The republic of Chili is situated on the western coast of South America, between the Cordillera of the Andes and the Pacific Ocean. On its eastern side the lofty chain of the Andes separates it from the Argentine republic, while the ocean forms its western boundary. To the north its boundary is formed by the river Salado in the desert of Atacama, the northern part of which country is alone inhabited. On the south Chili is bounded by the river Bio-bio, which separates it from a fine country, inhabited by the Araucanian Indians. There are, however, other territorial possessions of importance, which form an integral part of the Chilian republic, although not contiguous to that part which has been already alluded to, but somewhat insulated. The province or rather fortress of Valdivia, which is situated on the coast of the Pacific, in the Araucanian country, is principally valuable on account of its excellent harbour for shipping, and its admirable military position. To the south of the Araucanian country are situated the archipelago or islands of Chiloé, about eighty in number, and producing many valuable articles of consumption and export. The beautiful and fertile island of La Mocha is situated on the Araucanian coast; those of Quiriquina and Santa María, near Concepcion, and the two islands of Juan Fernandez, lie much farther to the north, but at a greater distance from the coast.

The territory of Chili, therefore, independent of its detached possessions, extends from 23° 30' to 37° 25' of south latitude, and from 69° 40' to 74° of west longitude; and its superficies may be estimated at about 23,000 square leagues. The country which formerly constituted a part of Chili extends from the Biobio to the 42d degree of south latitude, and is inhabited by the Araucanian, Cunches, and Huilliches Indians. This country was at one period held in military possession by the Spaniards, who constructed numerous forts, and some large and opulent cities; but they were at length driven from the country by the efforts of the natives, and no traces now remain of these establishments. The archipelago of Chiloé commences where this territory ends, being only separated from it by an arm of the sea, and extends to 44° south latitude.

The colossal chain of the Cordillera of the Andes, which separates the Chilian from the Argentine provinces, runs in nearly a parallel direction with the coast of the Pacific Ocean, the breadth of the intervening country varying from 80 to 200 miles. The greatest elevation of these mountains cannot exceed 17,000 feet above the level of the ocean, as snow can only be seen during the whole year in one or two very limited stations, except where sheltered by situation from the influence of the direct rays of the sun. In the southern hemisphere, the same laws do not appear to determine the line of perpetual snow as in the northern; for observation proves that this line is much higher in the corresponding latitudes of the former. On the other hand, an idea of its least elevation may be formed from the observations of the writer, who has traversed this chain in four different latitudes, and carefully measured the height of the passes by means of barometrical observations. He found the eastern or metalliciferous range, called Paramillo de Uspallata, which separates the extensive valley of Uspallata from the plains of Mendoza, to possess an elevation of from 9500 to 10,000 feet; and the Cumbre, or central ridge, intervening between the valleys of the rivers Mendoza and Aconcagua, on the Uspallata road, to be 12,532 feet, the intervening valley of Uspallata being 6141 feet. By the Pass of the Portillo two lofty ridges are also crossed, the one named El Portillo, of 14,360; and the other El Portillo de los Pequenes, of 13,310 feet in height. From these the road leads into the valley of the river Maypu, and the elevation of the intervening valley of the Tenayuan is 7530 feet. Between these two routes is situated the lofty mountain of Tupungato, in latitude 33° 24' south, and nearly between the cities of Mendoza and Santiago. It seems to be the highest of this part of the Andes, as it is the first of the Chilian Andes which becomes visible on the road from Buenos Ayres. In favourable weather, about sunset, it is visible from the plaza of San Luis de la Punta, distant eighty-two leagues east of Mendoza, and having an elevation above the sea of 2417 feet. Although during certain periods of the year no snow is visible on its summit from Mendoza, yet snow is known to exist there at all seasons, as the supplies for the use of the Mendozinos is derived from that source. To the south of the passes of the Portillo and Pequenes is situated the volcanic mountain of Pequenes or Maypu, which has experienced a number of eruptions of ashes since the earthquake of 1822. To the south of the volcano is situated the Pass of the Cruz de Piedra, which unites with the preceding in the valley of the Maypu. Farther south a route little frequented unites the valleys of the rivers Diamante and Cachapoal; and to the south of this is found the volcano of Peteron. The Pass of the Damas, to the south of this volcano, is situated between the valley of the river Atuel on the east, and that of the river Tinguiririca on the west, which issues from the mountains at San Fernando. The highest lands traversed by this route are El Llano de los Morros, of 11,651, and El Llano de los Choicos, of 10,172 feet of elevation. The route by the Planchon joins the preceding on the eastern side, at the Atuel, and descends to Curico in Chili, by the valleys of the rivers Claro and Teno. Its highest part, the Planchon, although from an accidental circumstance it was not measured, cannot exceed 10,000 feet in height, if an opinion may be formed from the comparative state of its vegetation. The celebrated mountain El Descabezado, or Blauquillo, in 35° south latitude, was visible at some distance to the south of the Planchon, but no traces of snow could be seen. On the summit of this mountain there is an extensive plain of six miles diameter, with a deep lake in the centre, supposed to be an extinct volcano; likewise a variety of fossil shells—an occurrence by no means uncommon at this great elevation, as similar fossil remains have been found in abundance at the Puente del Inga, on the Uspallata route to Chili, at an elevation of 8654 feet above the sea. Proceeding southward from these points, the passes of the Andes become more frequent and accessible, and less elevated, until they reach the Straits of Magellan. On the north-west side of the Pass of the Cumbre, on the Uspallata route, is situated a mountain, called the Volcan de Aconcagua, to the north of which are the passes of Los Patos and Putaendo, so celebrated as the route by which General San Martin conveyed his army across the Andes for the liberation of Chili. There are only two well-known and frequented passes across the Andes to Chili north of this place; the one being a communication between the city of San Juan and Coquimbo and the other from La Rioja to Coquimbo and Copiapo.

In the Chilian territory which intervenes between the Cordillera of the Andes and the Pacific there are found various parallel mountainous ranges, but of much less elevation. These are evidently offsets from the principal chain, as the lines of communication can easily be traced in many places. In the latitude of the capital of Chili, Santiago, and the port of Valparaiso, the intervening longitudinal ridges are three in number, which decrease in height as they approach the ocean; namely, La Cuesta del Prado, 2543; La Cuesta de Zapata, 1850; and La Cuesta de Valparaiso, 1261 feet; the intervening valleys of Santiago, Curicaví, and Casa Blanca, being 1700, 1560, and 743 feet above the level of the Pacific Ocean.

All these ranges of mountains are intersected in many places by valleys, which run nearly east and west, and convey the waters of the numerous streams which flow from the Cordillera, and intervening country, towards the ocean. These valleys, and the still more spacious and extensive ones which intervene between the parallel mountainous ridges, constitute the parts of the country which are best suited for the purposes of agriculture, and consequently contain the principal population. In the northern provinces, however, rivers and streams for the purposes of irrigation are essential to the existence of agriculture and population, as it rains so seldom and so sparingly that no useful produce can otherwise be obtained.

The rivers of Chili are numerous, but, with few exceptions, of small size, as they run only from the Andes to the Pacific, and have therefore a very limited course. They are rapid in their course, until they reach the level country. In the early months of spring and summer they swell considerably, from the melting of the snows; and their daily increase and decrease is easily calculated by the inhabitants, according to the distance of the place from the snowy summits whence originate the cause of increase during the days when the sun's rays are powerful. The principal rivers are, the Biobio, which forms the southern boundary; it is about two miles broad at its mouth, and is navigable for rafts and small craft as high as Nacimiento, and on it are conveyed to Concepcion the valuable productions of its banks. The Itata, also of considerable size, traverses the provinces of Concepcion and a tract of country abounding in corn and wine. The Maule is navigable for small vessels, and runs through a rich and fertile country, abounding in cattle and excellent timber, especially rode and lingui. The harbour at its mouth is capacious and well sheltered, but does not admit vessels drawing more than eleven feet of water, owing to a bar of sand crossing the mouth of the river. The Teno and Lonque unite below Curico to form the Mataquita, and divide the provinces of Maule and Colchagua; which last is bounded on the north by the Cachapoal, and the latter receives the Tinguiririca below San Fernando. The banks of all these rivers, as well as the Maypu, abound in valuable timber. The Maypu bounds the province of Rancagua to the north; and its waters, by means of a canal, irrigate the extensive plains of Maypu, which lie between the river and the capital, and formed the scene of the celebrated battle which sealed the liberties of Chili. The Aconcagua, united to the Putaendo, runs to the north of Santiago, through the fertile valleys of Aconcagua and Quillota, and enters the sea at Concon, to the north of Valparaiso. The other rivers to the north are inconsiderable in size and importance. The principal ones are, the Chuapa, Limari, Coquimbo, and Guasco, which drain an extent of country 190 miles in length and 70 in breadth; but the first is the only one of any magnitude, and divides the northern from the middle provinces. The rivers which traverse the country of the Araucanians are numerous, and some of them are navigable for large vessels. The principal are, the Gauten, Tolten, Callacalla, Bueno, and Sinifundo.

The principal lakes of Chili are those of Aculeo and Bucalemu, in the province of Rancagua. The scenery which surrounds the former is extremely beautiful and picturesque; and it is covered by multitudes of swans, flaminos, and other water-fowl. The lakes of Bucalemu are formed by the sea overflowing the low lands during the tempestuous weather of winter. This water evaporates during the summer, leaving great quantities of fine-grained salt, which forms an important article of commerce, and a valuable revenue to the owners. Near San Fernando is the beautiful lake of Taguatagua, whose banks are well wooded, and contain some small islands. In the Araucanian country are the large lakes of Osorno, Huanaco, Laquen, and Nahuelguapi. The latter is eighty miles in circumference, contains an island, and gives origin to a river of the same name, which falls into the Patagonian Sea. The Laquen contains in its centre a beautiful conical-shaped hill, and is the source of the river Tolten.

Near the village of Colina, in the province of Santiago, and in a ravine of the Andes, hot springs are found, which are much frequented for bathing; the water being chalybeate. The baths of Cauquenes, in the province of Rancagua, are situated in a deep ravine of the Andes, near the origin of the river Cachapoal. There are four principal springs of hot water, in which the temperature is 100° and upwards. These are much frequented for bathing in summer, by persons afflicted with rheumatic and syphilitic affections, to whom they prove extremely useful. Some are sulphureous, others saline; some are tepid, others extremely cold; and all are within a short distance of each other.

The soil of Chili is more fertile in the valleys of the Andes and middle districts than on the plains or in the maritime provinces, owing to the great quantities of fine soil carried down by the melting of the snows on the lofty summits of the Andes. In such places the soil is more friable, and of a dark-yellowish hue. In the maritime districts the soil is more tenacious, consisting of a large proportion of clay of a brownish-red colour, intermixed in some places with marl and marine substances. In the province of Copiapo it is in many places covered by saline incrustations, and thereby rendered less suitable for vegetation. In the province of Quillota, where irrigation may not be practicable, the low hills which cover a great part of its extent are stony, and have a surface of hard red clay, produced by the decomposition of hornblende, and only support a few shrubs, but produce abundance of quiscos and cardones. The fertility of the soil of Chili has in many respects been much overrated, as no means are had recourse to maintain its original fecundity. Those places which, from the nature of the ground and supplies of water, are susceptible of irrigation, are fertilized by the fine soil brought down by the rivers on the melting of the snow, and deposited on the irrigated ground. The great utility of this practice has been exemplified in the province of Santiago, where the valleys of the Mapocho, Colma, La Lampa, and particularly the plains of Maypu, which extends about twenty-four miles between Santiago and Maypu, are now rendered fertile and productive by means of a canal commenced at the latter river, which carries ample supplies of water along the base of the mountains to the river Mapocho, and supplies abundance to irrigate the extensive plains to the west. Similar works will undoubtedly be undertaken in other districts, with equally beneficial results.

The climate of Chili is one of the finest and most salubrious in the world. It varies somewhat according to situation and elevation, but rarely approaches either extreme. The configuration of the Andes forming an elevated wall, which separates the western from the eastern side of this part of South America, has a powerful influence on the climate of Chili, and gives a direction to the prevailing winds of that country. During the summer months a southerly wind prevails along the west side of the Cordillera. It is accompanied by a clear sky, and gradually diminishes in force as it proceeds northward along the coast of Chili and Peru. In May, however, when the sun approaches the tropic of Cancer, these winds cease, and are followed by northerly winds, accompanied with rain and stormy weather, and occasional gales, which again cease in October, and give way to the south winds. The rain falls in greatest abundance and most frequently in the south of Chili, and sometimes continues for six or seven months; in the central provinces it lasts from four to five months; and in the northern the showers are much less frequent, and rain falls in smaller quantities. The climate of the maritime parts of Chili is milder and less variable than in the interior, being less subject to the extremes of heat and cold. January and February are the hottest months, the thermometer during that period occasionally rising to 90° and 95° in the shade. The range of temperature, however, near the coast, in summer, is from 70° to 85°; the greatest heat being about ten o'clock in the day, when it is moderated by the south wind which then commences. On the approach of evening, likewise, a cool and refreshing breeze arises, and renders the night agreeable. June and July are the coldest months of winter; but even in these, unless during rain, the air does not feel very chilly. The average number of rainy days in the latitude of Valparaiso is about twenty, but during some seasons they are more numerous, being from forty to fifty. Such prove the most unhealthy, and are least productive to the husbandman.

From August to November the weather is mild and agreeable, and the atmosphere is generally hazy during the mornings, especially after a wet season; but these fogs are usually dissipated by the sun about noon. No snow ever falls on the sea-coast, and rarely in the interior, at an elevation of less than 800 feet. When snow does fall, it is soon dissipated by the sun's rays, from every place of less elevation than from 5000 to 6000 feet; and the more lofty parts of the Cordillera of the Andes are generally covered with snow from the end of May to November, when it is speedily dissipated by the powerful rays of the sun. In March no snow is found, except at a great elevation, and in very sheltered places. It rarely freezes near the coast, but in the interior ice is formed during the winter nights, of the thickness of a quarter or half an inch, but it is usually melted in the forenoon. During the winter months the rains are frequently accompanied with storms of thunder, lightning, and hail. The lightning is very vivid, and the thunder reverberating in the numerous deep valleys, is very grand and terrific. During the summer evenings, thunder and lightning are not uncommon in that part of the country which skirts the base of the Andes.

Chili, possessing so very fine and equable a climate, is remarkably healthy, and few countries possess a greater exemption from infectious and dangerous diseases. The prevailing complaints are those which depend on improper food, or inattention to the state of the digestive organs. The churalonga, a kind of inflammatory fever, oc- casionally prevails, and proves fatal, unless very actively treated. Rheumatism is a common complaint, and is principally owing to imprudence and irregularity. Vaccine inoculation has been very generally introduced, the inhabitants having a great dread of the small-pox, which formerly committed much havoc among them.

The frequency of earthquakes in Chili forms a very important drawback on the many advantages arising from its delicious climate and productive soil. These occurrences are occasionally so severe, that they give rise to serious loss of both life and property. The former, however, is less frequent than might be expected, as the inhabitants are well prepared for such occurrences, and the form of their houses, courts, streets, and gardens, is adapted to facilitate their escape on such occasions. Strangers, on first experiencing shocks of an earthquake, are scarcely sensible of them; but further experience renders them as acute and discerning as the natives, who from early life are so habitually accustomed to them, that they are fully alive to the slightest movement of the earth, or to its precursors. Earthquakes sometimes take place without any warning; but more frequently their approach is indicated by a loud rumbling noise, resembling that of distant thunder, the rushing of subterranean waters, or the passing of a heavy carriage or waggon over a causeway. When these are noticed, or the slightest movement of the earth takes place, all the inhabitants rush out into the streets, courts, and other open places, in the utmost dismay and terror, with loud lamentations, beating their breasts, falling on their knees, and calling on the saints to save and protect them. At first they seem as if bereft of reason, and altogether forget that by their own exertions they may accomplish much of what they vainly solicit from supernatural agency. Even the lower animals instinctively participate in the universal alarm; they utter mournful cries, running to and fro in search of a place of security; and the mules have been observed, during the movements of the earth, to spread out their legs to prevent them from falling. The natives distinguish two kinds of shocks. Those called tremollos are a kind of horizontal oscillations or rapid vibrations of the earth, which are seldom dangerous; they are very irregular, yet frequent in their recurrence both by day and night. The terremotos are of more rare occurrence, but at the same time more serious in their effects. In these the motion is much more violent; the earth is convulsed, heaving up and down as if something beneath was struggling to escape. It is on such occasions that the greatest mischief is done, by the formation of rents or fissures in the earth, while numerous buildings and other edifices are overthrown or injured. Mr Miers gives a graphic description of the earthquake of 1822, all the phenomena of which he witnessed. This earthquake took place about half past ten o'clock on the evening of the 15th November 1822, and was severely felt, not only over the whole of Chili, but also in the Cordillera of the Andes, and in the provinces of Mendoza and San Luis. The shock was very violent, continuing during two minutes, and, after an interval of three minutes, it was again repeated for one minute.

