one of the largest and most splendid cities of Asia, the modern capital of Hindustan, and the seat of the supreme government of the British in India. It is situated upon the river Hooghly, which forms the western channel of the Ganges, and, though not the principal, is the only one of its numerous branches which is navigable for large vessels. It stands on an almost perfect level of alluvial and marshy ground, which a century ago was covered with jungle and stagnant pools, and which still almost everywhere betrays its unsoundness by the cracks conspicuous in the best houses. The town is 100 miles from the mouth of the river, the navigation of which is difficult, and often dangerous, on account of its numerous sand banks, many of which are continually shifting their situation. Vessels drawing more than seventeen feet water cannot, except at spring-tides, ascend with safety above Diamond Harbour, where the vessels of the East India Company usually load and unload. This is about sixty miles below Calcutta; and passengers are conveyed to the city in smaller vessels or in boats. The country, from the mouth of the Hooghly to Diamond Harbour, is dairy in the extreme; the banks of the river are high, and the adjacent land on each side, which is perfectly flat, forms a complete wilderness of timber and brushwood, the haunt of tigers, and of other beasts of prey.
Advancing up the river, the scene gradually improves; the country becomes more and more cultivated; the shipping and the bustle on the river increase; and the beautiful country-seats on its banks announce the approach to the capital. The city, with its numerous spires and other public edifices, presents, at a distance, a striking appearance; and, on landing, the magnificence of the buildings commands the admiration of all strangers. The town and suburbs extend along the left or eastern bank of the river above six miles, but varying much in breadth at different places. In the middle of it, and very near the landing place, is an immense square, each side of which extends above a quarter of a mile; and the centre is occupied by a large tank or open reservoir of water for the supply of the town. This square, together with the adjacent buildings and those towards the south, forms what is properly termed the town of Calcutta, the residence of the European inhabitants and of the natives of distinction. To the south, along the bank of the river, lies the Black Town, which is occupied entirely by the lower classes of inhabitants, and is rather considered as part of the suburbs; and about a quarter of a mile to the north stand Fort-William and the barracks, which form on this side a great ornament to the city. The intermediate space, which is an extensive open plain, is termed the esplanade. The citadel of Fort-William, which was begun by Lord Clive in 1757, after the battle of Plassey, is the strongest and most regular fortress in India; but the works are so extensive that they would require at least 9000 or 10,000 men, with 600 pieces of cannon, to defend them. On the west of the esplanade stands the government-house, built by the Marquis Wellesley, which is the largest and most splendid building in Calcutta. It is the residence of the governor-general, where he holds levees, and transacts all the government business; it also contains magnificent apartments for public entertainments. The other public buildings are a town-house, with public rooms, which, though handsome, are too confined for the climate and for the number of the inhabitants; a court of justice, the hospital, and jail, which are situated on the esplanade; two English churches, the one of which is a plain building, but the other has an elegant appearance; a Scottish church; also churches for the Portuguese Catholics; another for those of the Greek persuasion, an Armenian church, many small Hindu pagodas, Mohammedan mosques, and a Sikk temple. All these various religions here enjoy the most perfect toleration.
