the fibres of the stem are very tenacious. The leaves of the hemp are narcotic. The hop is extremely bitter, and the effluvia is said to cause sleep. The nettles are well known for the stinging property of the hairs on their leaves. The bark of the Elm (*Ulmus*) is bitter and astringent. The fruit of most of the Artocarpeae is edible; but the juice is usually acrid, and contains more or less of caoutchouc. The *Aristolochia tomentaria*, the celebrated Upsa or poison-tree of Java, belongs to this tribe. *Brosmium galactodendron*, or the cow-tree of Humboldt, is a solitary instance of the milk being wholesome. The banyan-tree of India is the *Ficus religiosa*.

Order 160. **Monimiae**. Juss.

Flowers unisexual, collected together, the males and females into different involucres; involucre toothed or lobed, valvular during estivation. Perianth 0. Stamens numerous, covering the whole interior of the involucre; anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovaria several, sessile, and inclosed within the tube of the involucre, each with one style and one stigma; ovule solitary, pendulous. Fruit a dry syconus. Seed pendulous. Embryo in the midst of a copious albumen; radicle superior.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers axillary, in short racemes.—Ex. *Monimia*, *Boldo*.

Closely allied to the Urticaceae.—The bark and leaves give out when bruised a highly aromatic smell. Order 161. *Atherosperma*. R. Brown.

Flowers unisexual, collected together, males and females usually in distinct, rarely in the same, involucres: involucre tubular, divided at the extremity, the divisions usually in two rows, of which the inner, and sometimes all, are petaloid, accompanied in the pistilliferous involucre with a few scales. Stamens in the purely staminiferous involucre very numerous, inserted into the bottom of the involucre; mixed with scales; in the involucre having also pistilla, they are fewer, and arise from its orifice: anthers adnate, two-celled, bursting with a valve that separates from the base to the apex. Ovaria several, usually indefinite: ovule solitary, erect: styles simple, sometimes arising from the side or the base: stigma undivided. Achenia furnished with the persistent styles, become fleshy, included within the enlarged tube of the involucre. Seed solitary, erect. Embryo short, at the base of a soft fleshy albumen: radicle inferior.—Trees. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers axillary, solitary.—Ex. *Atherosperma*, *Laurelia*.

The anthers indicate some affinity to the Berberideae and Laurineae. Mr Brown and Mr Lindley consider the involucre a perianth. We have been induced to differ from them only by the analogy subsisting between this order and Monimiaceae, with which they agree in many very important points; like them they are aromatic.

Order 162. *Lacistemae*. Martius.

Perianth in several narrow divisions, covered by a dilated bractea. Stamen one, hypogynous: another two-celled, separated by a thick two-lobed connectivum, bursting transversely. Torus a fleshy disc. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules several, ascending: style scarcely any: stigmas two, three, or four: small, subulate, spreading. Placentas parietal. Fruit capsular, 2-3- or 4-valved, loculicid. Seed usually (by abortion) solitary, suspended from a long funiculus, with a fleshy arillus: testa crustaceous. Embryo in a fleshy albumen: radicle straight, cylindrical, superior: cotyledons flat.—Small trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers in axillary clustered catkins.—Ex. *Lacistema*.

Martius and Lindley attribute to this a fleshy albumen; St Hilaire and Kunth say there is none. Some authors suppose the perianth to consist only of four pieces, accompanied with one or more bracteas, and the whole surrounded by a large bractea. We, however, are rather inclined to consider the supposed perianth as mere processes from the torus, and consequently this tribe approaches very near to the Chloranthaceae. Although all the flowers are bisexual, the upper ones only of the catkin are fertile, whence we have arranged the order among the Diclinae, with which it is otherwise most allied.

Order 163. *Chloranthaceae*. R. Brown.

Flowers without a perianth, bisexual or unisexual, with a supporting scale. Stamens definite, lateral; if more than one, connate: filament adhering slightly to the ovary: anthers one-celled, bursting longitudinally, each adnate to a fleshy connectivum, which coheres laterally in various degrees, so as to represent usually only one anther with several cells. Ovarium one-celled, ovule solitary, pendulous: stigma simple, sessile. Fruit drupaceous, indehiscent. Seed pendulous. Embryo minute, at the apex of a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior, pointing to the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons divaricate.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Stems jointed. Leaves opposite, simple, with sheathing petioles, and minute intervening stipules. Flowers in terminal spikes.—Ex. *Chloranthus*, *Ascarina*, *Hedyosum*.

Allied to Piperaceae. "Their anthers consist of a fleshy mass, upon the face of which the cell lies that bears the pollen. Whether these anthers are one or two-celled, is a matter of doubt; one botanist considering those which Arrange have two cells to be double anthers, another considering those with one cell to be half anthers."—(Lindl.) *Chloranthus officinalis* has an aromatic fragrant smell, which is combined in the root with a somewhat bitter flavour, giving it the same properties as *Aristolochia serpentina*.

Order 164. *Piperaceae*. Richard.

Suborder 1. *Piperinae*. Flowers without a perianth but with a bractea, bisexual. Stamens definite or indefinite, arranged on one side, or all round the ovarium, to which they adhere more or less: anthers one or two-celled, with or without a fleshy connectivum: pollen smooth. Ovarium solitary, free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: stigma simple, sessile, rather oblique. Fruit somewhat fleshy, one-celled. Seed erect. Embryo inclosed in a fleshy endosperm, placed on the outside of the perisperm, at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite (sometimes alternate by abortion), or verticillate, exstipulate. Flowers in spikes.—Ex. *Piper*, *Peperomia*.

Suborder 2. *Saururinae*. Richard. Flowers without a perianth, seated on a scale or bractea, bisexual. Stamens three or six, clavate, hypogynous or cohering with the angles of the germen, persistent: anthers continuous with the filament, with a thick connectivum, and two lobes bursting longitudinally. Ovaria four, apocarpous, with one ascending ovule and a sessile recurved stigma to each; or syncarpous, consisting of three or four carpella, one or 3-4-celled, with several ascending ovules, and 3-4 sessile recurved stigmas. Fruit either consisting of four fleshy achenia, or a one or 3-4-celled capsule, opening at the apex and containing several ascending seeds. Seeds with a membranous testa. Embryo minute, inclosed in a fleshy endosperm, situated on the outside of a hard mealy perisperm at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, growing in marshy places, or floating in water. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Flowers in spikes, rarely with a four-leaved involucre at the base of the spike.—Ex. *Saururus*, *Aponogeton*, *Houttuynia*.

This order has floated for some time between the Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones; but what Richard and others took for a monocotyledonous embryo, proves now to be merely the embryonic sac, or endosperm. As to *Houttuynia*, we have referred it here, notwithstanding several botanists have considered it as more allied to the Aroideae.—The common pepper is well known as pungent, stimulant, and aromatic, and this represents the ordinary property of the Piperineae.

Order 165. *Amentaceae*. Juss.

Suborder 1. *Salicinea*. Richard. Flowers in unisexual amenta. Stamens distinct or monadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, one or two-celled: ovules numerous, erect, attached to the bottom of the cell or to the base of two parietal placentas: style one or none: stigmas two. Fruit a coriaceous capsule, one or two-celled, two-valved, loculicid. Seeds numerous, adhering as in the ovary, comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with stipules that are often deciduous.—Ex. *Salix*, *Populus*.

Suborder 2. *Myricae*. Rich. Flowers unisexual in an amentum, which is sometimes globose. Stamens one or several, each subtended by a scale: anthers two-celled, 2-4-valved, opening longitudinally. Ovarium one-celled, with several hypogynous scales: ovule solitary, erect: stigmas two, subulate. Fruit drupaceous, often covered with waxy granules; surrounded by the scales of the ovarium become fleshy and adherent; or dry and dehiscient, with the scales distinct. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons... Arrange: two, plano-convex.—Shrubs with resinous glands and dots, or leafless shrubs or trees, with filiform branches bearing membranous toothed sheaths. Leaves alternate.

—Ex. Myrica, Casuarina.

Suborder 3. Betulineae. Rich. Flowers unisexual in an amentum, the males sometimes having a membranous toothed perianth (or rather an expansion of the torus). Stamens distinct, or rarely monadelphous; anthers two-celled. Ovarium two-celled; ovules definite, pendulous; style one or none; stigmas two. Fruit membranous, indehiscent, by abortion one-celled. Seeds pendulous, not comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight; radicle superior. —Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate; stipules deciduous.—Ex. Betula, Alnus.