The earthquakes which have proved severe and destructive in Chili are rather numerous. The first on record took place in the southern provinces in 1520; the second, which happened on 13th May 1647, ruined great part of Santiago; and similar results followed that of the 15th March 1637. The city of Concepcion has been twice destroyed by earthquakes, namely, on 18th June 1730, and on 26th May 1751. The statement of Molina is incorrect, that the provinces of Copiapo and Coquimbo have been exempt from these terrible visitations. The city of Copiapo was for some time visited by them about once every twenty-three years, as in the years 1773, 1796, and 1819. On the last occasion not a single house was left standing. After some minor shocks, which destroyed the cathedral of La Merced, the principal one, which overthrew the town, took place on the 11th April 1819, between eight and nine in the morning. It was preceded by a noise like distant thunder. That of 1822 has been already alluded to; and the latest earthquake in Chili, of which we have any notice, occurred in September 1829, about two o'clock in the afternoon. Little injury was done by it either to Coquimbo or Santiago, but it was more severely felt at Valparaiso and the other places on the coast. As a security against any risk from future earthquakes, one of the principal British merchants resident in Valparaiso procured materials from the United States, and erected a spacious and commodious house, the skeleton of which is formed of beams so united and fastened together that it could not under any circumstances fall to pieces. This example is well worthy of imitation on the part of the Chilenos.

In connection with earthquakes may be noticed the nu-Volcanoes, merous volcanoes which are found throughout the range of the Andes dividing Chili from the Argentine republic. They are principally situated on or in the vicinity of the central ridge, and the inhabitants are so distant as rarely to experience any inconvenience from their eruptions. There are, however, some which present themselves at a considerable distance from this line, but are believed to have a connection with the main chain. Of these, a small one is situated at the mouth of the river Rapel; while another, near Villarica, in the country of the Araucanians, is always in a state of activity, and may be seen at the distance of a hundred and fifty miles. It is isolated, its summit covered with snow, and its base, of fourteen miles in circumference, clothed with luxuriant forests. The Cerro del Diamante forms another offset on the eastern side of the Andes. It is also isolated, and situated on an extensive plain about eighty or a hundred miles from Peteroa; but it has been long in a state of inactivity, as is shown by the state of vegetation in its crater. The most remarkable volcanic eruption on record in Chili was that of Peteroa, which took place on the 3rd December 1780, when a new crater was formed, and a large portion of the mountain being separated, a part of it fell into the river Lonque, obstructed its course, and gave rise to the formation of an extensive lake, which still exists. The volcano of Maypu, which for many years had been in a state of quiescence, had frequent eruptions after the earthquake of 1822. In the time of Molina it was calculated that about fourteen volcanoes were in a state of activity, but at the present time there is no reason to believe that nearly so many are in this state.

The quadrupeds indigenous to Chili are not very numerous. The most ferocious is the puma or puma, or American lion. It inhabits the recesses and valleys of the Andes, and is sometimes forced down by cold and hunger into the open country during the winter season, when it generally does much mischief to the farmers. It is about five feet long, and of a gray ash colour, with yellow spots, and proves very destructive to horses and young foals. It avoids dwelling-houses, and will not attack a man. It is hunted with dogs; and when embayed against a rock or precipice, will place itself on the defensive, but may be easily nosed by the lasso. When an opportunity offers, this animal will climb with agility a lofty tree, where it may be easily shot. In such situations the puma has been observed to shed tears, as if to deprecate the ire of its pursuers, who seldom show it any mercy. Its skin, on being tanned, is made into boots and shoes. The guanacos and vicunas are similar to those described in the article Bolivia, and are abundant all over the Andes, between Chili and Mendoza; but the former are much more numerous on the eastern or Mendoza side, where they are less molested, and have a more extended country to roam over. On the mountains which surround the spacious valley of the river Atuel, they may be seen in different groups to the number of 400 or 500, and are on some occasions beguiled by the Pehuenche Indians into places nearly surrounded by precipices, and are there slaughtered in great numbers for food. The chilikaque or Chili sheep was formerly used as a beast of burden, but has now given place to the mule. It is six feet long and four feet high; its wool is long and soft, of various colours, of a superior quality, and used in making the finest articles. The chinchaia abounds in the northern provinces, and is hunted by dogs trained for the purpose.

The animals of this species are sometimes taken in considerable numbers for the sake of their valuable furs, which form an important article of export. They are sold in the country at the rate of six rials (or three shillings) the dozen. The chingue or zorino, and the biscechoa, of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, also abound in Chili, and possess similar habits and peculiarities. To these may be added various kinds of armadillos, the porcupine, beavers, wild cats, the great wood mouse, weasels, and water rats. The Pacific Ocean abounds with a variety of cetaceae and phoca:

The birds of Chili are numerous. Among these the manique or condor is the largest and most powerful. Its body is muscular, with black plumage, except the back, which, as well as the wings, is white. Its wings, when stretched out, measure, from the apex of the one to that of the other, from twelve to fifteen feet. Its head is nearly bald, being covered only by a thin down. Round its neck hangs a pendulous collar like a tippet, of short white feathers. Its beak is slightly hooked, about four or five inches long, and so sharp and strong as to pierce a bull's hide. It is so powerful, that, in the breeding season, it carries off sheep, goats, and even young calves, to feed its young. The jota, a large species of vulture, is indolent in its habits, and devours carrion and reptiles, performing the office of a scavenger. The tharui or eagle is frequent in Chili; but it only takes its prey by stratagem. The pequen, or burrowing owl, is also very frequent, and may generally be seen in company with another at the openings of its subterranean abode. The cheque or American ostrich is also found in the south of Chili; but it is less abundant than on the eastern side of the Andes. It is very distinct from the African ostrich. Its eggs are numerous and very good eating; and its feathers are in extensive use with the Indians for plumes and other ornaments. There are three kinds of parrots, only one of which is a permanent resident. It is green and blue, as large as a pigeon, and very destructive to the crops of corn when not carefully watched. The penguin is frequent along the coast of Chili, as are also various kinds of wild geese and other marine birds. The beautiful flamingo, so called from its flame-colour, abounds on all the lakes; with a great variety of other aquatic birds, among which are swans, wild ducks, the pilu or crane, and the thage or pelican, as large as a turkey, to the lower jaw of which is appended a large and extensive membrane, which it fills with fish. These membranes are converted by the natives into tobacco pouches and lanterns. Several kinds of partridges are found in great numbers, and, with the torcazae or wood-pigeons, and the zorzales or ortolans, are much used as an article of food. The thili or chili is a species of thrush, which appears to have given name to the country. It has a sweet and loud song, but cannot bear confinement. The notes of the thenca, another species of thrush, are very sweet, and so varied, that this bird can imitate the singing of almost every other. It dies in a state of captivity. The curru and the loyea are other similar species, and, with the xilguero, a kind of goldfinch, are all much prized for the melody of their notes. There are three species of pigdas or humming birds in Chili, with very brilliant colours. They sleep during the winter suspended from the branches of trees, and are then easily taken. The smallest of these weighs only about two grams. Besides these birds, many of which are peculiar to the country, there are great numbers of others common in Europe, as the falcon, kite, gulls, herons, plovers, and the like.

The fishes in the Pacific, and in the rivers and lakes of Chili, are very numerous, seventy-six species of the former being esculent. Among these may be enumerated the robalo, weighing about eight pounds, which is dried and smoked by the Chiloese Indians for sale; the corema, with the lisa and the pez el rey or king's fish, which are all caught in abundance, and are valued as articles of diet. Besides these, there are great numbers of other marine tribes of acknowledged value and utility, such as the cod, whiting, sole, turbot, mackerel, mullet, shad, pilchard, anchovy, bonito, tunny, sword-fish, skate, torpedo, ray, electric eel, conger, and a variety of others. Some of these are so abundant that they enter the rivers in large shoals, when the Indians kill them with their lances. In some places they are caught in great quantities by means of weirs or palisades formed on the shore, within which they enter at high water, and are left on its retiring. Cod are very abundant near the island of Juan Fernandez and on the coast of Valparaiso at certain seasons, where they are caught in great numbers. The Chilenos, however, have as yet paid very little attention to this valuable and lucrative branch of industry, which has hitherto been pursued only to the extent of supplying the immediate wants of the community. The fresh-water fish which abound in the rivers and lakes are very numerous, and are principally as follow: A species of lisa, trout, the cangui, the malche, the yuli, the cumarca, and the begre, all of which are used as food. Eels are abundant in the southern and Indian provinces. The testacea and crustacea are very numerous and abundant, such as oysters, escallops, muscles, cockles, crabs, craw-fish, cuttle-fish, and the like. The chorros, a species of shell-fish, very abundant near Talcahuano, are very much prized as an article of food, and are exported in considerable quantities. They are found at the bottom of the harbour and neighbouring coast. The cauchayugo, a nondescript species of alecyonium, one of those tribes of marine animals which approach nearest in their characters to the vegetable creation, is collected in great quantities on the shores of the Pacific, and, being dried, is extensively used as an article of food by the inhabitants during Lent, from the idea of its being a marine vegetable. It is toasted on the embers before cooking, and being stewed or fried with butter, is very palatable and nourishing.

There are few reptiles in Chili; only one snake, about three feet long, which is quite harmless; a land and water lizard, frogs, toads, and two species of turtle, the one inhabiting the sea, and the other the fresh-water lakes. Among the insects of Chili are the chrysomela, found in the province of Maule. They are strung into necklaces and other ornaments, and preserve their beauty and brilliancy for a long time. Beetles and grasshoppers are very plentiful; the former are very destructive to the leguminous plants. The glow-worm and lantern-fly also abound. The butterflies are very numerous and beautiful. A species of caterpillar, similar in habits to the silk-worm, is found between the rivers Rapel and Mataquita, and forms cocoons composed of a beautiful silk, which has not yet been applied to any use. Besides these, there are bees, a water-fly having the smell of musk, ants, spiders, and scorpions.

The varied elevation of the different parts of Chili, and the abundance or scarcity of moisture materially influence the aspect of the country, and give rise to great diversity in the vegetable productions which beautify and enrich it. Those trees and other vegetables which flourish at one extremity of Chili are almost entirely unknown at the other; and those which first meet the eye of the traveller, descending from the bare and lofty summits of the Andes, may be sought for in vain on the coast of the Pacific. On the coast at Concepcion, in 37° south latitude, the eye is delighted with a rich and luxuriant foliage; at Valparaiso, in 33°, the hills are thinly clad with stunted brushwood and a scanty supply of grass, and the ground appears starved and naked; at Coquimbo, in 30°, the prickly pear tribes, and a scanty supply of a grey or purple wiry grass, appear; and at Guasco, in 27°, there are no traces of vegetation, the hills and plains being covered with sand, and nothing green appearing, except where a stream of water changes the scene. To the north of Copiapo, which is the most northerly province of Chili, is situated the desert of Atacama, which is almost entirely devoid of vegetation, and continues so, in proceeding northward, except at Cobija, and the various isolated places on the Peruvian coast where vegetation is practicable. The provinces of Copiapo and Coquimbo have a dry and sterile aspect, excepting at those places where streams of running water gladden the eye, and by means of irrigation give rise to the interesting contrast of sterility with fertile and luxuriant fields. In these provinces, and more especially at Copiapo, the rains are so slight, and of such rare occurrence, that their influence on vegetation is very transient; but they suffice to give life and vigour to a considerable number of beautiful annual and bulbous plants, the existence of which, however, is exceedingly ephemeral, as they speedily disappear on the dissipation of the moisture by the scorching rays of the sun. The cactus tribes, in great variety and abundance, seem to reign triumphant over all the other vegetable productions of these provinces. In some places, and more especially in rocky and stony districts, they cover large tracts of ground, and assume the appearance of a forest; the columnar species, variously branched, growing often to the height of from thirty to forty feet. The air-plants, in considerable variety, also abound in these arid places. A variety of shrubs likewise appear, more especially in the province of Coquimbo; but only two trees are natives of these provinces, the carbon, with very hard and heavy wood, which is used in smelting copper; and another called talgnea.

The contrast of such scenery with that which characterizes the country around the river Biobio, at the southern extremity of Chili, is very remarkable. There the rains are very heavy, and fall at short intervals during six or seven months, and consequently the verdure is general, and the vegetation most luxuriant. From this part of the country the most valuable kinds of timber are procured for the consumption of the rest of Chili and Peru. Of those which most abound are the roble, laurel, quelo, avellano, lingui, canelo, litri, and others. The Chili pine abounds in the interior, especially in the Araucanian country. Its fruit, the peñon, is a favourite article of food; and the tree itself is held in high veneration by many, from the circumstance of its branches being so arranged as to form a series of crosses. The white and red cedars abound in the islands of Chiloé, and constitute an extensive article of commerce. Many of the trees found near the Biobio are peculiar to that part of the country, but others extend themselves much farther to the northward. Thus the roble and laurel are found near San Fernando, and the litri and canelo as far north as the river Chuapa. But besides these, in the central provinces are found a variety of others not less interesting and valuable, yet in greater abundance in the southern than in the northern districts. In the latter they are not only less frequent, but less luxuriant, except in the shady valleys of the Andes. On descending from the Cordillera of the Andes, at an elevation of about 6000 feet, the first shrubs and trees appear; but between 4000 and 5000 feet they become much more numerous, varied, and luxuriant, and form a broad belt of forest of evergreens, which is continuous until these valleys merge into the open country. Of those which appear on the sides of the hills are various kinds of laur, molle, boldo, quilliai, peumo, dilen, litri, and others; and in the moist places of the valleys are found the magui, myrmen, petagna, bellota, canelo, and a variety of myrtles and fuchsias. In those places where the soil is thin and unfitted for other trees, the stately guisca, or Peruvian torch-thistle, the cardones, the espino, and the algarroba, make their appearance, and diversify the scene. A considerable number of these trees are found throughout the valleys and plains as far as the Pacific; receiving some additional species in the maritime district, more especially the glilia or Chili palm, which, however, does not extend farther south than the river Maule.

The smaller vegetable productions are so numerous, varied, and interesting, as to afford a boundless field of inquiry to the scientific observer. The hedges are covered with the crimson creeper and the twining loasa; while the passion-flower, the cogul, and a variety of other creepers and twining plants, present themselves in thickets and shady places. The beautiful floripendula is cultivated in the gardens, delighting the eye with its gorgeous flowers, and filling the air with its delicious perfumes. The rapacious parasites are not wanting in this country, for various kinds of kintral fix their roots on old and feeble trees, and hasten their decay by exhausting their juices; while the cerceillo de angel, or angel's hair, performs a similar office, but in a different way, its slender and thread-like branches twining around the devoted tree, and impeding the free circulation of its nutrient juices.

The vegetable productions of Chili contribute materially to the wealth and comfort of its inhabitants, by yielding them numerous articles of the first necessity. Thus the roble, laurel, lingui, quelo, canelo, litri, and many others, afford excellent timber for building ships, houses, and other purposes. The espino, carbon, and cardones, form excellent fuel where such is most required. The glilia, or small cocoanut tree, produces a fruit nearly as large as a walnut, growing in large pendent branches; and the nuts are very numerous, there being some hundreds in each cluster. They resemble the large cocoanut in miniature, being covered by a fibrous coat and hard shell, and having within the kernel, when fresh, an agreeable, cooling, milky juice. A sweet juice, somewhat like honey, which is much prized, is also obtained by incisions into its trunk at certain seasons; but this operation is injurious to the palm. The avellano, a species of hazel-nut, is abundant and much used, but is inferior to the true hazel-nut. The litri, at certain seasons, and especially in spring, exhales a poisonous effluvium, which is only known by its effects on those who sleep or lie down under its shade, producing eruptions and painful swellings. The bark of the quilliai has a highly detergent quality; and when bruised and infused in water it is much used in cleansing and removing oily matter from cotton, linen, silk, and especially woollen fabrics. It is also used in washing the head, from an idea of its giving the hair a darker hue and a finer lustre. Its wood is so hard and tough that it is much used to form stirrups. The fruit of the peumo is much prized as an article of food, when previously steeped in a ley of wood-ashes, to remove an essential oil. The fruits of the molle and maqui are fermented by the Indians to form intoxicating Chili.