The custom-house faces the river, and forms part of the west side of the great square. It is built upon the site of the old fort, which was taken in 1757 by Surajah Dowlah. Near to it is the famous Black Hole, which is now converted into a warehouse; and before the gate stands the monument which has been erected to commemorate the unfortunate persons who perished there. It is surrounded by an iron railing; but it has been struck with lightning, and has since been allowed to go to decay. In front of the custom-house is the quay, which has been of essential service to the numerous shipping which there load and unload. On the west side of the river, and in a beautiful situation, stands the botanic garden, at a bend to which it gives the name of Garden Reach. It contains a splendid collection of plants from every quarter of the globe, and is laid out with great taste, but more with a view to practical utility than scientific arrangement. Above the garden there is an extensive plantation of teak. Horse-racing having been discouraged by government, the course, which was to the south of the town, is now converted into a ride; but the practice still continues at Barrackpore, sixteen miles up the river, where the fashionable society of Calcutta assemble to partake of the amusement. The south side of the great square is occupied by the writers' buildings, which make but an indifferent appearance. They form the residence of this class of the Company's servants who are newly arrived from Europe, and who are students at the college of Fort-William. The private houses in Calcutta, in the central or genteel part of the town, are built mostly after the European fashion, but modified to the nature of the climate and to the magnificence of eastern manners. In a line with the government-house is a range of elegant buildings, ornamented with large verandas, and another, at right angles with it, called Chourinjee, formerly occupied by native huts. These houses are built of brick, covered with a species of stucco called chunam. They are all separated from each other, every one having attached to it a considerable piece of inclosed ground, in the middle of which it is situated. The approach is by a flight of steps under a large portico. The architecture is Grecian, and the profusion of columns, porticoes, and verandahs, gives them more the air of palaces than of private houses. To this part of Calcutta the Black Town, which extends along the river to the north of Calcutta, forms a striking contrast. It is built after the model of Indian towns, is very large, and swarming with population. The streets are exceedingly narrow, crooked, and dirty, and are all unpaved, with numerous ponds, reservoirs, and gardens, interspersed. A few of the streets are paved with brick. The houses are built, some of brick, above two stories high; but the great majority are built of bamboos and mats, only one story high, and covered with thatch; all which different kinds of fabrics standing intermixed present a very uncouth appearance. The houses being for the most part formed of such combustible materials, fires are common, and have often proved very destructive. Within these thirty or forty years, however, this quarter of the town has been greatly improved both in appearance and in the salubrity of the air; the streets have been widened and properly drained, and the ponds have been filled; a large surface of stagnant water has been thereby removed, the exhalations from which were prejudicial to health; and the houses have been rendered less combustible, by being tiled in place of thatched.
Though building materials are abundant in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, house-rent is not moderate. This is owing partly to the high interest of money, and partly to the constant repairs which are required, from the casting of the wood in this hot climate, and from the ravages of insects, particularly the white ants. Though the woodwork of a house appear externally quite sound, it often turns out upon examination to be completely excavated or honeycombed by these insects, which assemble in incredible numbers wherever they can find an entrance.
The houses here which are known under the name of taverns are greatly inferior in respectability to those in Europe. They are, with the exception of two or three particular houses, resorted to only by the lowest company; and strangers who are enticed into them are exposed to every species of imposition, and frequently to total ruin. A European, on his first landing, is surrounded by numerous dangers and inconveniences, which he finds it extremely difficult to escape. These are so well described in the East India Vade-Mecum, by Captain Thomas Williamson, that we will extract the following passages for the instruction of such of our countrymen as propose to visit those distant regions.
"The tavern-keeper, under the plausible pretext of aiding towards the completion of the youth's wishes, never fails to inquire whether the gentleman has any friends in town, or even in the country. If affirmatively answered, 'mine host' feels himself tolerably secure of his money; but will probably assert that the friend in town is out of the way, and will not be back for some days. Should the gentleman be totally destitute of friends, then comes the rich harvest. Imposition following imposition swell the bill, which, if appearances warrant forbearance, is kept back as long as possible, under the pleasing assurance of perfect confidence; but in the end a catalogue of items is produced, which never fails to alarm, if not to ruin, the unsuspecting victim!
"If, unhappily, the guest should so far lower himself as to associate with the ordinary company of the common drinking-room, he is irretrievably gone. Quarrels, riots, and inebriety, must follow, in all probability rendering him subject to the notice of the police. Should his face ever be seen at that office, it would be next to impossible that he should be admitted into any respectable circle. What with lodging, dinners, wines, &c. of the worst description, but all rated at the highest prices, he must be a fortunate wight who escapes under a gold mohur (i.e. two guineas) per day; in general double that sum is charged; so that a person starts at the rate of L1,000 per annum at least; while, in all probability, no established or even apparent provision exists whereby he may be maintained.