Suborder 4. Plataneeae. Juss. Flowers in unisexual globose aments. Stamens distinct, with several small scales and appendages mixed among them; anthers linear, two-celled. Ovaria terminated by a thick style, with the stigma lateral and adnate; ovules solitary or in pairs, pendulous. Fruits in consequence of mutual compression clavate, bony, with a persistent recurved style. Seeds solitary, or rarely in pairs, pendulous, elongated; testa thick. Embryo long, cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with scarious sheathing stipules.—Ex. Platanus.

Suborder 5. Cupuliferae. Rich. Flowers unisexual, in aments, the females sometimes aggregated. Stamens 5-20, generally distinct, inserted into the base of the scales or of a membranous perianth. Ovarium seated in a coriaceous involucrum (cupula), crowned by the rudiments of an adherent perianth, plurilocular; ovules two or one, pendulous; stigmas several, nearly sessile, distinct. Fruit a gland. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen 0. Embryo large; radicle superior, small; cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Quercus, Corylus, Fagus.

We leave this order entire, nearly as done by Jussieu. With regard to the suborders, their limits are not yet well fixed. Thus De Candolle excludes Liquidambar from the Myricaceae, on account of the globular catkins and palm-nerved leaves, and alters materially the character of Plataneeae for its reception; but although more allied in habit to Plataneeae, these two genera seem to differ widely in the structure of the seed.—As to medical properties, the Salicinæ have the bark bitter and febrifugal. The Myricaceae are aromatic. The bark of Betulineae is astringent and somewhat febrifugal. Cupuliferae are tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal. The bark of the oak is employed for tanning. Cork is the bark of the Quercus Suber. The Hazel, Beech, and Sweet Chestnut, belong to this suborder.

Order 166. Stilagineae. Agardh.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth 3-5-partite. Stamens two or more, arising from a tumid receptacle; filaments capillary; anthers erect, two-lobed, with a fleshy connective, and vertical cells opening transversely. Ovarium free; ovules two; stigma sessile, 3-4-toothed. Fruit drupaceous. Seed solitary, suspended. Embryo in the midst of a copious fleshy albumen; cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules.—Ex. Stilago, Antidesma.

An order by no means understood. In some points it appears to approach the Amentaceæ, particularly Cupuliferae and Plataneeae.

Order 167. Juglandeeae. D. C.

Flowers unisexual. Males in an amentum. Perianth scaly, oblique, irregularly lobed. Stamens inserted on the receptacle, indefinite; filaments short, distinct; anthers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Females Arrange with a single or double perianth; the exterior four-parted, the inner (when present) of four pieces. Ovarium cohering with the perianth, one-celled; ovule solitary, erect; styles one or two, very short, or none; stigmas large, either two and lacerated, or discoid and four-lobed. Fruit (a drupe) fleshy, containing a 2-4-valved, one-celled, putamen. Seed four-lobed, with a membranaceous testa. Albumen none. Embryo large; radicle superior; cotyledons fleshy, two-lobed, wrinkled.—Trees. Leaves alternate, without pellucid dots or stipules.—Ex. Juglans.

Allied on the one side to Terebinthaceæ, by which view the inner segments of the female perianth may be supposed a corolla, and on the other to the Amentaceæ (Cupuliferae).—The fruit of the walnut is much esteemed; the rind is astringent. Some species are anthelmintic and cathartic.

Div. IV.—Monochlamydeæ. D. C.

(II. Diclines. Juss. § 2. Gymnospermae.)

Order 168. Conifereæ. Juss.

Flowers unisexual. Male florets consisting of one or several monadelphous stamens, collected in an amentum about a common rachis; anthers two or many-lobed, bursting outwardly; often terminated by a crest, which is an uncovered portion of the scale out of which each stamen is formed. Females usually in cones, sometimes solitary. Ovarium none (in the solitary flower), or spread open (in the cone) and resembling a flat scale, destitute of style or stigma, arising from the axil of a membranous bractea; ovules exposed; in the cones in pairs on the face of the ovarium, inverted; in the solitary flower erect. Fruit, a solitary naked seed, or a cone. Seeds with a hard crustaceous testa. Embryo in the midst of a fleshy oily albumen; radicle next the apex of the seed, having an organic connection with the albumen.—Trees or shrubs; trunk branched, abounding in resin. Leaves with the veins parallel to each other.—Ex. Pinus, Taxus, Thuja.

There are often more than two cotyledons, but they are opposite, whence perhaps they may be viewed as only two, but multipartite. "The structure of the Conifere differs so widely from that of the true (or angiospermous) Dicotyledons, that a single glance will in general enable us to distinguish the one tribe from the other. In the Conifere there is only one regular system of pores, resembling a piece of the most delicate net-work. Each mesh is bounded by straight lines crossing each other at nearly right angles, and the concentric lines of the meshes almost always approximate each other at the outer edge of each annual layer of the wood. The structure of the true Dicotyledons consists of a system of vessels separated from each other by masses of cellular matter, and the vessels or pores are always bounded by curved lines."—This order is of great importance on account of its timber. But it is also valuable for its resinous productions; various kinds of pitch, turpentine, and balsams being procured from the different species. The large seeds of some are eaten, and are wholesome. The berries of some species of Juniper are diuretic.

Order 169. Cycadeæ. Rich.

Flowers unisexual. Males naked, collected into cones; each floret of a single scale or anther, bearing the pollen on its under surface in two-valved cells, which cohere together by twos, threes, or fours. Females either collected in cones, or surrounding the central bud in the form of contracted leaves or scales (the expanded ovaria). Ovules

---

1 Nicol in Jameson's New Phil. Journal, vol. x. p. 362. exposed on the margin of the scale or contracted leaf.

Embryo in the midst of a fleshy or horny albumen; radicle next the apex of the seed, from which it hangs by a long funiculus, with which it has an organic connection.—Trees with a simple cylindrical trunk. Leaves pinnatisect; vernation gyrate.—Ex. Cycas (Plate CXXVI), Zamia.

These trees increase by the development of a single terminal leaf-bud. The wood consists of concentric circles, the cellular rings between which are very loose. They seem to hold a middle rank between the Conifers and Palms.—They abound in a mucilaginous juice. A kind of Sago is obtained from the soft centre of Cycas circinalis.

B. Endogenae. D.C. (Monocotyledones). Juss.

Order 170. Balanophoraceae. Rich.

Flowers unisexual, in dense heads; the receptacle covered with scales or bristles, and also here and there with peltate thick scales; rarely naked. Male flowers pedicellate. Perianth tripartite, equal, spreading, or in place of it a thick truncate obconical scale. Stamens epigynous, 1-3: filaments united; anthers connate, opening longitudinally.

Females: Ovarium cohering with the perianth, and crowned by its limb, one-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous; style one, rarely two, filiform; stigma simple, terminal, slightly convex. Achenium crowned by the remains of the limb of the perianth, roundish. Embryo very minute, roundish, included in a hollow on the surface of a fleshy cellular albumen.—Fungous-like, parasitical plants; stem naked or covered with imbricated scales.—Ex. Balanophora, Helosis, Cynomorium.

Professor Richard considered this order most nearly allied to the Hydrocharidaceae; there is also some affinity with the Cyttineae. Agardh makes them a section of Urticeae. May not what is taken for the embryo be the endosperm, and what is called albumen the perisperm?—Cynomorium is astringent.

Order 171. Hydrocharidaceae. Juss.

Flowers spathaceous, or rarely bisexual. Perianth with the limb six-partite; the three exterior segments herbaceous, the three inner petaloid. Stamens epigynous, definite or indefinite. Ovarium solitary, cohering with the tube of the perianth, one or spuriously many-celled; ovules indefinite; stigmas 3-6. Placentas parietal, sometimes projecting into the centre of the ovarium. Fruit dry or succulent, indehiscent, one- or spuriously many-celled. Seeds numerous, ascending; testa thin, membranous. Albumen none. Embryo straight, cylindric; radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Floating plants. Flowers spathaceous.—Ex. Hydrocharis, Stratiotes, Vallisneria.

Allied in some points to the Alismaceae, but differing in the cohering ovarium. The spiral peduncles of Vallisneria, and the process of fertilization in that plant, are highly curious.

Le Rhône impétueux, sous son onde écumante, Durant six mois entiers nous dérobe une plante Dans la tige s'allonge en la saison d'amour, Monte au-dessus des flots, et brille aux yeux du jour. Les milles, dans le fond jusqu'alors immobiles, De leurs liens trop courts brisent les neuds débiles, Voquent vers leur amante, et libres dans leurs feux, Lui forment sur le fleuve un cortège nombreux; On dirait une fête où le dieu d'hydromène Promène sur les flots sa pompe fortunée; Mais les tems de Vénus une fois accomplis, La tige se retire en rapprochant ses plis, Et va mûrir sous l'eau sa semence féconde.1

1 Cartel, Poésie sur les Plantes. ed. Fruit capsular, three-celled; or baccate, one-celled, one-seeded. Albumen (perisperm) hard, somewhat farnaceous. Embryo straight, without endosperm: radicle lying against the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, not aromatic. Leaves and inflorescence as in the Scitamineae.—Ex. Maranta, Cannas, Phrymum.