Liquors; and from a species of willow is obtained, by tapping, a juice which, when fermented, gives an agreeable beverage, preferred by many to wine. It also produces vinegar. Under the *glitla* a species of *mirasol* is found, from which exudes a resinous substance like pure oriental incense, which is much prized by the natives, and used in their church festivals. The *jarilla* distils from its surface a fragrant balsam in great abundance, which is much used in the cure of wounds. The infusion of the leaves of the *culen* is a common and favourite beverage, being stomachic and anthelmintic. The *moglia*, or potato, is found native in many parts of Chili. Its roots in the wild state are small and of a bitter taste, and are greedily devoured by the *chinichillas*. They improve greatly in quality by cultivation. The *tucanía*, which is the same as the *mericuri* of the *llamos* of Varaus, is cultivated at Coquimbo, where its fruit is much prized: it is about the size of a large pear, of a sweet and rather insipid taste, and contains in its centre a large kernel. The *cherimoya* has also been cultivated, but does not come to perfection, the climate of Chili being too cold to bring it to maturity.

Geology.

So little progress has yet been made in the investigation of the geological structure of the Cordillera of the Andes, and the other mountains of Chili, that but a very imperfect idea can be given of its nature. The central chain of the Cordillera is principally composed of primitive formations, but in many places contains rocks of volcanic origin. The declivities on the western side abound in porphyritic rocks, and are generally much steeper and more abrupt, and the valleys narrower and more precipitous, than on the eastern or Mendoza side, where the valleys are much more spacious, more gradual in their descent, and, from the want of moisture, more deficient in trees and vegetable productions, than on the Chili side.

At Las Pomás, on the eastern descent from the Pass of the Portillo, is a mountain composed entirely of pumice rock, containing small crystals of obsidian. It is much employed in forming filtering-stones for the use of the inhabitants of Mendoza, and for exportation to Chili. Springs of bitumen or mineral tar are found in various places on the eastern side, and gypsum in great abundance in many situations; lime-stone in Quillota and other places, and coal near the Bay of Conception. Organic remains, especially of shells, have been found in great abundance in the Andes, at an elevation above the ocean of from 9000 to about 14,000 feet. In the maritime provinces on the coast of the Pacific, organic remains are also found in various places, and in great abundance, particularly between the mouths of the rivers Maypu and Bucalemu, where the hills are low and the country undulating. These consist of extensive strata of indurated clay, which formation is dark, hard, of a shining fracture, and runs continuously along the coast as far as Concepcion. The strata are situated on a brownish sandstone, which extends as far as the cuesta of Valparaiso, consisting of sienitic granite, and forms the northern offset of the three secondary mountain ranges which branch off from the Cordillera by the cuesta of Chacabuco, and form the three ridges intervening between Santiago and Valparaiso. Similar organic deposits are found near the mouth of the river Aconcagua, and on the coast farther north. In making some excavations in this neighbourhood, several human skeletons were discovered in a good state of preservation, intermixed with the shells. The ground was too hard to admit of complete skeletons being procured, even although in good preservation. In the valley above Coquimbo, half a mile wide, parallel roads resembling those of Glen Roy in Scotland are found, indicating the previous existence of an extensive collection of water at different levels above the ocean, of from 300 to 400 feet.

The mineral productions of Chili are very numerous, and many of them of great value and utility; but its produce is the precious metals has nevertheless been somewhat overrated. Many of the richest mines cannot be worked under present circumstances. The desert country to the north of Copiapó does not permit the working of the rich mines of gold, silver, and copper at Chaco Cajó, and other parts of that country, as these districts are altogether destitute of water and the other necessaries of life. In that part of the country there are also rock-salt and fine statuary marble. To the north of this, in the province of Atacama, are mines of nitre, which have recently been explored; and the produce of this substance has been conveyed in considerable quantities from the port of Cobija to Europe. In the country between the Biobío and archipelago of Chiloé are numerous and rich mines; but none of them has been worked since the natives recovered possession of that country. The gold mines in the intermediate provinces are at Copiapó, Gunco, Coquimbo, Peteroa, La Ligua, Tiliti, Putaendo, Algue, Huilli-patagua, and other places. These were formerly worked to a great extent, but have been less attended to than formerly, since the commencement of the revolution. The richest mines of silver are in the provinces of Copiapó, Coquimbo, and Santiago. In these the silver is generally found combined with sulphur, arsenic, lead, and other mineral substances; but a few years ago, a rich vein of silver was discovered at Coquimbo of great value, the silver being in the metallic form, and very abundant. Unfortunately, however, the hopes of the discoverers were disappointed on finding it to be of very limited extent. The silver mines of San Pedro Nolasco, on the south side of the river Maypu, are valuable; but although they have been worked of late years by an Englishman, they have not been so productive as to remunerate the proprietor. They are situated near the summit of a very lofty mountain. The ore is extracted with difficulty from the hard rock in which it is contained, and requires to be carried on mules a distance of from twelve to fifteen miles, to the banks of the river Maypu, where it is reduced by amalgamation. The copper mines are much more numerous and valuable than any of the others, and afford the staple mineral product of Chili. They occur between the 24th and 36th degrees of south latitude; but are principally confined to the provinces of Coquimbo and Copiapó. The copper ore is associated with sulphur and arsenic, which are separated by smelting. But it is only such mines as contain ore that yields one half of its weight of pure metal that are worked. About a thousand of these mines were worked in the time of Molina; but since that period, owing to the vicissitudes in the political and commercial condition of the country, the number worked has varied considerably. Of late years, however, owing to the improved commercial practices, this branch of industry has received an increased impulse. The rich and famous copper mine of Payén, in the Araucanian country, has long been unworked. Mines of quicksilver are stated to exist in Coquimbo, Copiapó, and Limaches. Formerly they were prohibited from being worked, and we do not hear of their having been opened since the restriction was removed. Mines of lead, iron, antimony, and tin, are also found in Chili; but none of them is applied to any useful purpose at the present day. The secondary range of the Andes, situated on the eastern side of the Cordillera, which now belongs to the Argentine republic, and is called the Uspallata range, is by far the most productive in mineral treasures, and contains the celebrated silver mines of Uspallata and Fatima, besides many others in the same range. In the above tract is situated the alum mine of Guandacol, where this useful production may be had in great abundance. In it the alum earth is united with soda instead of potassa. Although the mineral riches of Chili are considerable, yet there is no extensive mining district, and no mine in that country capable of being worked upon a large scale to any advantage; a circumstance which clearly evinces the false basis on which were formed the mining associations for Chili established in England during 1823. The mines are mostly situated in remote parts of the mountains, of difficult access, where fuel and water are scarce; and great expense is often incurred in transporting the ores, and the requisite supplies of fuel and other necessaries. The extent and richness of these mines, which are generally apart from each other, are rarely such as to warrant those expensive operations and that superintendence which are requisite in mining on a large scale. The Chilenos are dexterous in their own mode of working the mines; and render them more productive than if the improved mode was adopted. They are also very expert in following the course of a vein, but are quite ignorant of the principles which ought to guide them. The openings are generally made on the sides of the hills, and vertical shafts are seldom formed. The passages are inclined, and often very devious in their direction, being seldom more than four feet in height and the same in breadth, and sometimes still more contracted, along which none but the Chilenos, accustomed to it from early life, could convey the ores and utensils. Where the lodes become vertical, they ascend and descend by means of rude ladders formed of poles and sticks tied together by strips of hide. Sometimes, from the abundance of ore, these passages expand into chambers; but this is generally a bad omen, as it indicates the farther impoverishment of the vein. The rocks are generally blasted with gunpowder, in which operation the workmen are very expert; and this article, and also mercury, were formerly provided for them at a fixed, equitable, and moderate price by the Spanish authorities, often with a loss to the state, but on purpose to insure supplies and prevent monopolies. Under similar auspices were formed, in all the mining districts, bancos de rescate, or banks of exchange for gold and silver in a state of purity, by whom it was stamped according to its value; no private person being allowed to engage in this business under the risk of confiscation. The system now pursued is somewhat different. The proprietor of the mine, or miner, attends to the details and the smelting of the ores, and has a farm in the vicinity, from which many of the requisite necessaries are obtained. These proprietors seldom work the mines solely by means of their own capital, but are associated with capitalists engaged in commerce, who advance the requisite funds and supplies, and receive the copper at a fixed price. On the cessation of the Spanish authority, when this practice was introduced, great advantage was often taken of the miners by these capitalists, who are called habilitadores; but competition, and the influence of foreigners, have put these transactions on a juster footing, and the miner can now carry on his operations under much more favourable circumstances, the value of the copper being enhanced, and the necessary expenses diminished. The profits of mining, although supposed to be greater than that of agriculture, are by no means so, but rather less, owing to the greater uncertainty of the results, and the frequent failures which occur. The miner, who usually occupies a small farm, has a smelting-house, and the other requisites, near his dwelling, to which the ore is brought by mules. The habilitador is entitled by an established regulation to charge 45 dollars per month, sixteen being for wages, and twenty-nine for the food and clothing of two workmen; ten being given to the barcetero or principal workman, and six to the apiré, who is merely a carrier of the ore. The number of gold mines worked in Chili is small, as they are not found to be so productive as those of silver, and still less so than those of copper. Gold is also obtained by washing the sand or soil of various rivers and streams in many parts of Chili, which is performed by people on their own resources alone. Each washing is on a small scale, but the aggregate washings produce a considerable quantity of gold. This is a less expensive process than mining. The principal lavaderos are those of Tiltil, Atenito, Viejo, and Dormida. The mountain range where they are situated is composed of schistose rock, containing hornblende in a state of decomposition, producing an alluvial soil, in which the fragments of gold are imbedded. The washers exercise much ingenuity in separating the gold from the accompanying extraneous matter; and the gold they obtain is finer than the pína, being twenty-four carats fine, while the latter is only twenty-two. Silver mines have also been worked to a considerable extent in Chili. The ore is found sometimes in limestone, and often with quartz and calcareous spar. In some silver mines the veins branch off in a variety of directions, each of which is followed by the miners if sufficiently productive. Silver mines are now, however, worked to a much smaller extent than formerly, as they are found to be less profitable investments than copper mines. The gold and silver ores are ground to fine powder by a large circular stone of from four to six feet in diameter, revolving on its circumference by means of some ingenious contrivances, and running water is generally the moving power: the ore is kept moist, which aids its trituration. When the miner is obliged to carry his ore to the grinding mill of another, he pays four dollars (sixteen shillings) for each ezon of 5000 lbs. weight of ore, or sixteen mules' loads. This operation requires two or three days. To the gold so reduced to a fine mud, quicksilver is added, and the trituration is continued, a small stream of water circulating through the trough. The water being allowed to trickle off by a small run, is received in long wooden channels covered with coarse cloth, which catches such portion of gold and amalgam as may pass over on the water, carrying off all the extraneous matter; the amalgam is then exposed to heat in suitable vessels, the quicksilver distilled off, and the gold obtained in a state of purity. The silver is reduced to powder by similar means, and by the previous use of ingenios or stamping mills. When the ore is ground dry, it is sifted in a circular cylinder, the fine particles passing through, and the coarse escaping at one end. The fine powder is then placed on a large platform, in heaps of half a ezon, and to each are added two quintals of salt and dry mule or horse dung, and the whole is well incorporated for two or three days, when quicksilver is added, being squeezed out of a soft goat's skin bag, from which it issues in form of a shower of minute globules. The quantity used is in proportion to the richness of the ores; for silver from ten to twenty lbs. are required for each heap, but less for gold. The masses are then repeatedly kneaded by the feet, being moistened by water. This process requires eight or ten days in summer when aided by the heat of the sun, and three weeks in winter. They judge by a minute examination of a portion of the mass if it be sufficiently amalgamated, and the whole is then carried to a washing place, the first part of which is a square reservoir of brick plastered with lime, having a hollowed hide apron, suspended by four corners in the centre, into which the mass is placed and kneaded, a small stream of water passing through the reservoir, and escaping by a narrow gutter into a second reservoir. By kneading in the water, the saline, earthy, and vegetable matters pass off, while the heavy parts fall into the hollow of the hide. The gutters communicate in succession with four or five other reservoirs, decreasing in size, each with a hide apron and reservoir in the form of an inverted cone; and from all these the amalgam is at length collected and put into a woollen bag in the form of a cone, with the apex downwards; the superfluous mercury is then expressed by heavy weights. The amalgam is next formed into cones, and exposed to a sufficient heat so as to distil over the mercury.

The smelting and refining of copper, as practised in Chili, is neither very scientific nor economical. The smelting is performed in a furnace like a lime-kiln, covered at top with a sort of dome, open on one side, and terminating in a chimney. The copper ore, broken into small pieces, is placed in alternate layers with fuel till the furnace is filled. It is kindled, and kept burning at an intense heat by two bellows moved by a water-wheel or by the hand, the tubes of which are formed of the hollow stem of the torch-thistle. When ore is melted, after twenty-four hours it is allowed to run out by a low orifice, which had been previously closed. The metal, while hot, is cooled in water, and scraped to remove impurities. It is then again melted in refining furnaces, and drawn off into moulds twenty feet long, twelve wide, and four thick; in which state it is exported. The pieces thus formed weigh from 140 to 220 lbs. each.

The lands of Chili were originally divided at the conquest into 360 portions; but they have since been much subdivided, in accordance with the Spanish law of descent, which is favourable to the division of property. The level parts of the country and the valleys susceptible of cultivation and irrigation are considerably less extensive than the hilly and uneven parts, which can only be used for the breeding and rearing of cattle; an occupation which is carried on to a great extent, and is very profitable under good management, and during favourable seasons. After the commencement of the rains in May or June, the whole country becomes covered with a rich coating of verdure, which affords to the flocks and herds an abundance of excellent pasture. In November, when the rains have ceased, the vegetation becomes parched and less plentiful, excepting in shady places; and the cattle are principally fed on the large thistle (Cynara Cardunculus), which was introduced from Spain, and is extensively cultivated for this purpose on the best and richest lands, and much relished by the cattle. On these thistles becoming scarce in February and March, when the country assumes a parched and barren aspect, the cattle are turned loose on the stubble and fields, and, after a while, can in general only obtain a precarious and scanty subsistence, which often obliges them to eat portions of the green bushes or evergreens, and dried leaves of trees. During some very dry seasons, so great is the want of food for cattle, that a considerable mortality takes place among them, as the inhabitants have no practical knowledge of the mode of providing and storing up food for them against periods of scarcity. These evils are less felt in the southern than in the middle provinces, from the greater abundance of moisture. When cattle are required for slaughter at these seasons, they are fed in the irrigated fields which exist in different well-watered valleys. September is the time when they are usually collected together at the rodeo; then stock is taken, the young are marked, the tithes are put aside, and those destined for sale or slaughter are selected and set apart for these purposes. This period is usually one of great festivity and enjoyment, as the neighbouring vaqueros assemble to assist each other in collecting the cattle from those places to which they may have strayed; and for this arduous undertaking they are well protected by the large boots, stirrups, and other expedients which they employ to save them from injury in the thickets. The most interesting and amusing part of their duties is after the cattle are collected in the inclosure or corral, when they use their lassos in catching and separating the cattle, an employment in which they evince great dexterity. The evenings at such times are devoted to amusements of various kinds, in which all classes of the community then present participate. The management of such estates is not expensive, as the number of people requisite to take care of the cattle is not great. A calculation has been made, that a breeding estate capable of maintaining from 5000 to 6000 head of cattle of all ages may be kept up at an expense of from 500 to 1000 dollars yearly, and will afford an annual increase of about 1000 head, which, at the former price of eight dollars each, would give 8000, and, at the increased price of fifteen dollars each, about 15,000 dollars of annual revenue to the proprietor.