"To state the evil without pointing out the remedy would be next to useless; but when I suggest the means of avoiding those difficulties, or any portion of them, attendant on arrival in a foreign land, it must be understood that I consider the stranger to be possessed of pecuniary means; that is, that he can pay his way. Without this he can do nothing, and must undergo all the afflictions and miseries attendant upon despised poverty in every part of the globe. It may be proper to point out in this place, that what might here appear to be liberal calculations, would not suit the East, where every article of European manufacture bears so enormous a price, where house-rent is so expensive, and where it is indispensably necessary to retain so many servants. The first thing to be done (setting a letter of recommendation out of the question) should be to report arrival at the secretary's office, depositing the certificate of the court of directors' licence to proceed to India; without which the party is considered as an alien, and scarcely considered as entitled to British protection. This does not arise from ill will on the part of government or of the inhabitants, but from that strict attention the politics of the country imperiously demand to be paid to the several characters and descriptions of persons residing within our territory.
"The above relates equally to all persons in the civil or military branches; the certificate granted at the India House must be produced, in order to identify the party; but if it should have been lost, he himself, together with the commander who received the order for taking him on board, must attend, to make affidavit to that effect, before the appointment can be admitted upon the registers in India.
"Such as appertain to the civil service, being always strongly recommended, and often finding many old acquaintances of their families on the spot, require but little advice; nor does the cadet stand much in need of instruction as to the manner in which he should provide himself with a home. All he has to do is to wait upon the town-major, at his office in Fort-William, when he will receive the necessary order for his admission into the cadet corps at Baraset, about sixteen miles from Calcutta.
"He who has not these advantages must do the best his circumstances may afford; he will find temperance to be not only cheap, but indispensable; for if he should act so indiscreetly at the outset as to injure his health, a thousand privations and a certain increase of difficulties must follow. The first point must necessarily be to get under cover. This will not be found so easy as those who have never quitted England may suppose. It will be after much research that a small house will be had, and then only the bare walls; for no such thing is known in India as a furnished house to be let; and lodgings are, if possible, still more out of the question. Fortunately there are among the European shopkeepers in Calcutta some most respectable characters,—men distinguished for their urbanity, philanthropy, and generosity. Application should be instantly made to one of these firms for aid and advice." Calcutta. The case should be candidly stated; and, in order to insure confidence, a deposit of money should be made either with them or at one of the banks. The consequences will be, that in a few hours some small tenement will be obtained, either on hire or granted as a temporary accommodation; and the whole of the articles really necessary will be provided at some one or other of the auctions which daily take place within the central parts of the town.
Calcutta is the great emporium of the East. By means of the Ganges and its tributary streams it has an uninterrupted water communication with the whole of the north of Hindustan. There are three artificial canals by which the communication is maintained with the upper country without passing through the unhealthy and dangerous channel of the Sunderbunds. But this channel has never yet been kept permanently open. The discovery of steam navigation has proved of eminent utility on the Ganges. Steam packets now proceed up the river with passengers, and effect a voyage in three weeks that used to occupy as many months. Government steam vessels, some of them armed, also ply upon the river. Calcutta, being so advantageously situated for commerce, trades extensively with almost every country in the world, and numbers of vessels of every form and description are constantly arriving in or departing from the river, which in the vicinity of the town presents the busiest scene imaginable. Numerous dock-yards have also been established, in which are built vessels of great burden and of admirable construction. Piece goods, shawls, indigo, silk, sugar, opium, and rum, are the staple commodities of export. Treasure is imported from all quarters. From London, the imports consist principally of articles of consumption for the European inhabitants, consisting of wine, porter, ale, confectionaries, and generally of all the finer manufactures.