The above view of the structure of these plants being nearly that adopted by Lestiboudois, Richard, and Lindley, is somewhat at variance with that proposed by Mr Brown, who considers the outer row of our perianth as accessory, and what is here called the outer sterile stamens to be the inner row of the perianth. But this order is closely allied to the Musaceae, and the affinity is confirmed by the supposition of six stamens, although only one be perfect.—The Scitamineae are aromatic, cordial, and stomachic: Ginger, Galangale, and Zedoary are the roots or rhizoma; Cardamoms are the seeds of several species. The Cannas are scarcely or not at all aromatic, and hence the fecula which abounds in the root furnishes a delicate article of food. Arrow-root is obtained from more than one species, but principally from Maranta arundinacea, the juice of the root of which is said to be a cure for wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows.

Order 174. Musaceae. Juss.

Perianth six-cleft, in two rows, more or less irregular. Stamens six (some occasionally abortive), inserted on the middle of the divisions of the perianth: anthers linear, two-celled, introrse, often with a membranous petaloid crest. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous, or rarely only three: style simple: stigma usually three-lobed. Fruit either a three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal capsule; or succulent and indehiscent. Seeds sometimes surrounded by hairs: testa usually crustaceous. Embryo in the axis of a farnaceous albumen.—Stem scarcely any. Leaves sheathing, and forming a spurious stem: limb separated from the petiole by a round tumour, having a midrib with fine parallel diverging veins. Flowers spatheaceous.—Ex. Musa, Streptocaulon.

By comparing this with the last order, their relation will be readily perceived.—The young shoots of the Banana (Musa sapientum) are eaten as a delicate vegetable. The fruit of the same is nourishing, and either it, or that of the Plantain (M. paradisiaca), in some parts of the world, forms the principal food of the natives.

Order 175. Iridaceae. Juss.

Perianth tubular, six-parted, in two often unequal rows. Stamens three, epigynous, distinct or monadelphous, opposite the outer segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, bursting outwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous: style one: stigmas three, dilated, often petaloid, and sometimes two-lipped. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal. Seeds numerous. Embryo cylindrical, inclosed within a fleshy or horny albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants usually herbaceous. Leaves equitant and distichous, except in Crocus. Flowers with spatheaceous bracteae.—Ex. Iris, Ixia, Crocus.

Allied on the one hand to the Amomceae, and on the other to the Amaryllidaceae.—Of no great utility. The orris, however, is the root of Iris Florentina. Some other species of Iris are purgative. Saffron is the dried stigmas of a Crocus. The root of the common Iris, when cut by an iron or steel knife, yields a beautiful purple dye.

Order 176. Burmanniaceae. Spreng.

Perianth petaloid, tubular, six-cleft, the three outer segments carinate, the three inner minute. Stamens three, inserted on the tube, opposite the inner segments of the perianth, with sometimes three alternating sterile filaments: anthers erect, two-celled, opening transversely, with a fleshy connectivum. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled, the cells being opposite the ment and inner segments of the perianth: ovules indefinite: styles single: stigma three, dilated. Capsule crowned by the withered perianth, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds indefinite, minute, striated.—Herbaceous plants, with radical equitant leaves.—Ex. Burmannia.

Allied to Irideae in many respects, but differing by the fertile stamens being alternate with the outer segments of the perianth; but this ought perhaps to be viewed as accidental (however constant), as the return to the symmetrical arrangement is exhibited in the position of the carpellary leaves.

Order 177. Hemodoraceae. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Hemodoreae. Perianth petaloid, six-cleft. Stamens inserted on the perianth, either three and opposite the inner segments of the perianth, or six: anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, or very rarely free, of three carpels, three- or rarely one-celled: ovules 1-2, or numerous, to each carpel: style simple: stigma undivided. Fruit capsular, three valved, seldom indehiscent, somewhat nucamentaceous. Seeds definite and peltate, or indefinite: testa chartaceous. Embryo minute, a farnaceous albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves equitant.—Ex. Hemodorus, Dilatris.

Suborder 2. Wachendorficeae. Perianth petaloid, six-parted, irregular. Stamens three, inserted on the base of the inner segments of the perianth: anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules solitary or numerous: style simple: stigma undivided. Fruit capsular, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds roundish.—Leaves equitant.—Ex. Wachendorfia, Xiphidiun.

This order is related both to Irideae and Amaryllidaceae. Wachendorficeae, though allied in many respects to Hemodoraceae, might perhaps, without great violence, be rather placed between Liliaceae and Bromeliaceae.—The roots of Hemodorus, Dilatris, and Wachendorfia, yield a red dye.

Order 178. Amaryllidaceae. R. Brown.

Perianth petaloid, regular, six-cleft; the outer segments overlapping the inner, which are equitant. Stamens six (rarely more, and then hexadelphous), inserted on the perianth, sometimes cohering by their dilated bases into a kind of cup: anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules indefinite, rarely 1-2: style one (rarely three): stigma three-lobed (rarely three). Fruit either a three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal capsule, or baccate. Seeds numerous in the capsular, 1-2 in the baccate species: testa neither black nor crustaceous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo somewhat straight: radicle next the hilum.—Roots usually bulbiferous, rarely fibrous. Leaves ensiform, with parallel veins. Flowers with spatheaceous bracteae.—Ex. Amaryllis, Narcissus.

Allied to the Hemodoraceae, but much more to Liliaceae and Asphodelaceae. The coronas of Narcissus and some other genera may be viewed either as a second row of sterile cohering filaments between the fertile ones and the perianth, or as a process of the torus, both considerations tending to prove that the perianth is more of the nature of a calyx than a corolla. Although having three styles and stigmas, we refer Campanula here.—The juice of the root of Hemanthus toxicarius is poisonous. The bulbs of some species of Narcissus and Pancratium are emetic. Some Astrantia are diuretic. Amaryllis ornata is astringent.

Order 179. Hypoxidaceae. R. Brown.

Perianth petaloid, usually six-parted, regular: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted into the base of the Arrange segments, equal to them in number; anthers introrsement and Torus an epigynous fleshy disc. Ovarium cohering with Characters the tube of the perianth, three-celled; ovules numerous; style single; stigma three-lobed. Capsule indehiscent, sometimes succulent. Seeds numerous; testa black and crustaceous; hilum lateral, rostelliform. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, stemless (or nearly so) plants. Leaves plicate.—Ex. Hypoxis, Curculigo.

Allied to Haemodoraceae, and also to Asphodelaceae, particularly in the black crustaceous seed.

Order 180. Barbacenieae.

Perianth petaloid, six-partite, regular, in a double series. Stamens six, or in six (rarely three) fascicles, inserted into the base of the segments; anthers introrse. Torus an epigynous fleshy disc. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled; ovules numerous; style single; stigma three-lobed. Capsule three-celled, three-valved. Seeds indefinite, cuneiform; testa coriaceous, furrowed; hilum prominent.—Ex. Barbacenia, Vellosia, Xerophyta.

An order pointed out by Mr Don, as holding a middle place between Hypoxidaceae and Bromeliaceae.

Order 181. Dioscorineae.

Suborder 1. Dioscoreae. R. Brown. Flowers uni- (rarely bi-) sexual. Perianth six-cleft, equal. Stamens six, distinct, or rarely monandrophous, inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth; anthers introrse. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled; ovules one or two in each cell; style trifid; stigmas undivided. Fruit a thin compressed capsule, with two of the cells sometimes abortive. Seeds flat; testa membranaceous. Embryo small, lying in a large cavity of a somewhat horny albumen, near the hilum.—Twining shrubs. Leaves alternate, occasionally opposite, veins generally reticulated. Flowers small, spiked, each with 1-3 bracts.—Ex. Dioscorea, Testudinaria.

Suborder 2. Tamaroeae. Gray. Flowers unisexual. Perianth petaloid, six-parted. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth. Ovarium three-celled; ovules two in each cell, erect; style one; stigmas three, reflexed, acutely bifid. Fruit fleshy, three-celled, indehiscent. Seeds ovate; testa membranaceous. Albumen between cartilaginous and horny. Embryo minute, lying at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Root tuberous. Stem herbaceous, twining from left to right. Leaves alternate. Flowers small, axillary, racemose.—Ex. Tamarus.