Horned cattle are used either for immediate consumption, or to prepare charqui for home or foreign consumption. They have a very imperfect mode of slaughtering cattle, and the beef is not so savoury as when killed by the improved practice introduced by foreigners. It sells at about threepence per pound at present, formerly at half that price. At Valparaíso great quantities are salted for the use of the shipping. When formed into charqui it requires no salt, as at Buenos Ayres, and is easily dried. This is much used in Chili, is exported to Peru in bales, and is easily preserved in dry places. The fleshy parts only are used for charqui, the fat and suet being removed for domestic purposes, and to form tallow. The latter is prepared by heating to express the fat, and is packed in hide bags. It was formerly exported to Peru, but is now principally consumed in the country in the manufacture of soap and candles. Its value is from seven to twelve shillings per quintal. Hides were formerly only one dollar each, but they have now risen to three dollars and upwards, at which price they are purchased in large quantities and sent to England.

The horse, the ass, horned cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, and cats, all of which have been introduced by the Spaniards, have in general improved in size and in other respects. The horses are excellent, well trained, and prepared for the saddle. They are sure-footed, from being accustomed to stony and rocky ground; and those that are insured to the mountains will carry their riders with safety over places where one unaccustomed to such scenes could not venture to travel on foot. Good riding horses for travelling may be bought at from ten to seventeen dollars (£2 to £4) each; those employed for agricultural and other ordinary purposes are cheaper; and prime steady horses may be had for from forty to a hundred dollars (£8 to £20.) The Chilenos are all expert and dexterous horsemen, passing a great part of their time on horseback, and all using the Spanish bit, by means of which they have a complete command of their horses. The ass has greatly improved, having become larger and stronger than usual, but it is little used; numbers run wild in the mountains, and are sometimes hunted for their skins. Mules are numerous, active, strong, and sure-footed, and are much employed in the mining districts to transport the ores, and in traversing the mountains, and carrying loads, merchandise, and occasionally passengers. Horned cattle have been much improved; but their quality and value depend greatly upon the richness of the pasture on which they are fed. Sheep are plentiful, and are said to be equal in quality to those of Spain; but they are legged, long backed, and have small bodies, and are shorn only once a year. The wool is coarse and long, and is all manufactured in the country into coarse clothing. A fleece which formerly sold for one shilling, is now two shillings. Mutton is poor and expensive, being about five pence per pound. Sheep bring from two to three dollars each. Pigs or swine are not very abundant, although a favourite article of food. The inhabitants are abundantly supplied with hams and bacon from the Chiloé Islands, where the pigs run wild, live upon nuts, and require no care or trouble.

The system almost universally followed in Chili with regard to the agricultural population, is so servile and degrading a description, that it produces the worst and most debasing effects on their industrious and moral condition; and until a better system is introduced, and becomes general, the great agricultural resources of this beautiful and fertile country cannot be fully developed, and the inhabitants will be unable to take that station in society for which nature seems to have destined them. The peasantry are, with few exceptions, kept in a state of vassalage and dependence on their landlords, which effectually prevents their accumulating capital, or in any way contributing to liberate themselves from the galling servitude under which they labour. There are no leases for occupiers of land, and tenants may be ejected from their farms at the end of each year, at the will of the proprietor. The average amount of rent paid for lands producing wheat is twelve dollars per quadra, or about twelve shillings an acre. In some instances, however, it is as high as twenty dollars per quadra. When the crops are cut and removed, the proprietor claims and exercises the right of allowing his cattle to graze at full liberty over the fields of his tenants; and even their little gardens or other inclosures enjoy no exemption from these intrusions; so that everything is devoured and lost, unless it has been previously secured. The landlords have also a right to their personal services at pleasure for a period of about four months annually during the time of ploughing, sowing, and harvest, and also at the rodeo; and on other occasions; and for all these labours they receive no remuneration. They are in general so poor that they are wholly dependent on their landlords for the means of carrying on their farming; receiving from him seed, which is paid at the harvest by a double quantity of grain, and hiring his oxen to plough the land, three yoke being required to plough five quadradas, or twenty-four acres; and for this they pay about thirty fanegas of wheat. The peasants also hire the landlord's mares to tread out the corn, for which they pay five per cent. of the quantity of wheat obtained. Besides, the tenant is often under the necessity of selling all his wheat on the ground, at one half or two thirds of its real value. From these causes, he is enabled to retain, for the support of himself and his family, only from five to fifteen fanegas out of three hundred, which on an average five quadradas will generally yield. The necessary wants of the tenant, however, are few and easily satisfied; his dwelling-place is very indifferent, and has few conveniences; and he has no inducement to improve its condition. Such a state of things has induced many of these people to emigrate to the opposite side of the Cordillera, where they are better treated, and where, with a little care and industry, they may in a few years become small proprietors. A group of such persons was seen in 1827, by the writer of this article, located at Chilecito, or Little Chili, a beautiful tract of country about a hundred miles south of Mendoza, situated between two copious streams running parallel with the neighbouring Andes, and affording ample means of irrigation; they all appeared contented and prosperous. There is, however, some prospect that in Chili a general improvement will ere long take place in their condition, owing to the increase of intelligence, the augmented value of property, and the increasing population. The law which regulates the division of heritable property is extremely just and expedient, and entailed estates are scarcely known.

The price of labour in Chili, although nominally less, is, in proportion to the work done, greater than in Great Britain; the average daily wages, without food, being about three rials, or one shilling and sixpence; while an Englishman will there earn a dollar, or four shillings. The monthly wages of farm servants, miners, &c., is four dollars, or sixteen shillings; with food, which consists of a mess composed of frioles or French beans, pumpkins, guata or fat, cayenne pepper, and water, all boiled up together so as to form a thick mess. With this each has about three ounces of bread, and sometimes to supper a little beef or mutton, but no drink of any kind. To those who are thus fed, about two rials, or one shilling, is paid daily; but three rials are given to those who provide their own food. Formerly there were about sixty holidays in the year, besides Sundays; but a few years ago they were legally reduced to eleven. The hours of labour are from sunrise to sunset throughout the year, with two hours of rest during the heat of the day.

The culture of wheat and barley is very general, especially in the southern provinces; and the agricultural practices employed are extremely simple. The ploughs are of a very primitive form, with only one handle, and are drawn by two oxen; and furrows are formed of three or four inches deep, and five apart. The ground is then harrowed by passing over it branches of trees and thorny shrubs loaded with stones. The first ploughing is at the commencement of the rainy season; the soil is then allowed to soften, and is afterwards again ploughed and harrowed, and sown by hand-scattering, three fanegas to a quadra (seven-and-a-half bushels to four acres), and covered by means of the shrub-harrow. Wheat and barley are reaped by an iron sickle, and conveyed to the era or threshing ground on rude sledges made of hide. The era is a circular inclosure made of stakes, of from twenty to thirty feet in diameter. The grain being collected in the centre of this inclosure, and some persons stationed there to throw it gradually to the circumference, about fifty mares are introduced, and driven round the circle at a rapid pace, until the whole is trodden out. In this way from 300 to 500 fanegas (34 to 156 quarters) of wheat may be threshed in one day. It is then collected in a heap on the windward side of the era, and winnowed by throwing it into the air with rude wooden forks, the wind separating the chaff from the grain. As there is no rain at this season, the grain is usually allowed to lie in the open air for sale, and, if unsold, is not housed before March. In wet and moist seasons the wheat is liable to be blighted, principally by the rust, the smut being rarely seen in Chili.

The average produce of wheat in the middle provinces is about twelve fold, but the extremes are six and twenty fold. In the southern provinces the average is somewhat greater; but the statements which have been given of the immense produce of grain in Chili are quite unfounded, unless in new and virgin land, which is not now very abundant in that country. In such lands from one hundred to two hundred fold may be obtained. The land, however, is in a few years exhausted by the constant succession of wheat crops, as no use is made of manure, or rotation of crops; the only means employed to fertilize the soil being to allow the fields to remain fallow once every four or five years.

The average price of wheat is from four to seven rials (from two shillings to three and sixpence) per fanega, or two and a half bushels. During bad years it is as high as five dollars, and on some occasions twelve dollars, per fanega. The most correct estimates of the quantity of wheat grown in Chili give 210,000 fanegas for the southern provinces; between the rivers Biobio and Maule, 160,000 from the rivers Maule to Mapu, 255,000 between the rivers Mapu and Chupa, and 25,000 in the provinces north of the river Chupa; total amount, 655,000 fanegas. Of this, about 200,000 fanegas were formerly exported annually from Concepcion and Valparaiso to Peru; but none was exported during the four years ending 1825, owing to the deficiency of the crops. The quantity supposed to be consumed in Chili does not exceed 450,000 fanegas, which gives, according to the supposed population, only about one and a half bushel for each person, being scarcely a fifth part of the proportion consumed in England, or one third of the consumption of Paris. The Chileno peasants use little bread, but consume maize, French beans, potatoes, pumpkins, and other vegetables and fruits.

Two kinds of wheat are cultivated; the one, trigo blanco, or white wheat, having a round, plump, farinaceous grain, and affording excellent flour; the other, trigo cándido, or red and bearded wheat, having little farina, the corculum hard and transparent, and enveloped in a thin covering. The latter kind has a sweet taste, is easily made into bread, and is preferred by the poor as the most economical. The mills used in this country are very simple in their mechanism, and not expensive in their erection or working, and are always driven by water. A stone of five feet diameter will revolve ninety times in a minute, and grind two and a half bushels in an hour; for grinding wheat, one twelfth of the white and one eighth of the red is paid, the latter requiring longer time to grind. A flour mill, on the most approved principles, was established about twelve years ago by Mr Miers at Concon, near the mouth of the river Aconcagua, and continued in active operation during some years; but it was at length given up, in consequence of a legal dispute about the ground on which it stood. More recently, an extensive establishment of the same kind has been formed by Messrs Lillywhite and Burden, near Concepcion, which has proved exceedingly prosperous. In the country every family makes its own bread, bakers being only found in the towns, where, however, they have no shops, but send round their bread in hide panniers on horses or mules. Maize is extensively cultivated, and constitutes an important article of food.

The fruits cultivated in Chili are generally those which are most abundant in Europe. Little attention is paid to their culture, consequently some of them are of inferior quality, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, strawberries, &c.; but oranges, grapes, figs, walnuts, and almonds, are of better quality. Melons and water melons are excellent, and very cheap. Walnuts and almonds are the only fruits exported to Peru. The principal vegetables raised in Chili are frijoles (French beans), pumpkins, and potatoes, which constitute the principal food of the peasantry. The potato is a native of the country, and, when cultivated, is of excellent quality. Near the towns other vegetables are cultivated, such as peas, asparagus, cauliflowers, and cabbages; and the frijoles, and a kind of bean called garbanzos, are reared for exportation to Peru.

Grapes are extensively cultivated, principally in the valleys of the Andes, and are of good quality when properly treated. In general, however, they are injured by too plentiful supplies of water from irrigation, which considerably increases the quantity, but deteriorates the quality. The best wine is prepared in the province of Concepcion; it is sent for sale to Santiago and Valparaiso, and is the only wine in Chili which is kept in casks. Some of the proprietors have endeavoured to make better wine in other parts of the country; and General Lastra has succeeded in producing an excellent imitation of champagne. The wine in common use is made in earthen jars holding from sixty to a hundred gallons, the inside of which is lined with mineral pitch brought from Comoon, on the Mendoza side of the Cordillera. The must, or juice of the grape, having been expressed in the reservoir, is removed from the well into these jars or tinajas, with about one tenth part of coeida or must boiled down to two thirds of its bulk. This admixture is used to prevent the wine becoming sour, as the people have no knowledge of the expedient of separating the wine from the lees by racking. This coeida has an empyreumatic taste, and gives the wine with which it is mixed an unpleasant flavour; but it is much relished by the common people, and is drunk in great quantities at their pulperias on Sundays and holidays. A considerable quantity is consumed while undergoing the process of fermentation, which is then called sancochado or chicha, and is very exhilarating. Red wine is obtained from the same grapes by mixing some powdered gypsum, which has been burned, with the bruised husks, and allowing them to ferment for several days; a juice then exudes mixed with the must, which gives the wine a red colour and an astringent taste; it is called Carlon or Catalonian wine. After the fermentation is over, the mouths of the jars are closely covered over with a baked earthen cover, luted over with gypsum, or a compost of clay and verdung. These remain closed till the wine is sold, or the time of making brandy arrives. All the jars are emptied before the next vintage, so that no old wines are to be found in the country.

Brandy or aguardiente is made from these wines, or from the fermented husks and other refuse of the grapes, as well as other fruits, such as peaches, all of which are thrown into the receptacle to ferment with powdered gypsum. The apparatus for distilling is extremely simple and primitive. The spirit, before being sold, is usually impregnated with the flavour of aniseed, which is much relished by the natives. The vines are planted at nine feet distant from each other, so that each quadra has 3000 vines, and eight quadras will give 22,000 vines, yielding 1600 arrobas (12,000 gallons) of wine, which, at three dollars per arroba, gives 4800 dollars, or L960. From the refuse 500 arrobas (4000 gallons) of aguardiente will be procured, which, at 11 dollars the arroba, will yield 5500 dollars, or L1100. A vineyard of this size will require about sixty jars in the bodega or wine store, containing about 5000 gallons.

Hemp is cultivated, and is prepared as usual by steeping and beating. It is of excellent quality, and might be cultivated to a great extent if in demand. A rope manufactory might be an advantageous undertaking if judiciously managed. A rude kind of cordage is made, which is only suitable for laying cables and for other ordinary purposes. Flax, although the soil and climate is favourable to its growth, has not been cultivated, as there is no demand for it. An unsuccessful attempt was made near Petrona to cultivate and manufacture sugar, with which Chili was formerly supplied from Peru, and more recently from Brazil and the East and West Indies.

The principal fuel used in the middle provinces is the wood of the espino, algarroba, laurels, tilos, &c. The two former are made into charcoal, and are much used in the houses during winter; for the brasero or chafing-dish, which is in general use, is considered injurious to the health. For cooking, the espino is sold at six reales (three shillings) for each mule load, measuring about 9860 cubic inches, and weighing 320 lbs. In the northern provinces wood is so scarce that, besides the tree called carbon, they have no other fuel except the quisco or Cereus Peruvianus, and other columnar cactuses, in a state of decay, the old stems of which may be seen divested of everything excepting the hard parenchyma in the form of a tube of from two to four inches in diameter, and a quarter of an inch thick. It is reticulated like a network, but its substance is so hard that it resembles bone, and it is sometimes used in building. Close to the Bay of Concepcion coal in considerable quantity is obtained, at twelve shillings per ton. It is very bituminous, and burns readily, but is not suitable for smiths' forges, for which coal from England, sold at Valparaiso at L7.16s., the chaldron, is preferred. The expense of transporting coal from Conception is so great as to equal that brought from England. Salt is obtained from the province of Maule, and is imported in large slabs from Peru. It is also formed in large lakes of sea water near the shore, which, when evaporated by the heat of the sun, leave it in large quantities.

Soap is made in considerable quantities, but many families prepare it for their own use. There are no large manufactories of this article. The fat of the goat is preferred. The ley is obtained from wood ashes, collected from the houses, or procured by burning wood in woody districts. Six fanegas of these ashes are boiled with half a fanega of shell lime, and, when separated, boiled with seven arrobas (175 lbs.) of fat, to which some salt is added to separate the waste ley and give it hardness. There are many tanneries in Chili on a small scale. The bark used for sole leather and ox hides is the lingui; for cow hides and sheep skins, the bark of the penao; and for morocco and tanned kid, the roots of the pande. But all these are inferior in quality to oak bark, and the tanning is so imperfectly performed, that the leather produced is of an inferior quality, and is principally used for shoes by the poorer inhabitants. In the mining districts, and more especially at Coquimbo, a considerable number of copper vessels are made for home consumption and exportation; but the establishments for this manufacture being only on a small scale, they are made in a rude and unfinished manner. The principal articles of this description are paylas or large copper pans, for boiling must and other articles; but they are very rude in their structure, and are sold at the rate of from 1s. 6d. to 2s. per pound.