In 1808 a bank was established at Calcutta, under the name of the Calcutta Bank. Its capital amounts to fifty lacs of rupees, of which ten were subscribed by government, and the remainder by individuals. There are besides three private banks, and it is estimated that the paper circulation amounts to one crore of rupees, or one million sterling. There are twelve insurance companies; and in 1825 there were published two daily newspapers, besides the Government Gazette and the India Gazette twice a week, and one weekly paper. There were two native weekly newspapers in Persian, and two in Bengalese, to which in 1826 another was added.
The institutions for education in Calcutta are numerous, of which the principal are, the Madressa or Mahommedan college, founded in 1780, for the instruction of the Muslim youth in the Arabic and Persian languages, and in Mahommedan law; the college of Fort William, begun in 1801, for instructing the public servants of the Company in the native languages of the country, namely, the Hindustanee, Bengalee, Persian, and Arabic, now a flourishing and well-regulated institution, in which, at the annual examinations, great proficiency is displayed by the students; the Sanscrit College, for which a handsome building has been erected, founded in 1821, for the instruction of the natives in the Sanscrit language and Brahminical literature, and also in the English language and literature; the Anglo-Indian College, established originally by respectable natives, chiefly for the instruction of Hindu youths in the English language; Bishop's College, for the instruction of missionaries in the languages of the East; and a Medical School for native doctors, established at Calcutta in 1822. In 1823 a committee of public instruction was formed, who are authorized to exercise a superintendence over all government seminaries, and to give an impulse, as well as a judicious direction, to efforts made for diffusing instruction among the Hindus. There are numerous missionary societies and institutions, with extensive establishments for education, as well as various other schools and institutions, religious and charitable. A free school has been established, which Bishop Heber terms a noble institution, at which between 200 and 300 boys and girls are boarded, besides day scholars. They are taught according to Dr Bell's system. Some few of the scholars are Armenian Christians, and there are one or two Hindus. There is also the Armenian Academy and a grammar school for the instruction of the Indo-British youth in classical literature. Under the patronage of a society of European ladies, native schools were established in 1821, with female teachers. Formerly no instance was ever known of an Indian female being instructed in reading, writing, or sewing. In 1826, 600 female Hindu pupils were taught in the various schools of Calcutta and in the indigenous schools, which are taught by native masters, and in which the parents of the boys pay for their education, the number of pupils amounts to nearly 3000. There are two schools for the education and maintenance of the children of Europeans in the military service of the Company, one for the children of officers, and another for those of the privates; and there are several literary and scientific societies. The Asiatic Society still continues its sittings, and publishes its Transactions, which contain much interesting information concerning the history, literature, languages, and antiquities of Asia. The charitable institutions are numerous, namely, the Bethel Union, the Seaman's Friend Society, the Military Orphan Society, the Military Widow's Fund, Lord Clive's Fund, the King's Military Fund, the Marine Pension Fund, the Civil Fund, the Mariner's and General Widow's Fund, the Presidency General Hospital, the Native Hospital, the Hospital for Native Lunatics, the Government Establishment for Vaccination, the Charitable Fund for Distressed Europeans, the European Female Orphan Society.
The supreme court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges, all nominated by the crown. Its jurisdiction extends to all British subjects in India, and to all civil actions between natives, or between natives and Europeans. Criminal cases are tried in this court by a jury consisting exclusively of British subjects, as also all criminal charges against the Company's servants, and all civil actions in which the Company or any of its servants are concerned; but it takes no cognizance of the land revenues. The law practitioners attached to this court are fourteen attorneys and six barristers.
The population of Calcutta, which is stated by some to amount to 500,000, by others to 700,000, is composed of persons from every quarter of the world. British and other Europeans, Armenians, Persians, Chinese, Hindoos, and Mahommedans, are all seen mixing in the streets of this metropolis. The occupations of these various classes are nearly what might be expected in the luxurious capital of a great empire, and in so great an emporium of maritime commerce. Public officers, lawyers, physicians, merchants, and their families, make up the bulk of the British inhabitants. The natives and foreigners of respectability are mostly engaged in trade, or living upon their
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1 These are, the Calcutta Auxiliary Church Missionary Society, the Church Missionary Association, Diocesan Committee for the Distribution of Books and the Conversion of the Hindus, the Bengal Missionary Society, the Baptist Missionary Society, an Auxiliary Bible Society, &c.