This order agrees in many points with Smilacaceae, but differs by the adherent fruit. According to Mr Lindley, it makes a near approach in structure to the Dicotyledones, the leaves being those of that class, while the stem, flower, and seeds, are those of the Monocotyledones. The suborders are so closely allied that Testudinaria, till lately, was considered a species of Tamarus.—The tubers or yams produced by Dioscorea are well known as an article of food in all tropical countries.

B.—Endogene. D. C.

(13. Monoperigynae. Juss.)

Order 182. Bromeliaceae. Juss.

Perianth tubular, six-cleft, in two rows; the outer persistent, the inner petaloid, marcescent or deciduous. Stamens six (rarely more), inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth. Ovarium either entirely free, or cohering more or less with the tube of the perianth, three-celled; ovules indefinite; style single; stigma three-parted, often twisted. Fruit capsular or succulent, three-celled. Seeds indefinite. Embryo cylindrical, recurved, lying in the base of a farinaceous albumen.—Plants, with scarcely any stem. Leaves rigid, channelled, often thorny or toothed at the margin.—Ex. Bromelia, Tillandsia.

Sometimes the fruits in the same spike cohere together into a mass; by means of the perianth become succulent; and this is the structure of the pine-apple.—The pineapple is well known. The Agave Americana is remarkable for the quick growth of its flower stalk, reaching sometimes to the height of thirty feet in ten days; and as its growth is most rapid at first, one may almost see its progress. The scape of several species, when withered, is cut into slices for razor stops, for which it is well adapted, on account of a very small portion of silica it is supposed to contain among the cellular substance. The fibres of the leaves of some of these species serve for making cordage.

Order 183. Smilacineae. R. Brown.

Perianth petaloid, six-parted. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the divisions of the perianth, rarely hypogynous. Ovarium free, three-celled; ovules one or several in each cell; style usually three-cleft; stigmas three. Fruit a globose berry. Seeds with a membranaceous (neither black nor crustaceous) testa. Albumen fleshy, cartilaginous. Embryo often remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous or suffruticose plants, often climbing. Leaves with the veins sometimes reticulated.—Ex. Smilax, Paris, Convallaria.

Between Dioscoreae and Asphodelaceae, from which last it is principally distinguished by the testa of the seed.—The species are in general diuretic. The roots of Trillium are emetic.

Order 184. Asphodelineae.

Suborder 1. Asphodelae. R. Brown. Perianth petaloid, six-divided, regular. Stamens six, inserted upon the perianth, or hypogynous; the three opposite the outer segments of the perianth sometimes unlike the others, or wanting; anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium free, three-celled, rarely apocarpous; ovules two ascending, or many, in each cell; style one; stigma entire, or shortly three-lobed. Fruit either a capsule, three-celled, three-valved, loculicidie; or fleshy, and then sometimes tripartite. Seeds with a black, crustaceous, brittle testa. Embryo included in a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous plants or trees. Leaves with parallel veins. Peduncles articulated at their middle or near the apex.—Ex. Asphodelus, Scilla, Aloe, Asparagus.

Suborder 2. Gilliesiae. Lindl. Perianth six- (or, by the cohesion of the two outer anterior segments, five-) parted, in a double row: the outer herbaceous, the inner more coloured; estivation twisted. Stamens in a double series; outer sterile, forming either a six-toothed urceolus or three scale-like bodies, of which the anterior (labelatum) is very dissimilar to the others; inner of six fertile stamens, or a six-toothed urceolus, of which the three anterior teeth alone bear anthers. Ovarium free, three-celled; ovules numerous; style one; stigma simple. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, loculicidie. Seeds numerous; testa black and crustaceous. Embryo curved in the midst of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous plants with tunicated bulbs. Leaves grass-like. Flowers umbellate, arising from spathaceous bracteas.—Ex. Gilliesia, Miersia.

Gilliesiae is a singular suborder; and even the view we have taken is neither that of Lindley nor Hooker. They regard our perianth as bracteal or involucral leaves, and the outer row of stamens as the perianth; we consider the whole structure as elucidated by that of the Amomaceae. The inner row of the perianth appears at first sight to consist of only two of the parts, while the others seem external, but in estivation that series is formed of three of them. The outer series of stamens (sterile) has subulate appendages projected outwardly from the base. The As- phodelineae are most certainly distinguished from their allies by the black brittle testa of the seed.—All species, at least of the Asphodeleae, contain a bitter stimulant principle in a gummy viscid juice. The onion, leek, garlic, and their allies, belong to the genus Allium. The roots of several are purgative; the Aloes are well known for this property. Gum Dragon is the styptic juice of Dracaena Draco.

Order 185. Liliaceae. Juss.

Perianth coloured, regular, six-divided. Stamens six, perigynous, opposite the segments of the perianth. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple or three-lobed. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal. Seeds numerous, usually flat, packed one above the other in one or two rows: testa spongy, dilated, often winged. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Plants with scaly bulbs or arborescent stems. Leaves with parallel veins.

Tribe 1. Tulipaceae. D. C. Perianth deeply divided. —Ex. Lilium, Fritillaria, Erythronium.

Tribe 2. Hemerocallidaceae. R. Brown. Perianth tubular.—Ex. Hemerocallis, Polyanthus.

Closely allied to the last order, and also to Melanthaceae, through Erythronium. We can scarcely conceive why this last has been sometimes placed in Asphodeleae; for the testa is brown and spongy, and not black and crustaceous. The roots of most of the species of Lilium found in the east of Siberia, particularly L. spectabile, termitifolium, and Kamtschaticum, are eaten like potatoes, and known by the name of Sarana (Capana, Russ.)

Order 186. Melanthaceae. Batsch.

Perianth peltaloid, six-divided, the margin of the segments generally involute in estivation. Stamens six: anthers usually bursting outwards. Ovarium three-celled: ovules numerous: style trifid or tripartite: stigmas three, undivided. Capsule three-celled, usually septical, sometimes loculicidal. Seeds with a membranous testa. Albumen dense, fleshy.—Leaves sheathing at the base, with parallel veins.—Ex. Melanthium, Colchicum, Tofieldia.

This order requires revision. The positive characters separating it from Liliaceae, depending on the divided style, are slight.—Every species is poisonous, but particularly the genera Colchicum and Veratrum.

Order 187. Pontederiaceae. Kunth.

Perianth tubular, coloured, six-cleft, more or less irregular; estivation circinate. Stamens three or six, unequal, perigynous. Ovarium free, or sometimes coherent at the base, three- (or rarely one-) celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple. Capsule three- (rarely one-) celled, three-valved, loculicidal. Seeds indefinite: testa membranous: hilum small. Embryo straight, in the axis of a somewhat farinaceous albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Aquatic or marsh plants. Leaves sheathing at the base: veins parallel.—Ex. Pontederia, Heteranthera, Leporinus.

Distinguished from Asphodeleae by the testa of the seed: the syncarpous ovarium and perigynous stamens separate them from Alismataceae.

Order 188. Restionaceae. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Restioideae. Perianth 2-6-partite, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, perigynous, 1-6; when half as many as the segments of the perianth they are opposite the inner divisions: anthers usually one-celled. Ovarium one or more-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous. Fruit capsular or nucamentaceous. Seeds pendulous. Embryo lenticular, on the outside of a farinaceous albumen, at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Leaves simple, narrow, or none. Culms naked, or protected by sheaths, which are usually slit (entire in Eriocaulon alone), with the one margin overlapping the other. Flowers in spikes or capitula, separated by bracteoles or scales, and usually unisexual.—Ex. Restioideae, Centrolepis, Elegia, Eriocaulon.

Suborder 2. Xyridaceae. Kunth. Perianth six-parted, in two rows; outer glumaceous; inner petaloid, unguiculate. Stamens six, three fertile inserted upon the apex of the claw of the segments of the inner row of the perianth: anthers bursting outwardly. Ovarium single: ovules indefinite: style trifid: stigmas obtuse, multifid or undivided. Placentas three, parietal. Capsule one-celled, three-valved. Seeds numerous. Embryo on the outside of a farinaceous albumen, at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves radical, with dilated, equitant, scarious bases. Culms naked. Flowers in terminal capitula.—Ex. Xyris, Aloehoodia.

Closely allied to Juncaceae and also to Cyperaceae, from which it is distinguished by the position of the embryo.—The leaves and roots of Xyris Indica are employed against the itch and leprosy. The tough wiry stems of Willdenowia teres and some others are manufactured into baskets and brooms.

Order 189. Juncaceae. Juss.