While under the dominion of Spain, external commerce was confined to that country, Peru, and Buenos Ayres; and the nature and value of this commerce may be estimated from the returns of one year. About the beginning of the present century, twenty-three vessels, each of 600 tons burden, were employed in the trade with Peru, to which they conveyed wheat, wine, fruits, preserves, pulse, dried beef, cheese, leather, tallow, cordage, timber, and copper; and received in return silver, iron, cloth, linen, cotton, earthenware, sugar, cocoa, rice, tobacco, oil, and various European productions. The value of the exports amounted to 700,000, and that of the imports to 500,000 dollars. Chili sent to Buenos Ayres linen and woollen fabrics, partly of home manufacture, ponchos, sugar, snuff, wine, and brandy, and received in return yerba or Paraguay tea, wax, and negro slaves. Their exports to Spain were gold to the value of 650,000, and silver to the amount of 244,000 dollars, some hides, and vicuna wool; and their imports were principally European goods to the amount of about a million of dollars. The home traffic was considerable, and consisted principally of the coarse fabrics of the country. They received from the Chiloé islands valuable timber, woollen fabrics, dried hams, and pilchards; and traded extensively with the Araucanian Indians, who received from Chili edged tools, toys, wines, and spirits, and gave in exchange horses, horned cattle, and sometimes children. Previously to the commencement of the revolution, a contraband trade to some extent was carried on along the coast of Chili and Peru by British and American vessels; but it ceased after that period, when the ports were thrown open to the ships of all nations. The consequence has been, that since then the commerce of Chili has to a certain extent assumed a new direction, and been greatly augmented. The want of the requisite official documents on this occasion prevents our giving a comprehensive view of the subsequent external commerce of Chili. The following tables, however, will afford a correct view of the commerce with Great Britain during the period of six years ending with 1827.

The official value of imports into Great Britain from Chili during six years, was L275,171.9s. 5d. and consisted of the following articles:

| Quantities | Quantities entered for home consumption | |------------|----------------------------------------| | Cocoa nuts | 518,021 lbs. | | Copper unwrought | 28,955 cwt. | | Cortex Peruvianus | 37,559 lbs. | | Indigo | 89,775 lbs. | | Tin | 3,420 cwt. | | Number of hides untanned | 37,955 | | Weight of do | 31,765 cwt. | | Number of seal-skins | 11,716 |

During the same period the official and declared values of the exports from Great Britain to Chili were as follows:

| Official value of British and Irish produce and manufactures | L3,274,682 | | Do. do. of foreign and colonial merchandise | 161,670 |

Total | L3,436,332

Declared value of British and Irish produce and manufactures during six years, L2,652,737. 2s. 7d.

The articles of export from Great Britain to Chili during the above period were the following:

**British and Irish Produce and Manufactures.**

Apparel, military and slops, declared value, L33,113. 16s. 9d.

Arms and ammunition, declared value, L16,397. 6s.

Cotton entered by yards, 33,291,008 yards.

Cotton hosiery and small wares, declared value, L140,308.

Earthenware of all sorts, 1,502,229 pieces.

Glass of all sorts, declared value, L32,258. 8s.

Hardware and cutlery, 10,554 cwt. 7 lbs.

Number of hats of all sorts, 54,322.

Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought, 2369 tons, 10 cwt. 15 lbs.

Leather and saddlery, declared value, L34,198. 14s.

Linen entered by the yard, 2,529,314 yards.

Do. do. at value, L3406.

Silk manufactures, declared value, L53,907.

Woollens entered by the piece, 93,148 pieces.

Do. do. by the yard, 253,006 yards.

Do. do. at value, L2997. 10s.

All other articles, declared value, L134,986. 2s. 2d.

**Foreign and Colonial Merchandise.**

Cochineal, 3075 lbs.

Corn, viz. wheat and flour, 5027 cwt. 2 qrs. 4 lbs.

Cotton of India, 889 pieces.

Cotton of Europe, entered by square yards, 31,018 square yards.

Do. do. by value, L2,308. 16s.

Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought, 60 tons 9 cwt. 2 qrs. 2 lbs.

Linen entered by the piece, 298½ pieces.

Do. do. by the ell, 16,614 ells.

Quicksilver, 135,591 lbs.

Silk manufactures of Europe, 2385 lbs. 11 oz.

Spices, including pepper, 30,529 lbs.

Spirits, brandy and Geneva, 18,395 gallons.

Do. rum, 110,181 gallons.

Tobacco, 306,397 lbs.

Wines, 36,487 gallons.

Woollens entered by the piece, 5389 pieces.

Do. do. by the yard, 2447½ yards.

All other articles, declared value, L8911. 9s. 7d.

The commerce of the United States of North America with Chili during the year ending 30th September 1830 was as follows:— The principal articles of export from Chili to Great Britain, the United States, and India, are the precious metals in considerable quantities from Valparaiso, the principal port, and from Coquimbo, Guasco, and Copiapo. From the latter ports large shipments of copper are made, and hides from Valparaiso. The most important exports from Concepcion are timber, wheat, flour, and the fruits of the country, principally to Peru. A considerable trade in country produce is also carried on from the provinces of Concepcion and Maule, to supply the wants of Coquimbo, Guasco, and other parts of the northern provinces. This traffic is principally carried on by small vessels built at the Puerto de la Constitution, at the mouth of the river Maule.

All foreign manufactures are imported into Chili at Valparaiso, whence the other parts of the country are supplied. By far the most important are from Britain, and consist of all descriptions of cotton, linen, woollen, and silk manufactures, hats, iron, hardware, cutlery, &c. From France are received silks, perfumery, dresses, occasionally wines, &c.; from the United States they principally receive flour, cottons, furniture, tobacco, &c.; and from Germany, linens, &c. The annual number of vessels from Liverpool to Valparaiso may be from 18 to 25, and the average value of the cargo of each from £30,000 to £60,000 sterling. The import duties on foreign produce and manufactures are about 40 per cent.; that is, a value is put by the custom-house officer appointed for the purpose, from which 20 per cent. is deducted, and the duties are charged on the residue at the rate of 27 per cent.; but a citizen of Chili receives a further deduction of 10 per cent. on the net amount. From this general rate, however, there are some exceptions. Thus, the duties upon all kinds of silk goods, iron; and some of the productions of the neighbouring republics, are only 15 per cent.; while furniture, shoes, ready-made clothes, and articles which interfere with the industry of the country, pay 40 per cent. The articles, also, which come under the estanco or excise department are charged at a different rate, and are under different management. These are, spirits, one dollar per gallon; wine, six rials per gallon, or two dollars per dozen if in bottle; tea, one dollar per lb.; and the principal excised article, tobacco, is still subject to an arbitrary duty, or to be entirely prohibited if the estanco does not choose to buy it. The duties known by the name of estanco were originally farmed by a private company, but they are now in the hands of the government. Machinery, books, musical instruments, fire-arms, &c. are free of duty.

The export duties on gold are six per cent.; on silver, four rials per merk; hides, one dollar per quintal; and there is an aleabala duty of six per cent. on the sale of all produce and property of every kind in the country which has not previously paid an import duty.

The transit duty on goods landed at Valparaiso, and reshipped, is three per cent.; but it is in agitation to form Valparaiso into a free port for the reception of all foreign commodities, and to build extensive warehouses in one of the ravines or quebradas for their reception.

The improved system of commerce which has been adopted in Chili since the revolution, and more especially at Coquimbo, in relation to the copper produced there, has been productive of the best consequences, and affords ample evidence of the great advantages of free trade. By opening the markets to the free competition of the whole world, the price of copper has been greatly increased, and the cost of its production considerably reduced by the diminution in price of all articles necessary to the miners. An idea of the difference in these matters before and after the revolution may be formed from the following table:

| Copper per quintal of 100 Spanish lbs. | Steel, do. | Iron, do. | Wheat per fanega, lbs. | Beans, do. | Jerked beef, per quintal of 100 lbs. | Grassa, or soft fat, per botica of 50 lbs. | Wine and spirits | Fine cloth, per yard | Coarse cloth, per do. | Printed cotton cloth, per do. | Velveteens, do. | Crockery, per crete. | Hardware | Glass | |----------------------------------------|-----------|----------|----------------------|-----------|-----------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------|------------------|-----------------|---------------------|----------------|-----------------|---------|-------| | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price | Former Price | Present Price |

The articles marked * are used in the mines.

Besides the advantages above stated the miners have others equally beneficial. Formerly they obtained all their requisites for mining, such as iron, steel, food and clothing, from the city of Coquimbo, which was made the centre for all the mining districts; but now these articles are conveyed to them at a trifling expense by the ships which are loaded with their copper. Indeed the advantages which have arisen from the removal of all the previous protections, restrictions, and monopolies, have been most obvious and remarkable. The capitalists settled in Coquimbo, who possess sufficient funds and good mercantile connections, are enabled to carry on a lucrative commerce. Goods for the supply of Chili come from England and India to Valparaiso; and a considerable part of the returns are made in copper from Coquimbo, which the merchant is enabled to supply with regularity at a fixed rate, in consequence of his connection with the miners. By these means all parties are benefited, and the Chilenos are supplied with every article they require at the cheapest possible rate. More capital has been invested in this important branch of industry, and many new mines have in consequence been opened. The authorities of Chili have hitherto refrained from all interference in these matters; and while they continue to do so, its prosperity will be un retarded.

Copper may be considered as the staple commodity of this country, and many hundred copper mines are worked, especially in the northern provinces. In 1821 the annual average produce of this article was estimated at about 60,000 quintals, each of 100 Spanish lbs. Since that time the annual amount has varied from 90,000 to 170,000 quintals; but 140,000 may now be considered as the average annual produce. The copper is principally exported to Calcutta, some of it to China, and the remainder to the United States, Great Britain, and other parts of Europe.

The annual produce of the precious metals in Chili before the revolution was 5212 merks of gold and 29,700 of silver, value 1,000,000 dollars; while the whole produce of South America in these articles was 38,317 merks of gold and 3,450,840 of silver, giving a total value of 32,080,000 dollars. The amount during 1817, the first year after the revolution, was 4509 merks of gold and 64,475 of silver, value 1,161,283 dollars. This year was unusually productive, as much confiscated Spanish property was coined, and large quantities were remitted to Europe. In 1821 the amount of silver exported was estimated at 20,000 merks of silver, since which time the annual average has diminished considerably. In 1823 it was 2236 merks of gold, and 5870 of silver, value 367,658 dollars; and in 1824, 686 merks of gold and 1874 of silver, value 133,934 dollars. Subsequently the revenue from the mint has diminished so much as to be scarcely sufficient to defray the expenses of that establishment. This diminution in the produce of the mines of gold and silver has been owing to the withdrawal of much capital from this branch of industry; the patriots, on becoming masters of the country, having sequestrated much of the wealth and property of the opulent Spaniards, who were principally engaged in this branch of industry. From some of the most opulent of these from 100,000 to 400,000 dollars in money and property were taken; and it is believed that in the interval between the battles of Chacabuco and Maypo, no less than five millions of dollars were obtained in this way, and about three millions soon afterwards. Others, to avoid a similar fate, took the precaution to bury or otherwise conceal their money, which was consequently withdrawn from mining and other undertakings. The failure of the crops in Chili, from 1820 to 1823 inclusive, also greatly diminished the mining operations during these four years. Formerly, by the Spanish laws, all private trade in gold and silver was illegal, and every one was obliged, under severe penalties, to carry his gold and silver to the mint, to be coined or stamped. Such regulations could be easily enforced during the Spanish regime; but since Chili became independent, so many avenues have been opened to illicit commerce, that a contraband trade in these articles has been carried on to a considerable extent, the difference in the profits being so great as to cover all the risks of being detected; so that, with the exception of comparatively small sums which are sent to the mint, perhaps often to cover other transactions, very little bullion finds its way to that establishment, and it will not in all probability return to its former course until the duties imposed are greatly reduced. It has been calculated that of late from one or two billions of dollars have been annually exported from Coquimbo.

The commercial intercourse of the various parts of Chili with each other, and with the Argentine provinces, is carried on by means of mules. They carry loads of from six to twelve arrobas, a hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds each. They travel in large troops, and with many spare mules. A parrilla of eight mules is instructed to each peon, and they travel from twelve to fifteen leagues per day. Their hire from Santiago to Valparaiso, thirty leagues, is from twelve to thirteen rials (three shillings to five shillings) each; and about five or six dollars to Mendoza, on the east side of the Andes, a hundred leagues distant. In summer the roads from Santiago to Valparaiso and to Talca admit of large waggons being employed in the transport of goods. These waggons are heavy and clumsy, and formed entirely of wood; they carry a ton weight of goods, and are drawn by six oxen. Their hire from the port to the capital is from twenty to thirty-five dollars each (£4 to £7), and they require from six to twelve days to perform the journey. An excellent road was formed many years ago between these two places, under the auspices of Don Ambrosio O'Higgins; but it has been allowed to fall very much into decay, so that during the violent rains it is often impassable, especially at the rivers, which have no bridges. Indeed all the roads in Chili are quite neglected, although abundant materials for their formation or repair are everywhere found, and large sums are exacted by the government as toll-duties on all goods. Except in the large towns, the only bridges to be found are in the mountainous districts. The puentes de cumbra, or swinging bridge, formed of wicker and canes, with two thick ropes of bullocks' hides twisted in four stands, are stretched across the river by means of windlasses, and attached to stakes of red thorn tree, on each side. These are crossed by a platform six feet wide, made of the tough black coligua cane, which is used by the Indians for lances. About four or five feet above are placed the suspension hide ropes, fastened to the tops of the stakes on each side, and these are connected to the platform every few feet by means of strips of hide. Its vibratory motion is very disagreeable to those who are unaccustomed to it, but it may be passed with safety, even by loaded mules and light carriages. During violent gusts of wind it is sometimes overturned, and requires much exertion to replace it. The lasso bridge crossing the river Maypo measures 250 feet, and is broad enough for a light carriage. The restrictive system in relation to water communication by the coast, so long pursued by the Spaniards in order to prevent contraband trade, has been very little relaxed since the country became independent. In 1826 there were only seven ports which could be entered as puertos rayados, namely, Copiapo, Coquimbo, Guasco, Valparaiso, Maule, Concepcion, and Valdivia; and to pass from the one to the other requires a license from the custom-house at Coquimbo, Valparaiso, or Concepcion, which places alone are open to foreign commercial shipping. In consequence of these regulations the coasting trade in Chili by boats and small vessels has hardly existed. Some relaxation, however, in these regulations has at length taken place, and small vessels for this purpose are built in the Maule, yet so limited an extent, and at so great an expense, that a ton of coal may be carried from England to Coquimbo, in English ships, even cheaper than from Concepcion.

The revenue of Chili, under proper and efficient management, is quite sufficient to provide for all the wants of the state; and during the six years after the country was wrested from the Spaniards, notwithstanding the numerous abuses which then existed in its collection and expenditure, it not only enabled the government to defray all the expenses of the army and marine employed in the work of liberation, but contributed principally to the formation and equipment of the army which carried the war into Peru; but during some of the subsequent years, when in a state of peace and tranquillity, the management of the revenue fell into the hands of those who seemed to have been much less scrupulous, for the expenditure greatly exceeded the income. More recently, efficient measures have been adopted to remedy abuses, and to regulate the collection and expenditure of the revenue; but as yet the previous embarrassments have not been so far remedied as to enable the government to pay either the interest or principal of the loan of one million sterling, contracted for in London in 1822. But recently a document has appeared from the finance department, indicating that this debt will be speedily recognized and liquidated.

In 1818, the year following the battle of Chacabuco, the revenue of Chili, ordinary and extraordinary, was 1,530,915 dollars; in 1819, 1,752,127 dollars; and in 1824 it was estimated at 1,175,581 dollars, although it actually amounted to 2,030,000 dollars, and consisted of the following items:

| Item | Amount | |-------------------------------------------|----------| | Customs | 1,000,000| | Excise | 44,000 | | Stamps | 20,000 | | Tithes and papal bulls | 310,000 | | Estanco of tobacco | 400,000 | | Duties on roads, Canal of Maypo, &c. | 62,000 | | Rents of confiscated church property | 200,000 |

L407,200 = 2,035,000 The public expenditure during the same year was as follows:

| Description | Amount | |------------------------------|----------| | Army and navy | £138,172 | | Finance and home department | 459,333 | | Ordinary and extraordinary expenses | 300,000 |

£499,505 = £497,525

Documentary evidence is at present wanting to give a correct view of the amount of income and expenditure during the subsequent years; but there is sufficient evidence of its having greatly improved of late.