2 See Heber's Journey through the Upper Provinces of India.
3 Asiatic Annual Register, vol. xix. property, and the lower classes are principally composed of retail-dealers, mechanics, and servants.
The most various estimates are given of the population of Calcutta; and it is doubtful if there be any correct census. In 1752 the number of houses within the Company's bounds was estimated at 51,132, and the constant inhabitants at 409,056. In 1802 the police magistrates estimated the population at 600,000. In 1810 the chief judge Sir Henry Russel computed the population at between 400,000 and 500,000 inhabitants. In 1819 the School Society's estimate amounted to 750,000; and in 1822 the following census was returned:
| Christians | 13,138 | |------------|--------| | Mahommedans | 48,161 | | Hindus | 118,203 | | Chinese | 414 |
Total: 179,916
From these different estimates it appeared to the magistrates that the resident population might be estimated at 200,000, and those going and coming at 100,000; and that the medium estimate of 300,000 would therefore be not far from the truth.
The British merchants form a most respectable class of men, and contribute essentially to the prosperity of the settlement; many of them are possessed of large fortunes, and live in a style of suitable splendour. The Armenians are the most numerous body of foreign merchants in Calcutta. They trade extensively to all parts of India and China, are uncommonly diligent and attentive to business, and are considered to have the most minute intelligence from foreign ports of any other body of merchants. The native bankers, agents, and money-dealers, are numerous. Though formerly timorous, the Hindu now adventures in almost every species of mercantile speculation; and cloths belonging to the native merchants, to the amount of L1,000,000 sterling, are generally lying for sale in the warehouses of Calcutta. The native merchants of an inferior class engross nearly the whole of the retail trade of Calcutta, under the titles of Banians, Sircars, and Writers; and they are generally described as fond of money to excess, and most unprincipled in all their dealings.
The English society in Calcutta is of the best description, and numerous fetes are given during the cold season, which lasts from September to April, on a splendid scale, by the governor-general and other public functionaries, as well as by individuals. There are public subscription assemblies, besides select evening parties under the name of conversaziones, enlivened by music, dancing, cards, and other amusements. There is a theatre, supported by amateur performers; and public concerts are given, which are also supported by amateur talent. The usual mode of visiting is in palaquins. But many of the British have carriages adapted to the climate; and the breed of horses having been greatly improved, it is the universal practice to drive out between sunset and dinner; and as it becomes dark, servants go out with torches and meet their masters, and run before their carriages, though going at a rapid rate, for a very long time. The British inhabitants of India are distinguished by their hospitable dispositions, and are most liberal to all who call on them for aid. It is only during the cold season that it is possible to venture abroad in the heat of the day, which, in the rest of the year, is devoted to repose. The hot season begins in April. Every day the heat increases until the middle of June, when the periodical rains begin, which last till August. The weather then being extremely close, is more oppressive and more unhealthy than before. The thermometer throughout the year generally ranges between 75° and 95°, but frequently rises to 100° and 110°.