Perianth six-parted, more or less glumaceous. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the segments, sometimes only three and opposite the outer series: anthers two-celled. Ovarium 1-3-celled: ovules one, three, or many, in each cell: style one: stigmas generally three, sometimes only one. Fruit capsular, three-valved, loculicidal, sometimes indehiscent. Seeds with a testa neither black nor crustaceous. Embryo inclosed within a firm, fleshy, or cartilaginous albumen, seated near the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves fistular, or channelled, or flat, with parallel veins.—Ex. Juncus, Luzula.

Related to the Restiaceae and Asphodeleae, as also to the Palmaceae.—The leaves of Flagellaria are supposed to be astringent: the others have no particular medical properties. Different species of Juncus are used for making chair-bottoms, mats, &c., and the pith for the wicks of candles.

Order 190. Palmae. Juss.

Flowers bisexual or polygamous. Perianth six-parted, persistent, in a double row; the three outer segments often smaller, the three inner sometimes deeply connate. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, usually six, seldom three, in a few polygamous genera indefinite in number. Ovarium one-three-celled, or deeply three-lobed: ovules three, rarely one. Fruit baccate or drupaceous, the flesh fibrous. Albumen cartilaginous, either ruminate, or furnished with a central or lateral cavity. Embryo cylindrical, or flat and circular, small, usually at a distance from the hilum, lodged in a lateral cavity at the opposite side from the empty cavity of the albumen.—Trunk arborescent, simple, occasionally shrubby and branched. Leaves terminal, large: vernation plaited. Spadix terminal, often branched; spathe one or many-valved.—Ex. Sabal, Phoenix, Calamus, Borassus, Areca, Coco.

We have already said that there was a relation between this and the Juncaceae. Pandanaceae seems to have no affinity; but between Calamus and Gramineae, particularly the bamboo, many points of comparison present themselves.—Wine, oil, wax, flour, sugar, salt, thread, utensils, weapons, habitations, and food, are obtained from this order. The cocoa-nut, sago, date, and betel-nut, are well known. The common cane that is imported is a species of Calamus. The name Cocoinae may be given to a "section whose principal character consists in the originally trilocular putamen having its cells, when fertile, perforated opposite to the seat of the embryo, and, when abor- B. Endogene. D.C.

Order 191. Commelinaceae. R. Brown.

Perianth in two rows; outer herbaceous, tripartite; inner petaloid, tripartite or trifid. Stamens six or fewer, hypogynous; anthers of some filaments either wanting or differently formed from the others. Ovarium three-celled; ovules few in each cell; style one; stigma one. Capsule 2-3-celled, 2-3-valved, loculicidal. Seeds often in pairs in each cell; hilum usually linear and lateral. Albumen densely fleshy. Embryo flat and circular (pulley-shaped), lying in a cavity of the albumen, and at the opposite extremity from the hilum; radicle projected from the centre of the embryo.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually sheathing at the base.—Ex. Commelina, Tradescantia.

Not very closely allied to either Juncaceae or Restionaceae. With some Palmae they agree in the singular embryo: this is flat and circular, and the radicle projects from its centre towards the outside of the seed, thus resembling a pulley and its axis; moreover, in both orders the embryo is remote from the hilum, the radicle pointing away from it, and its position being indicated by an external papilla.

Order 192. Alismaceae. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Alismoidae. D.C. Perianth six-partite, in two rows; outer herbaceous, inner petaloid. Stamens definite or indefinite, hypogynous. Ovarium of several one-celled carpels, apocarpous; ovules erect or ascending, solitary in each ovary, or in pairs at a distance from each other; styles and stigmas several. Fruits of several dry, indehiscent carpels. Seeds 1-2 in each cell. Albumen none. Embryo cylindrical, curved like a horse-shoe; radicle next the hilum.—Floating plants. Leaves with parallel veins.—Ex. Alisma, Sagittaria.

Suborder 2. Butomus. Rich. Perianth six-parted, in two rows; outer usually herbaceous, inner petaloid. Stamens definite or indefinite, hypogynous. Ovarium of three, six, or more, one-celled carpels, apocarpous or syncarpous; ovules very numerous in each cell; stigmas simple, as many as the carpels. Placentas ramified over the inner surface of each carpel. Fruit of several follicles, distinct and rostrate, or cohering into one mass. Seeds minute, indefinite. Albumen none. Embryo straight, or curved like a horse-shoe; radicle next the hilum.—Aquatic plants. Leaves with parallel veins, often possessing a milky juice. Flowers in umbels.—Ex. Butomus, Limnocharis.

Suborder 3. Juncaginaceae. Rich. Perianth herbaceous, rarely wanting. Stamens six, hypogynous. Ovarium of three or six carpels, cohering firmly together; ovules one or two in each carpel, erect, approximated at their base. Fruit dry. Seeds 1-2, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight; radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum; plumule emitted through a lateral cleft in the embryo.—Herbaceous bog-plants. Leaves ensiform; veins parallel. Flowers in spikes or racemes, minute.—Ex. Triglochin, Scheuchzeria.

The limits of this order are not perhaps yet well understood. According to Mirbel, the radicle in every embryo, curved like a horse-shoe, is actually at the apex, although by the curvature of the seed it may appear close to the hilum; and if this view be correct, Alismoidae ought to consist of Alismoidae (to which might be attached Limnocharis and the other genera of Butomus with a curved embryo), with perhaps the addition of Potamoideae; while Butomus and Juncaginaceae, both with a decidedly orthotropous embryo, ought to be rejected. The apocarpous ovarium of Alismoidae makes this hold the same rank among the Monocotyledones that is done by Ranunculaceae among the higher organized vegetables.—Alismoidae and Butomus have an acid herbage.

Order 193. Pandanaceae. R. Brown.

Flowers unisexual or polygamous, wholly covering the spadix. Perianth 0. Filaments of the stamens with a single two-celled anther. Ovaria one-celled, united together in groups; ovules usually solitary, erect; stigmas one to each ovary, sessile, adnate. Fruit either fibrous drupes, collected several together, or baccate and plurilocular. Seeds in the drupes solitary, in the baccate genera several in each cell. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle pointing to the hilum; plumula inconspicuous.—Stem arborescent. Leaves imbricated in three rows, long, amplexicaul, with the margin usually thorny.—Ex. Pandanus, Freycinetia.

Usually placed next the palms, but in reality much more nearly allied to Aroidae (Typhaceae), of which Kunth makes it a section.—The seeds of Pandanus are eatable, as well as the flowers of P. odoratissimus; the fruit of several is used as an article of food.

Order 194. Aroidae. Juss.

Suborder 1. Typhaceae. D.C. Flowers unisexual, arranged upon a naked spadix. Perianth three-parted. Stamens three or six, opposite to the segments of the perianth; filaments long and slender; anthers wedge-shaped, erect, bursting outwardly. Ovarium single, free, one-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous; style short; stigmas one or two, linear, simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, one-celled. Embryo in the centre of a farinaceous albumen, straight, cylindrical; radicle next the hilum; cotyledon cylindrical, with a short longitudinal lateral cleft near its base; plumule of 2-3 leaves, the outer contained in the cleft of the cotyledons, and partly protruded.—Herbaceous marsh plants. Stems without nodi. Leaves sheathing at their base, rigid, ensiform, with parallel veins.—Ex. Typha, Sparganium.

Suborder 2. Araceae. Flowers uni-, rarely bisexual, arranged upon a spadix, often naked. Perianth 4-6-partite, or wanting. Stamens definite and opposite the lobes of the perianth, or indefinite, hypogynous; filaments very short; anthers 1-2 or many-celled, ovate, bursting outwardly. Ovarium free, one-celled, rarely three-celled; ovules several, rarely solitary, ascending, peritropial, or rarely pendulous; stigma sessile. Fruit succulent or dry, indehiscent. Seeds solitary or several. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy or farinaceous albumen (which is rarely wanting); straight, cylindrical; radicle next the hilum, rarely at the opposite extremity; cotyledon cylindrical, with a short lateral cleft near its base; plumule 2-3-leaved, the outer leaf contained in the cleft of the cotyledon, and partly protruded.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Root often tuberous or thickened. Leaves sheathing at the base, with parallel or branching veins, often cordate, entire, or sometimes divided. Spadix usually inclosed in a spathe.—Ex. Arum, Caladium, Pothos, Acorus.

Suborder 3. Pistieae. Rich. Flowers unisexual, inclosed in the same spathe. Stamens definite, 2-7, in a spathe. Ovarium one in each spathe, one-celled; ovules two or several, erect or horizontal; style short; stigma simple. Fruit membranous, one-celled, indehiscent. Seed one or several; testa thick and spongy; chalaza thick, adhering to the apex of the cotyledon, and separable from the integuments. Embryo either large in the axis of a

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1 Brown, in Tuckey's Voyage, p. 456. thin and fleshy albumen, with a lateral cleft for the emission of the plumule; or minute at the extremity of a copious farinaceous albumen, most remote from the hilum: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Floating plants. Flowers appearing from the margin of the stems.—Ex. Pistia, Lemna.