The estance or monopoly of certain articles of consumption was granted to an association who engaged to pay the interest of the loan; but, as they failed to do so, a compromise took place, and government became responsible for the loan, on which no interest has been paid since the year 1824. The odious impost of the alcabala has not yet been abolished as in other parts of South America, although a proposal was made by the landholders to raise 200,000 dollars in lieu of it. Stamps are required for receipts and legal proceedings; but they are not oppressive. The income of the mint for some years has not paid its own expenses. The tithes are farmed out, and give rise to a good deal of speculation. Duties on traffic by the various roads are still exacted, and are very productive, yet no attention has been paid to keep the roads in order, although in many places almost impassable. The duties on the lands watered by the Canal of Maypu have greatly increased, in consequence of a large portion of the extensive plain of Maypu having been brought into cultivation by means of irrigation.

The constitution of Chili, since it was first promulgated in 1818, has undergone several important alterations, which experience has dictated, and the altered condition of the people demanded. Ballot has at length been introduced into their elections, but has been attended with injurious consequences, as experience has proved that the general state of ignorance and demoralization of the community unfit them for the legitimate exercise of so valuable a privilege, and makes them the ready dupes of designing and ambitious men.

Language. The language used in Chili is good, and contains few of those provincialisms so general in Spain and some parts of South America; that used by the Araucanians and all the Indians south of Chili and Buenos Ayres is extremely copious, and affords abundant scope for the display of the native eloquence of these tribes. Its roots have very little analogy with those of any other nation.

Education. Less has been done in Chili for the general diffusion of education than in some other parts of the new South American states, especially the Argentine and Colombian republics. Nothing indeed has yet been done by the authorities to render primary education accessible to the great body of the people; and hence they are generally ignorant, superstitious, idle, and vicious. Naturally of a mild and amiable disposition, and highly susceptible of improvement, they are humble and submissive to their too often oppressive and despotic superiors. Soon after the country was liberated from the Spaniards, General O'Higgins endeavoured to establish schools, but found no one disposed to assist him. In 1821 Mr Thomson, who left Edinburgh for the purpose of promoting education in South America, established two Lancasterian schools at Santiago, but met with considerable opposition from bigoted and interested persons; the schools made considerable progress while he remained, but on his departure they were discontinued. About this time a clergyman, attempting to interfere in the education of a young lady, was tried by order of the government, and banished the country. A few years afterwards a seminary of education for young men was established in Santiago under the auspices of an accomplished Spaniard, Dr Joaquin de Mora, who was very successful in his endeavours to introduce an improved system of education. Two years ago he left Chili for Lima, owing to some political cause; but the seminary he established has gone on in a prosperous state under his successor. The example shown by this establishment has had such pleasing results on the inhabitants, that various other seminaries of education have been established under the name of colleges. At the Institute about 400 youths are educated at the public expense, and here the candidates for holy orders are examined and licensed. No university has yet been established in Chili. In nothing, however, has the improvement in education been more apparent than in that of females, who were formerly so much neglected, that often young ladies of old and respectable families were unable either to read or write. Now education has become quite universal among them, and three or four excellent seminaries for young ladies are in full operation in the capital. The principal of these, the college of Madame Verain, a French lady, contains about seventy or eighty pupils, who are taught Spanish grammar, French, music, drawing, &c., &c. In going to and from these seminaries, the young ladies, by regulation of the government, always wear bonnets and gloves, and enjoy a degree of personal liberty which was wholly denied to their parents when young, unmarried females having never before been permitted to go out of doors without being accompanied by their mothers, or some other guardian. As yet no general measure for the diffusion of education among the people has been adopted; neither has any effort been made to introduce the blessings of education among the Araucanians and other neighbouring Indians, whose high mental powers peculiarly fit them for its reception. A few of the Araucanian youths have been educated at the public seminaries at Santiago, and their importance has in consequence been augmented on their return to their native country. One of these, the second son of the Cazique Benancio, was destined by his father to succeed him as the head of his tribe, from being by his education better fitted to exercise that charge than his oldest brother, who was uneducated. A taste for reading and literary pursuits does not yet exist to any extent in Chili. The press has hitherto been principally occupied in publishing newspapers and political pamphlets; but periodicals on education, statistics, &c., have occasionally appeared, principally under the auspices of foreigners. The liberty of the press is merely nominal, public opinion being not yet sufficiently powerful to support any publication or periodical in opposition to the party in power. Offences against the press are determined by the verdict of a jury, which has already been very useful in a few instances; but in general the people are not yet sufficiently enlightened to understand the utility of this institution, and to use it properly. There is a public library in the capital, but being principally filled with old ecclesiastical works, and containing few modern books, it is of little value to the public.

The established religion of Chili has always been the Roman Catholic; and there are two bishoprics, the one of Santiago, the other of Concepcion, their respective jurisdictions being defined by the river Maule, the latter including Valdivia and the islands of Chiloe. Five monastic orders were established, the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustines, those of Mercy, and St John of God. The Jesuits were established there in 1593, and exercised much influence; but they were ejected from thence, as well as from all the Spanish-American dominions, by the celebrated decree of the king of Spain. Since the commencement of the revolution, the church establishments of Chili have fallen greatly from their pristine importance and number; but the clergy are still powerful, and possess much valuable property, territorial as well as movable. Their monastic establishments in the southern provinces have been almost all destroyed in the late wars; and in the northern provinces, as at Coquimbo, they have been converted into schools, hospitals, and other public institutions. It is only in the middle provinces where they continue to exist to any extent, especially in the capital, where there are still six convents of monks and seven of nuns, each containing from 12 to 112 inmates. Means have been taken to reduce their numbers, and no person can now take the veil as a nun, or become a professed friar, before the age of twenty-five. The secularization of a considerable number of the monks or regular clergy took place during a visit to Chili from the pope's nuncio, who was likewise instrumental in reducing the number of feast days, exclusive of Sundays, from the previous number of sixty to eleven. He was afterwards found to be implicated in some political views inimical to the interests of the country, and was ordered by the government to return to Europe. During the administration of O'Higgins, a sequestration of the church property took place, to the amount, as is stated, of 5,000,000 dollars. Some parts have since been sold, or otherwise disposed of, and the rents of the property, amounting to about 200,000 dollars, have been annually appropriated to the use of the state. In 1829, however, the church property was restored to the clergy by the authorities, but somewhat diminished in value and extent. Formerly the convents were crowded with youth and children, training for the service of the altar; but now very few are to be seen within their walls under middle age. The secular clergy are still numerous, and are paid an annual salary from the tithe fund, although only about a fourth part of its former amount.

The influence of the clergy is still very great. They have all along, during the revolution, kept up their connection with Rome, and for some years maintained an agent there. The only bishop they had was that of Santiago; but he was so determined a royalist, and so intriguing, that he was first banished to Mendoza, afterwards to Milipilli, and eventually, being found incorrigible, was sent to Europe. More recently, two natives of Chili, Vicuña and Cienfuegos, have been appointed by the pope to the sees of Santiago and Concepción. Of late years, various improvements have taken place in the religious opinions of the people, especially of the more intelligent and educated classes; yet the great mass of the community, being kept in a state of ignorance, are as submissive to the clergy as formerly. Toleration does not as yet legally exist; but foreigners are not much molested on account of their religion. The principal deviation has been, the permitting of the British residents to erect Protestant cemeteries at the capital and at Valparaíso. Formerly the dead bodies of foreigners were denied admission into the burying-grounds; and, to prevent violation, their relatives were obliged to deposit them under the protection of the forts of Santa Lucia at Santiago, and of St Antonio at Valparaíso. The difference of religion has long been a serious obstacle to the formation of matrimonial alliances between natives and foreigners. During the last congress of Chili a strenuous effort was made to establish toleration by law. On this topic the discussions were interesting and prolonged, and the cause of religious freedom was advocated with great zeal and ability by a clergyman named Navarro; but the measure, though supported by a strong party, was rejected, on the plea that the public mind was not yet quite prepared for the change contemplated, and that their constituents would be displeased. The more intelligent part of the population, however, is in favour of the measure, and fully aware of its advantages. These proceedings, however, will undoubtedly lead to its adoption a few years hence; and the agitation of the question will greatly tend to pave the way for the change.

The inhabitants of Chili are a fine and well-made race of people, generally with fair complexions, being the descendants of the Spaniards and other Europeans who have settled in the country, and variously intermixed with the native tribes. They all possess the black eyes and black hair so characteristic of the Spaniards. Their colour does not seem to be much influenced by the heat of the climate; but the people of the northern provinces, as at Guasco, are fairer, and generally handsomer, than those in the middle and southern provinces. South of the Maule they differ considerably, and partake a good deal of the aspect and character of the Pommucan Indians, some little communities of which may still be seen in several parts of that district. To the north of that river scarcely any distinct communities of Indians are to be found, all being intermixed and amalgamated with the Creole population. The Maulinos are of a darker complexion, have less beard, eyes more separated, and a lower forehead, than the others; and in their habits they are more ferocious, thievish, and unsettled. The Araucanians are a very distinct people, and have only an admixture of European blood from the number of Spanish prisoners who became resident among them. They have large and broad countenances, and small, black, penetrating eyes. They naturally possess much intelligence, are firm, brave, and patriotic, as they have proved by their efforts in defence of their country and liberties against the power of Spain since the middle of the sixteenth century. They live in small communities, have fixed habitations, cultivate the soil, and live principally upon the fruits of their labours. Their civil and domestic institutions are numerous and highly interesting; but their intercourse with their Christian neighbours has tended considerably to demoralize them. Their numbers are not exactly known, but from the most authentic information they are estimated at from 80,000 to 100,000.

The negro population of Chili has never been numerous, and the slaves have always been employed for domestic purposes, and treated with much kindness, the laws of the country, throughout all Spanish America, being very favourable to them. In 1811, a law was enacted, declaring free after that period all children of slaves born in Chili; and in consequence of this, and other measures of the same tendency, the number of slaves was so far diminished, that in 1828 the legislature considered it expedient to abolish slavery altogether. Since that time no slave has existed in the country, and the negro and mulatto population is by no means considerable.

The Creoles are extremely amiable and prepossessing in their appearance; they possess a natural suavity of manners, and equality of temper, which conciliate the good will of others; and they are kind and hospitable to strangers. They are distinguished, however, by many vices and defects; but these seem less owing to their natural dispositions, than to the pernicious institutions of their country, political, civil, and ecclesiastical. The influence of the clergy, and the practices attendant on their exclusive religion, have been most injurious to the morals and welfare of the people; and the abject debasement in which the Chilian peasantry are held by their landlords and superiors have combined to produce the same results. Their individual and national character has been variously estimated by those who have had the best means of judging; and all seem to agree that they are more deceitful and cunning, and less deserving of confidence, than the Argentine population, who live under a superior and more equitable system, and enjoy a much greater share of individual independence and security. Some beneficial improve- ments, however, are even now in progress; and as they increase in knowledge and experience these defects in their character will be gradually corrected and removed. They are a brave and gallant people, and have often distinguished themselves by their intrepidity in the war of independence both by sea and land. The females possess fine features and very elegant figures, and are most agreeable and prepossessing in their manners. They have in general proved exemplary and faithful wives to those Englishmen and other foreigners who have formed matrimonial relations with them; but the bigotry of the clergy has hitherto thrown a serious obstacle in the way of the formation of such connections, by requiring of all the Protestants a previous conformity with the Catholic religion. There have as yet been only two or three exceptions to this rule, which is much and grievously complained of by all who are interested, and cannot long be continued. The ladies are now much better educated than formerly, and are gay and agreeable in society; they are fond of amusement, and especially of music and dancing, in which they excel.

There is in Chili a numerous, respectable, and influential aristocracy, who engross nearly all the power and authority; and the lower classes are as yet too ignorant, vicious, and disunited, to possess much influence in society. The latter are fond of amusements, gambling, horse-racing, dancing, and drinking chicha and other exhilarating liquors in their pulperias. These practices tend considerably to demoralize them and diminish their industry. The criminal laws are in many instances administered with little equality or impartiality, and wealth but too often enables the offender to commit crime with impunity. Under such a system it is only surprising that the people are not more frequently guilty of acts of plunder and violence. In their domestic relations they are generally kind and good-humoured, but the law renders the wife too independent of her husband, and has enabled her, in some instances, to take advantage of her privileges to his manifest injury. The children are reared in such a manner as to be very dutiful, obedient, and affectionate to their parents.

The ladies now dress very much in the English and French style, but they only use bonnets when on horseback or travelling, merely covering their head with a shawl on going out. They are very careful of their beautiful black hair, which they dress and ornament with much taste and simplicity. The female peasantry use a rebozo made of coarse woollen cloth. In attending mass and other church ceremonies, all the females, even the poorest, appear in black dresses, which in the upper classes are covered by the mantilla. The dress of the peasantry is almost entirely of their own manufacture, being principally made by the females, who are very industrious. They, as well as the women of the Araucanian Indians, spin their thread with a very simple apparatus, dye it with a variety of native vegetable and mineral productions, and weave it into a coarse woollen fabric called bayeta, which forms their principal article of clothing. Many of the Indian women make very fine and exquisitely coloured ponchos, some having been sold for 100 dollars. The general dress of the Chilian female is a loose cotton slip, covered with a loose woollen dress, reaching from the shoulders to the feet, and constituting all their clothing. The men have a close shirt or jacket of blue woollen cloth, fitting close to the body, with cotton drawers reaching to the middle of the legs, and over them breeches open at the knees, and held up by a broad woollen belt or sash round the loins, under which are secured their knives inclosed in a sheath, and their tobacco pouch. On their legs they wear woollen hose, open at the feet, and so long as to reach half up the thigh, and be doubled back to the ankles: these are fastened under the knee by coloured tape. They all use large and heavy spurs, with enormous rowels, which make a great noise when they walk. They wear woollen caps of different colours, or hats made of straw or palm leaves. The Maulinos and Araucanians wear a conical woollen hat without a rim; and many of the latter have merely a woollen band round the head. The latter also wear a large woollen cloth fastened round the loins, in the form of a petticoat. All use the poncho, which is useful not only during the day, but in the night time, and, when properly made, throws off the rain. The richer peasantry are better dressed, wearing cotton stockings and better shoes; and they display their wealth by the riches and ornaments of their horse accoutrements and saddlery, many parts of which are decorated with massive silver, especially their stirrups and spurs. Their saddlery and horse furniture are often expensive and valuable, and serve them for beds during the night-time.

There has as yet been no systematic emigration from Europe to Chili, although strong inducements exist. A considerable number of persons, however, have found their way thither, and, when sober and industrious, have in general been very successful, particularly good artificers in wood and iron, who find plenty of employment and good wages: a protecting duty of forty per cent. on all articles manufactured in Chili affords them great encouragement. Few agricultural establishments have as yet been formed in Chili under the auspices of Europeans; but these, and various other useful establishments, might be formed with the best prospect of success; and, if conducted with prudence and circumspection, could not fail to prosper under the protection of the government, which is disposed to favour such undertakings. There still, however, exist strong prejudices among the population, especially in the agricultural districts, which might at first somewhat retard their progress, but will at length be overcome by time and experience. Nine years of residence renders any stranger a citizen of the republic, and marriage with a native immediately. Should agricultural emigration take place from Europe, the most eligible situations for settlement would be the southern provinces and islands near Concepcion, which in soil and climate are best suited for agriculture.

Chili has been long politically divided into three jurisdictions, each composed of its respective provinces, which are as follow:

| Northern | Square Miles | Inhabitants | |----------|--------------|-------------| | Copiapo | 18,750 | 10,000 | | Coguimbo | 13,300 | 20,000 | | Quillota | 4,600 | 40,000 | | Aconcagua| 4,400 | 60,000 | | Santiago | 3,830 | 90,000 |

| Central | | | | Melipilla| 850 | 20,000 | | Rancagua | 3,830 | 70,000 | | Colchagua| 4,400 | 80,000 | | Maule | 3,750 | 50,000 | | Chillan | 2,200 | 20,000 | | Itata | 1,800 | 20,000 |

| Southern | | | | Rere | 3,250 | 30,000 | | Puchacay | 2,000 | 40,000 |

Total......66,960 560,000

Miller divides Chili into the following provinces: Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Santiago, Colchagua, Maule, Concepcion, Valdivia, and Chiloé, and assigns to it a population of 1,200,000 souls, which is considered at present as about the real amount of the inhabitants.