It was in 1690 that the English, in virtue of a firman Calcutta, granted by Aurungzebe, founded a factory at Calcutta, which was then a village, the houses of which were scattered about in clusters of ten or twelve each, and the inhabitants chiefly husbandmen; and in 1696, in consequence of the disturbed state of Bengal, they were allowed to raise works of defence. To the southward of Chandpaul Ghaut extended a forest; and between Kidderpoor and the forest were two villages, where now stand Port William and the esplanade. In 1717 there was a small straggling village, surrounded by puddles of water, where now stand the elegant houses at Chowringhee, and the town extended to Chitpore Bridge; but the intervening space consisted of ground covered with jungle. In 1752 a ditch was dug round a considerable part of the town, as a barrier against the inroads of the Mahrattas. About this time the town was garrisoned by three hundred Europeans, who were frequently employed in conveying the Company's vessels from Patna, loaded with saltpetre, piece goods, opium, and raw silk. The trade of Bengal alone supplied rich cargoes for fifty or sixty ships annually, besides what was carried on in small vessels to the adjacent countries. It was this flourishing state of Calcutta which probably induced the nabob Surajah Dowlah to attack it in the year 1756. Having had the fort of Cosimbazar delivered up to him, he marched against Calcutta with all his forces, amounting to seventy thousand horse and foot, with four hundred elephants, and invested the place on the 15th of June. Previous to any hostilities, however, he wrote a letter to Mr Drake, the governor, offering to withdraw his troops, on condition that he would pay him his duty on the trade for fifteen years past, defray the expense of his army, and deliver up the black merchants who were in the fort. This being refused, he attacked one of the redoubts at the entrance of the town; but was repulsed with great slaughter. On the 16th he attacked another advanced post, but was likewise repulsed with great loss. Notwithstanding this disappointment, however, the attempt was renewed on the 18th, when the troops abandoned these posts and retreated into the fort; on which the nabob's troops entered the town, and plundered it for twenty-four hours. An order was then given for attacking the fort; for which purpose a small breastwork was thrown up, and two twelve-pounders mounted upon it, but without firing oftener than two or three times an hour. The governor then called a council of war, when the captain of the train informed them that there was not ammunition in the fort to serve three days, in consequence of which the principal ladies were sent on board the ships lying before the fort. They were followed by the governor, who declared himself a quaker, and left the place to be defended by Mr Holwell, the second in council. Besides the governor, four of the council, eight gentlemen of the Company's service, four officers, and a hundred soldiers, with fifty-two free merchants, captains of ships, and other gentlemen, escaped on board the ships, where were also fifty-nine ladies, with thirty-three of their children. The whole number left in the fort was about two hundred and fifty effective men, with Mr Holwell, four captains, five lieutenants, six ensigns, and five sergeants; as also fourteen sea-captains, and twenty-nine gentlemen of the factory. Mr Holwell then having held a council of war, divided three chests of treasure among the discontented soldiers, making them large promises also, if they behaved with courage and fidelity; after which he boldly stood on the defence of the place, notwithstanding the immense force which opposed him. The attack was very vigorous; the enemy having got possession of the houses, galled the English from thence, and drove them from the bastions; but they themselves were Caldarium several times dislodged by the fire from the fort, which killed an incredible number, with the loss of only five English soldiers the first day. The attack, however, was continued till the afternoon of the 20th, when many of the garrison being killed and wounded, and their ammunition almost exhausted, a flag of truce was hung out. Mr Holwell intended to avail himself of this opportunity to make his escape on board the ships, but they had fallen several miles down from the fort, without leaving even a single boat to facilitate the escape of those who remained. In the mean time, however, the back gate was betrayed by the Dutch guard; and the enemy, entering the fort, killed all they first met, and took the rest prisoners.
The fort was taken before six in the evening; and, in an hour after, Mr Holwell had three audiences of the nabob, the last being in the durbar or council. In all these the governor had the most positive assurances that no harm should happen to any of the prisoners. As soon as it was dark they were collected, to the number of a hundred and forty-six; and the guard, by pressing on them with presented muskets, and by clubs and similitors, forced them into the Black Hole prison, a dungeon about eighteen feet square, in which, out of a hundred and forty-six, only twenty-three persons came out alive in the morning, and most of them in a high putrid fever.
The injuries which Calcutta suffered at this time, however, were soon repaired. The place was retaken by Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive early in 1737; Surajah Dowlah was defeated, deposed, and put to death; and Meer Jaffier, who succeeded him in the nabobship, engaged to pay an immense sum for the indemnification of the inhabitants. Since that time the immense acquisition of territory by the British in this part of the world, and the constant state of security enjoyed by this city, have raised it to its present prosperity and splendour. Fort William stands in long. 88° 26', E.; lat. 22° 33', N.