We continue to unite these suborders. The difference between the two first is reduced to the structure of the stamens, for the same number and position of the ovules occurs in both. As to Pistiea, there is as great a difference between its constituent genera as betwixt either and the true Aroidce. It is difficult to determine the position of the radicle in Pistia; but as the inner integument (tegmen) of the seed is pendulous in the ovule, we are forced to suppose that the radicle points to the hilum, although the embryo itself is at the other extremity, a structure very uncommon. What we suppose the chalaza, Mr Lindley, however, describes as an indurated foramen, and consequently, in both Lemna and Pistia, the radicle would be turned away from the hilum; but this structure our own observations on Pistia do not confirm. The apex of the seed, however, in that genus has a strong depression, or orifice, caused by the separation of the chalaza, and its attachment to the apex of the embryo.—All the Aroidce are acid; and this principle is sometimes so strong as to render various species very poisonous. The flat underground stems, and the leaves of many, are however harmless, and, when boiled or roasted, are even nutritive.

Order 195. Potameae. Juss.

Flowers bi- or unisexual. Perianth two or four-parted, often deciduous, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, hypogynous. Ovarium one or more, free, inserted on the receptacle or central spadix; ovule solitary in each ovary: style one or none; stigma one, entire or rarely two- or three-parted. Fruit dry, indehiscent, one-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous, or suspended. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved, with a lateral cleft for the emission of the plumule: radicle very large, inferior, pointing to the extremity remote from the hilum.—Water plants. Leaves very cellular, with parallel veins. Flowers minute.—Ex. Potamogeton, Naias, Zostera.

The structure of the seed of Zostera is explained by that of Ruppia, where the great mass of the embryo is the radicle with a cleft for the emission of the plumule. If we suppose, with Richard, that in no case is the flower of Potameae bisexual, but that even in Potamogeton the perianth is a four-partite spathe, we shall readily see how closely this order approaches to the Aroidce.—Of little use. Zostera is used for packing, and stuffing the beds of the poorer classes.

Order 196. Podostemaceae. Rich.

Flowers naked, bisexual, bursting through an irregularly lacerated spathe. Stamens hypogynous, definite or indefinite, monadelphous, alternately sterile and shorter. Ovarium free, spuriously two-celled: ovules numerous: styles two or none: stigmas two or three. Placentia forming the dissepiment. Fruit slightly pedicellate, capsular, two-valved, septicidal, the valves falling off from the dissepimental placentia. Seeds indefinite, minute.—Herbaceous, branched, floating plants. Leaves capillary or linear, or irregularly lacerated, or minute and imbricated. Flowers minute.—Ex. Podostemum, Lociis, Mniopsis.

The internal structure of the seed is still unknown. Martius says it is homogeneous; but we may rather compare them with the seeds of such Potameae as consist almost entirely of an immense radicle; and there are many other points of resemblance between the two orders. Mr Lindley arranges Podostemaceae between Piperaeae and Callitrichineae (Halarangae).—No properties are known.

Order 197. Cyperaceae. Juss.

Flowers bi- or unisexual, furnished each with a soli-

tary bracteole called a glume or scale, which are imbricated on a common axis. Perianth rarely membranaceous, 2-3-valved, the valves distinct or united; generally entirely wanting. Stamens hypogynous, definite (1-12), with sometimes an additional row of abortive filaments or setae: anthers erect, two-celled: ovarium one-celled: ovule one, erect: style single, three-cleft or bifid: stigmas undivided, or occasionally bifid. Fruit an achene or nut. Embryo lenticular, seated at the base of a farinaceous albumen, and covered by a very thin membranous projection of it: plumule inconspicuous.—Roots fibrous. Stems often without joints. Sheaths of the leaves entire.—Ex. Cyperus, Scirpus, Scleria, Carex.

We have slightly altered the character of the order from that usually given; for while we consider Carex and some others to have a true perianth, we cannot regard the hypogynous setae of authors in the same light, they being more analogous to abortive stamens, and consequently to a corolla. The Cyperaceae are closely allied to the Gramineae.—The herbage of this order contains almost no nutritive principle. The roots of some are succulent, and possess diaphoretic and demulcent properties: those of Cyperus esculentus are said to be eaten; those of Cyperus longus are bitter and tonic; those of Cyperus odoratus have a warm aromatic taste. The Cyperus Papyrus yielded the paper of the Egyptians. Some species of Scirpus are used for making chair bottoms.

Order 198. Gramineae. Juss.

Flowers usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual or polygamous: one, two, or more being seated on a common rachis, which is contained within an involucre, that consists of one or two valves (glumes), or is rarely wanting; the whole constituting a locustae. Partial involucre similar to the glumes, of two (rarely one) dissimilar valves (glumellae or paleae); outer or lower simple, usually carinate: inner with two nerves or keels, and hence formed of two pieces cohering by their contiguous margins. Lodicule (abortive stamens?) of two (rarely one) hypogynous minute scales, sometimes wanting. Stamens hypogynous, 1-6, or rarely indefinite: anthers two-celled, versatile: ovarium simple: ovule one: style one, bipartite, rarely simple or tripartite: stigmas plumose or hairy. Pericarp a Caryopsis. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo lenticular, external, lying on one side of the albumen near its base.—Culms cylindrical, hollow, jointed. Leaves alternate: sheath split. Locustae of flowers arranged in spikes, racemes, or panicles.—Ex. Poa, Festuca, Anthoxanthum.

The above, with some slight variations, is the account of the structure of these plants most usually adopted. Some botanists term the partial involucre the perianth, others view the lodicule in that light; perhaps if a perianth be present, it must be looked for in the upper glumella alone. Their affinity with Cyperaceae is evident.—This order, whether as furnishing food to man or beast, is one of the most important in the whole vegetable kingdom. Wheat, barley, oats, rice, guinea corn, millet, maize, and the sugar-cane, belong to it. The cuticle contains a large quantity of silic. This abounds so much in the sugar-cane, that by the mere using that plant for fuel in the extraction of sugar, the fire-place is soon choked up by large masses of a coarse kind of glass. The siliceous matter of the bamboo is often secreted at the diseased joints, and forms the mineral called Tabashere. The straw of different grasses is plaited, and made into ladies' bonnets: that used at Leghorn is the Hordeum pratense, which also grows wild in our own country. Serigne's Herbarium Cereale, with the accompanying descriptions in his Malanges Botaniques, deserve to be carefully studied by such as principally attend to the uses of this tribe of plants. II.—CELLULARES. D. C.

(15. ACOTYLEDONES. Juss. § 1. DUCTULOSÆ.)

Order 199. Equisetaceæ. D. C.

Sporules surrounded by elastic clavate filaments, and inclosed in thecae arising from the scales of terminal cones.

—Vernation straight.—Ex. Equisetum.

The cuticle abounds in silice, and hence the plants of the only genus of this order are very useful for polishing furniture, &c.

Order 200. Filices. Juss.

Sporules inclosed in thecae arising from the back or margin of the fronds, or rarely without these seated on the back of a deformed frond (Lindl.).—Vernation circinate, in those without these straight.—Ex. Polypodium, Gleichenia, Osmunda, Danaea, Ophioglossum, Par-keria.

Adopting Mr Lindley's views already explained relative to the formation of the thecae of ferns, he is led to the conclusion that Ophioglossum and its allies have no thecae, but that what is there called so are merely the involute contracted segments of the deformed frond that bears the sporules.—The fronds generally contain an astringent mucilage, and are thus considered as pectoral and lenitive. A few species have been employed for food. The caudex of Aspidium Felix mas, and Pteris aquilina, being bitter and astringent, have been used as anthelmintics, emmenagogues, and purgatives. Aspidium fragrans has been employed as a substitute for tea.

Order 201. Marsiliaceæ. R. Brown.

Sporules inclosed in thecae which are contained within closed involucrea.—Ex. Marsilea, Salvinia.

Their properties are entirely unknown.

Order 202. Lycopodiaceæ. Swatz.

Sporules inclosed in axillary thecae.—Vernation circinate.—Ex. Lycopodium, Isoetes.

The minute pulverulent matter contained in the one kind of these is highly inflammable, and is collected on the continent in considerable quantities, particularly from Lycopodium clavatum. It is used for artificial lighting in the theatres. Lyc.clavatum and L. Selago excite vomiting.

II.—CELLULARES. D. C.

(15. ACOTYLEDONES. Juss. § 2. EDUCTULOSÆ.)