The principal cities and towns are Santiago, the capital, which is ninety miles distant from Valparaíso, and contains ports in the city and suburbs about 70,000 souls; and Valparaíso, the port, which contains about 20,000. Its import- ance as a commercial station depends more upon its central position and vicinity to the capital and the most populous districts, than on its properties as a harbour for shipping. It is secure in the summer season while the south winds prevail, but much exposed to the north winds and storms of winter, which frequently drive the ships from their anchors, and ashore on the beach and rocks; the limited extent of ground on which it is situated is also a great impediment to its increase. Conception or Penco, distant 480 miles south of Santiago, is an excellent place for a large commercial city, being surrounded on all sides by a rich, fertile, and productive country; and in its vicinity is one of the finest and most secure harbours in Chili. This place, and the surrounding country, although formerly so opulent and prosperous, has since the commencement of the revolution, owing to the civil dissensions, the incursions of the neighbouring Indians, and the depredations of several outlaws and their followers, been reduced greatly in the number of its inhabitants, and brought to the utmost degree of poverty and destitution; but after a few years of peace and tranquillity, it will soon rapidly increase in wealth and population.

Coquimbo, situated a few miles inland from the capacious bay of that name, which affords safe and commodious anchorage for shipping, contains 8000 inhabitants, and, being situated in the heart of the mining country, seems destined to become a place of great commercial importance. Quillota has 8000 inhabitants; and higher up, in the valley of Aconcagua, are the towns of San Felipe and Santa Rosa, each having 5000 inhabitants, and containing an industrious and thriving agricultural population. Petrona, Illapel, Guasco, and Copiapo, situated farther to the north, are chiefly mining districts; while Rancagua, San Fernando, Curico, Talca, Chilcan, Yumbel, and others, situated at the base of the mountains in proceeding southwards towards the Biobio, are principally agricultural; but owing to the disturbed state of the country of late years, the prosperity and population of these districts, especially those farthest south, have considerably diminished.

Besides the harbours and bays for shipping already mentioned, there are on the coast various others of importance. The Bay of Pichidungue, near the estero of Quilimavi, although small, is one of the best. Before the revolution it was the resort of French, English, and Irish vessels, which carried on a contraband trade with the people, in violation of the rigid colonial laws of Spain. The harbour of Valdivia is the best and most capacious in Chili, and will be of great value when the adjoining country becomes more civilized. Besides these, there are various other good ports and safe anchorages on the coast, such as Copiapo, Guasco, Quintero, Puerto de la Constitucion, at the mouth of the Maule; San Vicente and Talcahuano, near Concepcion, and a variety of good harbours in the archipelago of Chiloé. In the Araucanian country there are good harbours, and several of the rivers are navigable to a distance from their mouths. To defend the southern frontiers from the Araucanian Indians, a number of forts have been erected on both sides of the river Biobio and elsewhere. Those now existing are Tucapel, on the river Laxa; Los Angeles, Puren, and Santa Barbara, on the north side of El Nacimiento; and Puen, on the south side of the Biobio. Talcahuano is naturally a strong position, and capable of being made impregnable by fortifications. Valparaiso Bay is defended by several batteries, but is incapable of making a successful resistance to a large force. The fortifications of Valdivia and San Carlos, in Chiloé, are the most extensive and formidable belonging to the republic, by which means alone the former could be retained in the midst of warlike neighbours.

The earliest accounts we have of Chili are derived from the Peruvian annals, which extend only to the middle of the fifteenth century. Its inhabitants were then numerous, consisting of a number of distinct tribes independent of one another, but belonging to the same nation, and speaking nearly the same language. About the year 1450 the Peruvians, under the Inca Yupanqui, invaded Chili with a large army, having previously made extensive preparations to insure success, and formed an excellent road from Peru along the longitudinal valleys which are found on the eastern side of the central ridge or Cordillera of the Andes, as far south as the Maule, in lat. 34° 50' S. This road, in an excellent state of preservation, may be distinctly traced at the present day from Potosí to the valley of Uspallata near Mendoza, and even farther south. From these roads the Peruvian troops descended into Chili by the various passes across the central ridge, and easily possessed themselves of the whole country north of the Rapel, formed by the junction of the rivers Cachapoa and Tinguiririca; but after passing that river they came into collision with the more warlike nation of the Promauicians, who, after a long and obstinate battle of several days' continuance, defeated and drove them back. The Rapel was therefore made the boundary of the conquest. The Peruvians retired without interfering further with the internal state of their conquered possessions in Chili than by annexing them to the Peruvian empire, and imposing an annual tribute of gold.

In 1535, Chili was invaded by the Spaniards and Peruvians; but the greater part of their army was lost in crossing the Andes during winter, and the remainder was well received and hospitably treated by the people of the north of Chili. Their progress, however, was arrested by the energetic Promauicians. In 1540, the Spaniards again invaded Chili; but the natives having had experience of their cruelty and oppression, made a resolute resistance, and for some years a war continued, which desolated and laid waste the country; but they were at length overcome, and subjected to the sway of the invaders. Having conciliated the warlike Promauicans, the Spaniards, joined by many of this tribe, proceeded southward, and in 1550 founded the city of Concepcion on the banks of the river Biobio. The warlike Araucanian Indians, alarmed at the near approach of these intruders, immediately commenced a sanguinary war, which lasted, with scarcely any interruption, for a period of ninety years, during which period they performed numerous deeds of great heroism and self-devotion, with a constancy and patriotism unparalleled in the history of nations, and with results the most satisfactory to themselves. During these numerous and sanguinary battles, in which enormous loss of life was suffered on both sides, on some occasions whole armies of Spaniards, and on others of Araucanians, having been annihilated almost to a man, the Spaniards built many fortresses and large cities; but the greater part of these were taken or retaken at great cost of life, until the intruders were finally driven from the country, when the forts were all razed to the ground. In 1641 peace was at length concluded between the Spaniards and Araucanians, after a continuous and sanguinary war of ninety years; all the prisoners on both sides were liberated, commerce was established, and industry and agriculture flourished. Peace was maintained inviolate until 1647, when war again broke out, and was carried on for ten years with the same energy as on previous occasions.

In the early part of the seventeenth century a rebellion took place in the archipelago of Chiloé, but was speedily allayed by the employment of mild means. From 1707 to 1717 the French possessed the external commerce of Chili, whose ports were filled with French ships, which carried off great quantities of gold and silver. Many of the French then settled in Chili, and have left numerous descendants. The Spaniards took advantage of the peace with Araucania to form establishments in that country; but those who had been permitted to reside in the country for the protection of the missionaries abused their privileges, and roused the Indians to renew hostilities in 1723 under Vilumilla, who formed the resolution of driving the Spaniards wholly out of Chili. An extensive scheme was laid for this purpose, but failed from the deficient support afforded him by his more distant coadjutors. The missionaries were allowed to retire unmolested, and the Spaniards were driven from all their forts and possessions; and the war was at length terminated by the peace of Negrete, when all the grievances complained of were redressed.

In 1742, 1753, and subsequently, a number of the principal cities and towns in Chili were founded and built by the Spanish governors; and an attempt was made by Gonzaga to oblige the Araucanians to live in cities and towns, and to allow the introduction of many other innovations. At first the Indians evaded these measures by indirect means, but finding them inadequate, they at length had recourse to arms, under the command of Curiguanco. Previously the Spaniards had sent materials in great abundance for the prosecution of their plans, but these fell into the hands of the Indians. During the war which ensued the Spaniards formed an alliance with the Pehuenche Indians, who were defeated by the Araucanians, and ever afterwards became their faithful friends and allies against the Spaniards. The war continued at a great expense of life and treasure until 1773, when a permanent peace was concluded, by which the Araucanians obtained the right of having a resident minister for their country at Santiago, and the treaties of Quillin and Negrete were confirmed by mutual consent.

The possession of Chili has cost more blood and treasure to Spain than all their other settlements in America put together. The Araucanians, with a comparatively small territory, and inferior in numbers as well as in means of warfare, had by their indissoluble union, their sagacious counsels, their unvarying attachment to their native land, and their indomitable courage and intrepidity, successfully defended their country for upwards of three hundred years against all the power and resources of Spain.

The history of this nation, viewed in connection with their domestic, civil, and political institutions, clearly evinces that they possess a much higher degree of intellect, and greater energy of character, than any of the other aboriginal nations of America.

The revolution of Chili commenced on 18th July 1810, in consequence of measures taken by Don Alvarez de Jonte, who had been sent from Buenos Ayres for that purpose. The Spanish governor was deposed, and a junta of seven of the principal citizens formed on the 18th of September. They still acknowledged the sovereignty of Spain, kept up their communication with Lima, and abstained from displacing the Spaniards employed in the public service, none of whom were molested. All classes of the Chilenos concurred in these measures, the more influential carrying with them the support and approval of the people. In April 1811, when engaged in the election of members to congress, an attempt was made by Colonel Figeroa to upset the new government; but, although he was favoured and supported by many Spaniards, the attempt failed, and he lost his life. The congress met in June 1811, and pursued very liberal measures, endeavouring to correct abuses, and to make many reforms in the civil and ecclesiastical establishments. Liberty of commerce and of the press was established. A manufactory of arms and a college of artillery were formed; and this was the first legislature in South America which adopted efficient measures gradually to terminate slavery, by declaring all children born of slaves from that period free. While these judicious measures were in progress, the destinies of Chili assumed a new aspect, in consequence of the measures pursued by the Carreras, three brothers of a very respectable family. They were men of talent, but licentious; and, by their popular and conciliatory manners, acquired a great sway over the army and people, and, under the influence of a congress not constituted in proportion to the population of the different parts of the country, they assumed the authority, and dissolved the congress on 26th December 1811. A new junta was formed, having at its head the elder Carrera; but the policy they pursued was so injurious to the general interests, that much discontent and division were created. In this state of affairs the viceroy of Peru sent from Lima troops, who landed near Talcahuano early in 1813; and, by the connivance of the Spaniards, and others in authority there and at Concepcion, obtained possession of these places, which served as a basis for their subsequent operations. The news of their landing and advance to the Maule roused the Chilenos, and induced them to settle their differences, and to unite in defence of their country. An army of six thousand men was raised, and marched under the elder Carrera to meet the enemy, whom they surprised and defeated at Yerbas Buenas on the 31st of March; but, instead of following up their successes, they engaged in plundering, and allowed the Spaniards to recover from their surprise, and to occupy a favourable position at San Carlos, ninety miles distant; from which, after an obstinate and bloody action, they were obliged to retire to Chillan, where, reinforced by the garrisons of Concepcion and Talcahuano, they fortified themselves, and were afterwards besieged. The patriots after some time obtained the possession of the town; but the Spaniards defended themselves in the citadel until the weather obliged their adversaries to raise the siege. Various actions afterwards took place, but without any important consequences. The Spaniards, however, by the influence of the missionaries, and the irregularities of the patriot soldiers, prevailed on the Araucanian Indians, and a great number of the peasantry of the southern provinces, to assist them. The arbitrary and vicious system pursued by the Carreras produced the most injurious consequences to the country and to the cause of liberty. At length the three brothers were displaced, and the eldest, on his way to the capital, was taken prisoner by the Spaniards; but Colonel O'Higgins, who was ably supported by Mackenna, assumed the command of the army, which he had merited by his previous valour and good conduct. The royalists were strengthened by reinforcements from Lima under General Gainza; yet no active operations took place until 29th March 1814, when Gainza vigorously attacked Mackenna, but was repulsed. On this Gainza attempted to turn the patriot force, and proceed towards the capital; so, crossing the Maule, he attacked and took Talca, after an obstinate defence by its inhabitants. On hearing this news the junta was dissolved at Santiago, and Lastra appointed supreme director. He sent a small division under Blanco Ciceron, to meet the enemy; but it was defeated at Cancharayada by the royalist vanguard. O'Higgins with his army pursued Gainza, crossed the Maule during the night, and by day-light had taken up an excellent position, commanding the roads to Santiago and Chillan, the latter being the royalist centre of resources; so that Gainza was obliged to shut himself up in Talca. By the intervention of the British naval commander Hilliar, a treaty of mediation was concluded on 5th May, between Gainza and O'Higgins, in which the former engaged to embark in two months with all his troops for Peru, and to leave the fortifications then in his possession as he found them; at the same time consenting that the state of Chili should be recognized by the viceroy, and deputies sent to the congress of Spain. Hostages were given on both sides to secure the fulfilment of this compact. The Carreras having been set at liberty at the celebration of this treaty, they renewed their intrigues in the capital, and on 23rd August succeeded in deposing the supreme director Lastra. The junta was again constituted; but discontent and dissensions arising, O'Higgins was called on to aid the malcontents; and when the two parties were about to engage they were interrupted by a courier from the royalist general, informing them that the viceroy had refused to ratify the treaty, and that the only mode to obtain forgiveness was to yield at discretion. Gainza was superseded by Osorio, who arrived with reinforcements from Peru, and appeared, in a short time within fifty leagues of the capital with an army of 4000 men. On this momentous occasion, O'Higgins magnanimously gave in to the pretensions of his rival Carrera, and placed himself and his forces under the command of the latter, in order to repel the common enemy; but want of discipline, disorganization, and desertion, weakened exceedingly the patriot army. O'Higgins attacked the royalists on the banks of the river Cachapoal, with 900 men, but was defeated, and took refuge with the remains of his followers in the city of Rancagua, where he prepared to defend himself to the last extremity. On the 1st of October 1814, the royalists commenced an attack, which lasted thirty-six hours. No quarter being given on either side, the Spaniards were at length about to retire, when, perceiving that Carrera and his followers kept aloof, and took no part in the contest, they made a last and desperate assault, and at length penetrated into the square. Here, O'Higgins, with only 200 men, made a desperate resistance; and when the greater part of his followers were killed or wounded, he placed himself at the head of the remainder, and cut his way through the middle of the Spaniards. This daring enterprise made such an impression on the royalists that the patriots were not pursued, but retired unmolested to the capital. Carrera, at the head of 1500 men, after committing great excesses, abandoned the capital without resistance, and, with 600 of his followers, crossed the Andes to Mendoza. O'Higgins emigrated to the same place with about 1400 persons, among whom were many ladies of distinction, who passed the Cordilleras on foot. They were all well received at Mendoza by General San Martin, and very few of them returned to their native country until after the battle of Chacabuco in 1817. Osorio, having taken possession of the capital, and assumed the office of captain-general, issued an amnesty, which induced many of the patriots to surrender themselves; but it was afterwards violated, and many of the principal citizens were arrested and imprisoned, their property confiscated, and numbers of them banished to the island of Juan Fernandez, where they underwent great hardships from the privations to which they were subjected, and the extortions of the governor of the island, and the Spaniards in the capital. Osorio was succeeded by General Marco, who was equally cruel and arbitrary; and during the two years and four months of their command, the principal families of Chili were covered with mourning. The oppression of the community was general, and the country was reduced to the utmost distress. The spirit of freedom, however, was not extinguished in Chili, but was sustained by the guerrilla parties of Rodriguez, Freyre, and Neiva, who by their activity and enterprise kept the Spaniards in a constant state of alarm. Meanwhile an army was forming in Mendoza for the liberation of Chili.