Order 203. Musci. Juss.

Sporules contained in thecae closed by an operculum or lid, which falls off or is rarely adnate.—Stem with leafy appendages.—Ex. Hypnum, Gymnostomum, Andreae.

Of little or no use, except for packing.

Order 204. Hepaticæ. Juss.

Sporules contained in thecae which are dehiscent (or rarely indehiscent), and destitute of an operculum.—Plants with leafy appendages.—Ex. Marchantia, Jungermannia.

Some species are slightly fragrant, but little is known of their properties.

Order 205. Algae. Juss.

Plants without leafy appendages, and with very few exceptions found in water. Sporules variously disposed.—Ex. Fucus, Ulva, Confera, Chara.

The Hematococcus nicalis, or red snow plant, belongs to this order.—The algae are of considerable importance in our manufactures and domestic economy. "Rhodome-nia palmata," the dulce of the Scots, dillesk of the Irish, and saccharine Fucus of the Icelanders, is consumed in large quantities throughout the maritime countries near the north of Europe, and in the Grecian archipelago. Iridaea edulis is still occasionally used both in Scotland and the south-west of England. Porphyra laciniata and vulgaris is stewed, and brought to our tables as a luxury under the name of Laver, and even the Ulva latissima, or green Laver, is not slighted in the absence of the Por-phyra. Enteromorpha compressa, a common species on our shores, is regarded, according to Gaudechaud, as an esculent by the Sandwich islanders. Laminaria pinnati-fida, distinguished for its pungency, and the young stalks and fronds of Laminaria digitata (the former called Pepper-dulse, the latter Tangle) were often eaten in Scotland; and even now, though rarely, the old cry, "buy dulse and tangle," may be heard in the streets of Edinburgh. When stripped of the thin part, the beautiful Alaria esculenta forms a part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands. To go farther from home, we find the large Laminaria po-tatorum of Australia furnishing the Aborigines with a proportion of their instruments, vessels, and food. On the authority of Bory St Vincent, the Durvillea utilis and other Laminaria constitute an equally important resource to the poor on the west coast of South America. In Asia several species of Gelidium are made use of to render more palatable the hot and biting condiments of the East. Some undetermined species of this genus also furnish the materials of which the edible swallows' nests are composed. It is remarked by Lamaroux that three species of swallow construct edible nests, two of which build at a distance from the sea coast, and use the sea-weed only as a cement for other matters. The nests of the third are consequently most esteemed, and sold for nearly their weight in gold. Gracillaria lichenoides is highly valued for food in Ceylon and other parts of the East, and bears a great resemblance to G. compressa, a species recently discovered on the British shores, and which seems to be little inferior to it. It is not to mankind alone that marine Alge have furnished luxuries or resources in times of scarcity. Several species are greedily sought after by cattle, especially in the north of Europe. Rhodomenia palmata is so great a favourite with sheep and goats, that Bishop Gunner named it Fucus ovinus. In some of the Scottish islands, horses, cattle, and sheep, feed chiefly upon Fucus vesiculosus during the winter months; and in Gothland it is commonly given to pigs. Fucus serratus also, and Chorda Filum, constitute a part of the fodder upon which the cattle are supported in Norway. In medicine we are not altogether unindebted to the Alge. The Gigartina helminthocorton, or Corsican moss, as it is frequently called, is a native of the Mediterranean, and held once a considerable reputation as a vermifuge. The most important medical use, however (omitting minor ones), derived from sea-weeds, is through the medium of Iodine, which may be obtained either from the plants themselves or from kelp. French kelp, according to Sir H. Davy, yields more Iodine than British; and, from some recent experiments made at the Cape of Good Hope by M. Ecklon, Laminaria buccinalis is found to contain more than any European Alge. Iodine is known to be a powerful remedy in cases of goitre. But were the Alge neither really serviceable either in supplying the wants, or in administering to the comforts, of mankind in any other respect, their character would be redeemed by their usefulness in

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1 De Candolle arranges these, as has already been seen, among the Endogeneæ; we have stated our reasons for their removal here. The structure of each order of the Cellulareæ we have already described at sufficient length, and shall therefore refer to p. 37 and p. 53. the arts; and it is highly probable that we shall find ourselves eventually infinitely more indebted to them. One species (and I regret to say that it is not a British one) is invaluable as a glue and varnish to the Chinese. This is the Gracillaria tenax, the Fucus tenax of Turner's Histria Fucorum. Though a small plant, the quantity annually imported at Canton from the provinces of Tokien and Tche-kiang is stated by Mr Turner to be about 27,000 pounds. It is sold at Canton for 6d. or 8d. per pound, and is used for the purposes to which we apply glue and gum-arabic. The Chinese employ it chiefly in the manufacture of lanterns, to strengthen or varnish the paper, and sometimes to thicken or give a gloss to silks or gauze. In addition to the above account, the substance of which I have extracted from Mr Turner's work, Mr Neill remarks that "it seems probable that this is the principal ingredient in the celebrated gummy matter called Chinchow, or Hai-tai, in China and Japan. Windows made merely of slips of bamboo, crossed diagonally, have frequently their lozenge-shaped interstices wholly filled with the transparent gluten of the Hai-tai." On the southern and western coasts of Ireland, our own Chondrus crispus is converted into size for the use of the house-painters, &c., and, if I be not erroneously informed, is also considered as a culinary article, and enters into the composition of blanc-mange, as well as other dishes. In the manufacture of kelp, however, for the use of the glass-maker and soap-boiler, it is that the Algae take their place among the most useful vegetables. The species most valuable for this purpose are, Fucus vesiculosus, nodosus, and serratus; Laminaria digitata and bullosa; Himanthalia lorea, and Chorda Filum.

Order 206. Lichenes. Juss.

Plants not growing in water, without leafy appendages. Sporules lying in superficial disc.—Ex. Parmelia, Ramalina.

Some Lichens were formerly supposed to grow in water. This is still allowed by Fries, but he denies that they ever fructify there; and he has further observed, that several of what were termed Algae, upon being removed from that element and exposed to the sun, produce shields and become Lichens. "Lichens," says De Candolle, "present two classes of properties, 1st, the dyeing properties, which are developed by different agents, and especially by maceration in urine, properties which are common to all the species, but particularly to such as approach most to the consistence of a calcareous crust; 2d, medicinal properties, which are most sensible in those species that are soft, whether it be that these contain more mucilage, or that they have been most experimented upon." The Iceland moss of the shops, which is the Cetraria Islandica, is tonic, demulcent, and nutritious; and several others are nearly equally suited to the same purpose. The Orchale or Archil, and Cudbear, of various kinds, are all famed for the dye they give out.

Order 207. Fungi. Juss.

Plants not growing in water, and without leafy appendages. Sporules in the substance of the plants, the whole of which may be viewed as organs of reproduction.—Ex. Sphaeria, Agaricus, Lycoperdon, Mucor, Uredo.

This order presents many anomalies. Some are wholesome, others extremely poisonous; nor does this diversity of property seem at all connected with their external forms, many most allied in appearance being extremely distinct in their virtues; and the difficulty of distinguishing the two kinds is known by all who have turned their attention to the subject. In this country, therefore, scarcely more than one or two mushrooms are eaten; in France, Italy, and Germany, more are used; and in Russia many are employed which are elsewhere considered as poisonous. Either the climate or the mode of cooking must thus operate in rendering these wholesome. The dry rot is caused by several species of parasitical Fungi, as Polyporus destructor, Merulius easternt and laerynans, &c. The blights in corn, mildew, smut, and ergot, are also Fungi of the same description. Mouldiness, whether in cheese or on books, is also constituted of small parasitical Fungi, and is best prevented by the presence of an essential oil. Amadou or German tinder is prepared from some kinds of Boletus (as B. ignarius and fomentarius), and afterwards impregnated with nitre.

We have now presented an account of all the natural General orders of plants acknowledged up to the present time; and, considering on studying their characters, we are forced to draw the following conclusions. 1. That the difference between an ovarium free, or adherent with the tube of the calyx, is weakened by many genera, as by comparing the Loaseae with the allied family of Turneraceae, and by the genera of Diplosaceae, in which the ovarium is adherent at the apex and not below. 2. The difference between hypogynous and perigynous stamens is often imperceptible, this depending on the greater or less expansion of the torus: the same may be said of the enygyous and gyndrous insertions. 3. Loculicidc or septicidc dehiscence of the fruit depends only on the greater or less adhesion of the sides, or of the middle of the valves; both, in certain states, being liable to dehisce. 4. The parietal placenta is merely that modification of the other kind in which the introflexed margin of the valves is little apparent. 5. Petals may be accidentally more or less combined by their margins into a gamopetalous corolla, or may be entirely absent; so that there is no limit between gamopetalous, polypetalous, and apetalous orders. 6. Stamens may be more or less combined, or distinct. 7. Stamens may become abortive, and even change into petals. 8. St Hilaire has shown that there are many ambiguous states in the relative positions of the radicle of the embryo and the hilum of the seed.

Thus the great characters for defining natural orders are impaired. To none in particular can we trust at all times; and it is only by a combination of several tolerably constant ones that, in the present state of our knowledge, we can attain that most desirable end of botanical classification, the natural approximation of genera.

INDEX OF ORDERS, SUBORDERS, AND TRIBES.

| Order | Order | Order | |-------|-------|-------| | Acanthaceae | 130 | Alliaceae | 192 | Amaryllidaceae | 178 | | Aceraceae | 43 | Allioidae | 192 | Amentaceae | 165 | | Alloideae | 85 | Algae | 205 | Amomoeae | 173 | | Alangiacae | 70 | Amaranthaceae | 137 | Ampelidaceae | 48 |

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1 Greville's Alge Brit. p. xix. | Family | Order | |------------------------|---------| | Amygdalaceae | 62 | | Amyridaceae | 58 | | Anacardiaceae | 58 | | Anonaceae | 4 | | Apocynaceae | 115 | | Aquifoliaceae | 149 | | Araliaceae | 92 | | Arinaceae | 194 | | Aristolochiaceae | 154 | | Aroidaceae | 194 | | Artocarpaceae | 159 | | Asclepiadaceae | 114 | | Asphodelaceae | 184 | | Asphodelineae | 184 | | Athyriaceae | 161 | | Aurantiaceae | 35 | | Balanophoraceae | 170 | | Balsaminaceae | 49 | | Barbaceniaceae | 180 | | Bauhiniaaceae | 88 | | Begoniaceae | 141 | | Belvisiaceae | 78 | | Berberidaceae | 6 | | Betulaceae | 165 | | Bignoniaceae | 118 | | Bignoniaceae | 118 | | Bixaceae | 17 | | Bombacaceae | 28 | | Boraginaceae | 123 | | Boraginaceae | 123 | | Brexiaceae | 51 | | Bromeliaceae | 182 | | Brunoniaceae | 89 | | Brunoniaceae | 101 | | Burmanniaceae | 176 | | Burseraceae | 58 | | Butomus | 192 | | Byttneriaceae | 29 | | Cactaceae | 86 | | Callitrichaceae | 74 | | Calycanthaceae | 63 | | Calyceraceae | 99 | | Campanulaceae | 104 | | Campanulaceae | 104 | | Cannaceae | 173 | | Caprifoliaceae | 14 | | Caryophyllaceae | 95 | | Caryophyllaceae | 26 | | Cedreleae | 47 | | Celestiniaceae | 56 | | Ceratophyllaceae | 64 | | Cercodendraceae | 74 | | Chaillletiaceae | 150 | | Chenopodiaceae | 138 | | Chlenaceae | 32 | | Chloranthaceae | 163 | | Chrysobalanaceae | 62 | | Cimicifugaceae | 1 | | Cistaceae | 18 | | Cobaceae | 119 | | Columelliaceae | 107 | | Combretaceae | 67 | | Commelinaceae | 191 | | Compositae | 100 | | Coniferae | 168 | | Connaraceae | 59 | | Convolvulaceae | 121 | | Cordiaceae | 122 | | Coriariaceae | 54 | | Cornaceae | 93 | | Crassulaceae | 84 | | Cruciferae | 13 | | Cucurbitaceae | 76 | | Cunoniaceae | 88 | | Cupuliferae | 165 | | Cycadaceae | 169 | | Cyperaceae | 197 | | Cytinaceae | 155 | | Datisceae | 156 | | Didymocarpaceae | 118 | | Dilleniaceae | 2 | | Dioscoreaceae | 181 | | Dioscoridaceae | 181 | | Diosmataceae | 52 | | Diplocentriaceae | 98 | | Dipterocarpaceae | 31 | | Droseraceae | 20 | | Droseraceae | 20 | | Ebenaceae | 109 | | Ebenaceae | 123 | | Ebenaceae | 146 | | Elaeocarpaceae | 30 | | Elatinaceae | 25 | | Empetraceae | 157 | | Epacridaceae | 106 | | Equisetaceae | 199 | | Ericaceae | 106 | | Ericaceae | 106 | | Erythroxylaceae | 41 | | Escalloniaceae | 88 | | Euonymaceae | 56 | | Euphorbiaceae | 158 | | Exocarpaceae | 153 | | Ficoidaceae | 85 | | Filicaceae | 200 | | Flacourtianaceae | 16 | | Fouquieriaceae | 81 | | Frankeniaceae | 24 | | Fumaraceae | 12 | | Fungi | 207 | | Goodeniaceae | 102 | | Goodeniaceae | 102 | | Gramineae | 198 | | Grossulariaceae | 87 | | Guttiferae | 38 | | Hepaticae | 204 | | Hernandiaceae | 121 | | Hippocastanaceae | 44 | | Hippocrateaceae | 40 | | Homalineae | 152 | | Humiriaceae | 47 | | Hydrangeaceae | 88 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 49 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 171 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 171 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 120 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 8 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 124 | | Hydrocharitaceae | 36 | | Hypoxidaceae | 179 | | Icacinaceae | 110 | | Icacinaceae | 83 | | Icacinaceae | 175 | | Iridaceae | 181 | | Iridaceae | 159 | | Labiatae | 128 | | Lacistemataceae | 162 | | Lauraceae | 142 | | Leguminosae | 60 | | Lentibulariaceae | 131 | | Lichenes | 208 | | Liliaceae | 183 | | Linaceae | 49 | | Loasaceae | 75 | | Lobeliaceae | 104 | | Loganiaceae | 116 | | Loganiaceae | 116 | | Loganiaceae | 95 | | Loniceraceae | 94 | | Lorantheae | 202 | | Lycopodiaceae | 64 | | Lythraceae | 64 | | Magnoliaceae | 3 | | Magnoliaceae | 3 | | Malesherbaceae | 79 | | Malpighiaceae | 42 | | Malvaceae | 27 | | Marcgraviaceae | 39 | | Marsiliaceae | 201 | | Melanthiaceae | 186 | | Melastomataceae | 69 | | Meliaceae | 47 | | Meliaceae | 47 | | Menecleaceae | 68 | | Menispermaceae | 5 | | Monimiaceae | 160 | | Monotropaceae | 106 | | Moringaceae | 61 | | Musaceae | 174 | | Musaceae | 203 | | Myoporaceae | 129 | | Myricaceae | 165 | | Myristicaceae | 144 | | Myrsinaceae | 112 | | Myrtaceae | 72 | | Neillieae | 62 | | Nelumbonaceae | 9 | | Nepenthaceae | 155 | | Neuradaceae | 83 | | Order | Family | |-------|--------| | Nitriaceae | Pontederiaceae | | Nyctaginaceae | Portulacaceae | | Nymphoraceae | Potaliaceae | | Nymphoraceae | Potamogetonaceae | | Nysseae | Potamogetonaceae | | Ochnaceae | Proteaceae | | Oleaceae | Quillajaceae | | Onagraceae | Ranunculaceae | | Orchidaceae | Ranunculaceae | | Orobancheae | Ranunculaceae | | Oxalidaceae | Reaumuraceae | | Paoniacae | Resedaceae | | Palmae | Restionaceae | | Pandanaceae | Rhizophoraceae | | Papaveraceae | Rhizophoraceae | | Papaveraceae | Rosaceae | | Paracanthaceae | Rosaceae | | Passifloraceae | Rubiaceae | | Passifloraceae | Rutaceae | | Pedaliaceae | Rutaceae | | Penaeaceae | Santalaceae | | Persicariaceae | Salicaceae | | Petiveriaceae | Salicaceae | | Phyllanthaceae | Sambucaceae | | Phyllotrichaceae | Samyaceae | | Phyllotrichaceae | Sanguiisorbaceae | | Piperaceae | Santalaceae | | Piperaceae | Santalaceae | | Pistiaceae | Sapindaceae | | Pittosporaceae | Sapindaceae | | Plantaginaceae | Scrophulariaceae | | Platanaceae | Scrophulariaceae | | Plumbaginaceae | Saxifragaceae | | Podophyllaceae | Saxifragaceae | | Podostemaceae | Saxifragaceae | | Polemoniaceae | Scrophulariaceae | | Polemoniaceae | Scrophulariaceae | | Polygalaceae | Selaginaceae | | Polygonaceae | Selaginaceae | | Pomaceae | Sempervivaceae |