General San Martin having become governor of the provinces of Cuyo, fixed his head-quarters at Mendoza, and immediately commenced with unceasing vigour to raise and organize an army to oppose the Spanish forces in Chili, and finally to invade it. Although in military talents he was ably met, yet he was infinitely superior to his opponents in his powers of strategy, by means of which he kept them in comparative ignorance of his proceedings and movements, while he himself possessed complete knowledge of their proceedings. The organization of his army reflects the highest credit on his talents and industry. He commenced with 180 recruits, and afterwards received 650 troops from Buenos Ayres, which in two years he increased to an army of 4000 regular troops, well disciplined, and tolerably well clothed and armed, besides a considerable number of unarmed militia. His popular and conciliatory manners gained him the support and confidence of these provinces, and insured him the love and devotion of his officers and men. With forces so inferior he did not hesitate to attempt the liberation of Chili, where the royalist forces opposed to him consisted of 7613 regular troops and 800 militia. By the ingenious stratagems he employed in deceiving his opponents, he succeeded in dividing them so as to attack them in detail. To accomplish this object, he persuaded the royalists that he intended to cross the Andes by different passes from that which he had actually fixed upon. To impress them with the belief that he intended crossing by the pass of the Planchon to the south, he had a grand and formal conference with the chiefs of the Pehuenche Indians to the south of Mendoza, who were in communication with those of Chili, some of whom, as he anticipated, communicated the result of his supposed intentions to General Marco. The consequence was, that the latter stationed the greater part of his forces in the province of Maule; and, to keep up the illusion, San Martin stationed guerilla parties at all the passes. His expedients to deceive his enemies did not stop here; for on leaving Mendoza with his army, on the 17th January 1817, he first marched to the south in the direction of the Planchon, but in the night retrograded by another route, and having crossed the first chain of mountains to reach the valley of Uspallata, he, instead of following the ordinary road to Chili by the valley of the Aconcagua, selected the difficult and unfrequented route of Los Patos and Putnenda, having five successive ridges or Cordilleras to cross, as the least suspected route, and at length accomplished his object, after encountering great difficulties and hardships. The army which passed amounted to 4000 regular troops and 1300 militia, with artificers to repair the roads, to convey twelve pieces of artillery, and to take care of the spare horses and mules. They were provisioned for fifteen days. Of 10,881 horses and mules employed, only 4800 reached Chili. The advance of the army came in contact with the royalist pikets on the 7th February, and drove them back with some loss; next day a rencontre of cavalry had similar results. Afterwards the patriot army debouched from the defiles of the mountains into the valley of Putnenda, and established themselves in the towns of Santa Rosa and Aconcagua. The Spanish army of 4000 men under Maroto concentrated on the heights of Chacabuco, on the high road to the capital. The two armies bivouacked in sight of each other on the 10th, and on the 12th a decisive battle was fought; in which the patriots were at first repulsed with considerable loss; but having renewed the attack by a charge of cavalry, they changed the fortune of the day, and routed and dispersed the royalists, who left 600 dead on the field. On the 14th of February the patriots entered Santiago in triumph; General Marco and 3600 royalists were taken prisoners, 500 royalists embarked at Valparaiso, and the remainder retired to Tucumán.

San Martin was elected supreme director of Chili; but having declined the honour, it was conferred upon General O'Higgins. A division of the army under Colonel Las Heras was sent to follow up the royalists, who had retired towards Concepcion; but, too much elated with their previous good fortune, they did not pursue their advantage with that celerity and vigour which was expected; consequently General Ordonez, who commanded the remains of the royalist army, was able to retire to the strong position of Talcahuano, near Concepcion, which he fortified, and augmented his force by collecting the scattered garrisons. In the mean time San Martin proceeded to Buenos Ayres to solicit reinforcements and the means of prosecuting the war in Peru. During his absence the supreme director O'Higgins left the capital for Concepcion, to command the army which had invested Talcahuano, his forces having been augmented by two regiments of Chilenos.

The fortification of Talcahuano did not prevent the gallant patriots under Las Heras from attempting to carry it by storm, on the 1st December 1817; but after fighting with great valour, they were repulsed by the royalists, with a severe loss in killed and wounded. San Martin returned from Buenos Ayres in April, and established his head-quarters at Las Tablas, near Valparaiso, where his army amounted to 5000 men, while that of O'Higgins in the south was 3000. Reinforcements of troops having reached Lima from Spain, the viceroy Pezuela sent from Callao, under the command of his son-in-law Osorio, a considerable force of infantry and cavalry, with twelve pieces of cannon, in all 3600 men, which, landing at Talcahuano, united with the garrison under Ordonez, and some recruits raised in the provinces, and formed an army of 6000 men, at the head of which he advanced towards the capital of Chili. At this time O'Higgins and Las Heras fell back on Talca with their division, and San Martin advanced with his army to meet them, which he effected at San Fernando on the 15th of March. The patriot army now consisted of 7000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, thirty-three field-pieces, and two howitzers.

Ignorant of the movements and superior numbers of his opponents, Osorio crossed the river Maule, and was proceeding towards Santiago, when, on the 18th March, his vanguard came up with an advanced party of the patriots at Quechereguas, where the former was worsted. Osorio countermanded his march with precipitation, and was followed by San Martin, whose object was to interpose his forces between the royalists and the ford of the Maule, by a lateral movement. On the morning of the 19th, both armies crossed the river Lircay nearly at the same time, but at a distance from each other of about four miles, and continued their march over five leagues of open country, in nearly parallel columns, which were gradually approaching to each other. The patriots advanced with the greatest order and regularity. The royalists, in some confusion, accelerated their march, and reached the outskirts of the city of Talca, where, among inclosed fields, they stationed themselves an hour before sunset. The patriots took up their position on the plain of Cancharayada, but not without some skirmishing, in consequence of a charge made by a regiment of Chilian cavalry, whose impetuosity led them into a dangerous and difficult situation, where they were repulsed by the royalists, but retreated in good order, under the protection of the Chilian artillery, after sustaining some loss.

San Martin intended to attack the royalists on the following day. His masterly manoeuvres on the 19th placed the latter in a critical situation, and offered them little prospect of success in risking a battle; while, on the other hand, the army was exposed to imminent danger in attempting to cross the river Maule at the difficult ford distant about five leagues from Talca. In these circumstances, Osorio is reported to have become unnerved; but his second in command, Ordonez, acted with much courage; he consulted with some of his best officers, and assumed the responsibility of planning and directing measures for an immediate attack on the patriots. Some Spanish corps in columns, in the darkness of the night, unexpectedly attacked the patriots. The advanced piquets of the patriots were dispersed or taken prisoners; and an irregular fire was opened from their line, which, on O'Higgins being wounded, became panic-struck, and, with the exception of the right wing, fled in great confusion. The dispersion of the left and centre was complete; and the artillery was abandoned; 3000 infantry under Las Heras were also thrown into disorder, but to a less extent; but their chief, with the bravery and presence of mind which characterized him, kept two-thirds of them united, and, under a heavy fire, restored the remainder to order, so as to retire with his division in excellent order along with the Chilian artillery. Only two guns of the Buenos Ayrean artillery were saved by the exertions of Captain Miller. San Martin halted at San Fernando until joined by Las Heras, where he reviewed the division and set out for the capital, where the disastrous news created great consternation.

The effect of the news on the inhabitants was, indeed, lamentable, and many of them gave themselves up to despair, or hurried away to the Cordillera to cross over to the opposite side, dreading the cruelty and vengeance of the royalists. Even the sub-delegado lost his presence of mind, and every thing was in confusion until the gallant Rodriguez placed himself at the head of affairs, and restored some degree of order. He obliged the functionaries to resume their duties, stopt the emigration, raised recruits, provided quarters for the fugitives, and took a public and solemn oath not to abandon his country under such circumstances. His example was followed by many others, and confidence was still more restored on the arrival of O'Higgins and San Martin, who took vigorous measures to oppose the enemy on the plains of Maypu. The royalists, however, were much less active than had been anticipated, and, contented with the plunder, did not follow the fugitives above two miles; nor did they march on the capital until seventeen days afterwards, an interval which was actively employed in re-organizing the army, now encamped about two leagues from the capital, and consisting of about 6500 men, including militia.

On the morning of the 5th April 1818, the royalist army, 6000 strong, appeared advancing towards Santiago by the road from the ford of the Maypu, on which San Martin had moved a little to the right, to preserve his communication with Valparaiso. At eleven A.M., both armies were formed nearly parallel to each other, and a brisk cannonade took place between them. Two battalions of patriots charged the royalists vigorously, but were repulsed with considerable loss. Two battalions of Spaniards then advanced in column; but, while deploying, they were charged and routed by the patriot reserve under Quintana, which was supported by the two battalions which had previously been repulsed, and succeeded in interposing between the royalist line and the reserve in the rear. At the same time, a charge of patriot cavalry made an impression on the left of the royalists; and in less than an hour the Spaniards gave way on all sides. About 2000 royalists were slain, and 3600 made prisoners of war; while the loss of the patriots was upwards of 1000 in killed and wounded. Ordonez made a desperate but fruitless struggle at La Hacienda de Espejo, about a league in the rear. Osorio, however, had previously made his escape with about 100 followers, with whom he reached Talcahuano with much difficulty by cross-roads. The joy which per- vaded the capital and the whole of Chili; on the intelligence of this signal and decisive victory, was extreme; and the emigrants all speedily returned. San Martin, however, still intent on carrying on the war against the royalists, with all the zeal and vigour possible, immediately proceeded to Buenos Ayres, where he arrived in a few days, to concert the necessary measures to augment the army and carry on their operations, and was received with the utmost enthusiasm. Strenuous efforts were made in Chili to form a naval force, in order to clear the Pacific of the Spanish ships of war, and obtain the command of those seas; and a gallant but unsuccessful attempt was made to take, by boarding, the Spanish frigate Esmeralda, then blockading Valparaiso. The number of ships of war was speedily increased, and a squadron of four ships, under Blanco Ciceron, sailed on the 9th December 1818, in order to intercept the expedition from Spain, under the guidance of the frigate Maria Isabel. They were discovered at Talcahuano, where the frigate and the greater part of the transports were taken, and only a small number of the soldiers escaped on shore. The squadron soon returned to Valparaiso with their prizes, where they were received with much joy and exultation. Soon afterwards Lord Cochrane arrived from England, assumed the command of the squadron, immediately commenced carrying on the war with great vigour, and made a gallant but unsuccessful attack on the enemy's shipping at Callao; after which, he continued with his squadron to range the coast of Peru, and to attack and molest the royalists wherever he could come in contact with them.

Osorio, with the few troops who escaped with him from Maypo, took refuge in the fort of Talcahuano, and remained there until September, when he departed for Callao, leaving Sanchez in command of that place. A force under Balcarce was sent against him, which obliged him to retire with considerable loss to Valdivia, with only 900 men. He entered into terms with the Araucanians, who assisted him. A formidable party of freebooters was formed under the notorious Benavides, which laid waste the surrounding country, and committed numerous atrocities and cruelties of the most appalling kind. His followers consisted of Spaniards and deserters of the worst character, and they were ably assisted by the Araucanians, who were equally inimical to all the whites.

On 12th September 1819 Lord Cochrane left Valparaiso with six ships of war and two fire-ships, but failed in his attempts to destroy the Spanish ships at Callao. He, however, carried on an active warfare along the Peruvian coast, with much injury to the royalists. Early in 1820, Cochrane, with a small reinforcement of troops, obtained at Talcahuano, deceived the enemy at Valdivia, landed his troops and sailors, though inferior in numbers to his opponents, and with great gallantry carried by storm one battery after another, until the whole were taken. The royalists lost a considerable number in killed and prisoners, and the remainder escaped among the Araucanians. The capture of this place deprived the royalists of their finest and most secure harbour in the Pacific, and cut off the resources of Benavides in carrying on his cruel and rapacious warfare against the people of Chili. The history of this extraordinary man is very remarkable. He was at one time shot for his crimes, but recovered, and became an active partisan of San Martin in the cause of independence; but, offended by Freyre, one of the patriot officers, he soon disappeared and resumed his former occupations, carrying on a desolating war, putting to death all his prisoners, and carrying fire and sword throughout the southern parts of Chili. He was defeated at Concepcion, and proposed terms of peace, but while the proceedings were in progress he renewed his depredations. He fitted out a corsair, and at first gave no quarter to his prisoners; he also captured several British and North American vessels. While he pretended to yield to the authorities at Concepcion in the end of 1821, he secretly embarked in a launch, with the intention of joining a division of the royalists; but having landed for supplies of water, he was discovered and made prisoner on 1st February 1822, and executed in the most ignominious manner on the 23rd at Santiago. After the capture of Valdivia, Cochrane made an attack on Chiloe, but was successfully resisted by the governor Quintanilla. The unrewarded exertions of San Martin and the authorities of Chili at length enabled them to prepare and embark the liberating army of Peru, which sailed on the 21st August 1820, amounting in all to 4500 men, with twelve pieces of cannon. The operations of this army eventually led to the emancipation of Peru from the yoke of Spain. On the 5th November, Lord Cochrane, with his officers, 180 sailors, and 100 marines, boarded in the night-time the Spanish frigate Esmeralda, lying under the guns of Callao, and carried her out in the most gallant manner.

While the army and naval force of Chili were liberating Peru, the country was governed by the supreme director O'Higgins, appointed in 1818. He convoked a provincial convention in 1822; but some of the members of the convention and of the executive so far exceeded their powers as to cause great waste and misapplication of the revenue and patronage of the state, effectually to disgust the community, and to cause a general rising of the inhabitants in the capital and provinces in January 1823. On this O'Higgins retired, but without any personal blame; he only incurred the displeasure created by the iniquities of his ministers; and he has since lived in retirement on his estate in Peru, respected and beloved by all who know him.

On his retiring the congress assembled, and Freyre was elected director of the republic; but although a brave and gallant commander, he was inferior as a politician to his predecessor. The first measure of his government was the expedition to Chiloe, formerly mentioned, which failed. On the termination of the war in Peru, and surrender of Callao, it was understood that Bolivar proposed forming an expedition against the Chiloe islands, so as to have the glory of terminating the war of independence in South America, that being the only place in America then possessed by the Spaniards; but he was anticipated by Freyre, who sailed for these islands from Valdivia on the 2d January 1826, with 4000 troops, and a squadron of six vessels of war, under the command of Admiral Blanco, Lord Cochrane having previously left the country. They landed and took some batteries; and Quintanilla, at the head of 3000 royalists, bravely defended the country, until he was at length obliged to capitulate; and then the Spanish flag ceased to be displayed in South America. Soon afterwards Freyre renounced the responsible situation which he held, and gave place to General Pinto, a man of talent, cultivated mind, and liberal sentiments. Under the enlightened administration of the latter the country has prospered, and the former abuses, tyranny, and local oppressions, have in a great measure disappeared; while reforms have been introduced into the various departments of the state, and considerable reductions effected in the public expenditure, but not without great opposition. The squadron, augmented between 1818 and 1825 by the capture from the enemy of six frigates, three brigs of war, and five smaller vessels, were all sold, excepting the brig of war Aquiles. During this time the value of property has been doubled in some places, and great improvement made in the capital, port, and other places.

On the final surrender of the Chiloe islands, the government of them was intrusted to Colonel Aldunate, who took the most efficient means to conciliate the good will of the Chilotes, who from long habit had become extremely hostile to the patriotic cause. He abolished the *alea-bala* and other oppressive impositions; regulated the courts of justice, which had become exceedingly venal; and encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and the exports from these islands, which had been interrupted during the war. While thus employed an insurrection broke out against him, headed by Fuentes, one of his officers, and aided by some of his troops; and the governor was seized and sent to Chili. Fuentes assuming the government, undid all the salutary measures of his predecessor, and oppressed the people with heavy taxes to pay his troops. An expedition was sent from Chili to reduce this insurrection, in which they at length succeeded. Fuentes was taken prisoner, and afterwards committed suicide.

Having completed the term of his government, Pinto retired in the latter end of 1829, and a general election having taken place of president and vice-president of the republic, Pinto was again chosen president by an absolute majority, but Prieto and Tagle only obtained each a respective majority as vice-president. It was therefore the duty of the senate and congress to select one of the two to fill that office; but in doing so they violated the constitution so far that another candidate was brought forward, who had before been in the minority; and this person, named Vicuña, was elected as vice-president, to the exclusion of the other two. This occurrence created so very serious an impression on public opinion, that Pinto, who had in some respects been instrumental in the election of Vicuña, resigned the presidency, at the same time acknowledging the irregularity of Vicuña's election, and retired to Coquimbo. The country soon became politically divided between two parties called *Pipiolos* and *Pelucones*; the former, consisting of the liberal party, including the democratic or lower classes, with some men of talent to direct them; the latter, of the aristocracy, or persons of property, who had previously been divided into three distinct parties, each having separate interests and objects. The *Estangueros*, or the former proprietors of the monopoly called the *estanco*, formed one, with Portales, Gauderillas, and Benavente at their head; the O'Higgins party, headed by Prieto and Rodríguez; and the Pelucón party, principally consisting of landed proprietors and capitalists, and including all those most friendly to Spain. This accounts in some degree for the part taken in the subsequent disputes by the various chiefs. Freyre placed himself at the head of the *Pipiolos*, and Prieto at that of the *Pelucones*. Troops were collected under each of these leaders, and an engagement took place at Ochagavia, on the plains of Maypu, in which considerable loss was sustained by both parties. A treaty of reconciliation was entered into, but afterwards broken. In a congress of deputies from all the provinces, Tagle was elected president, and Ovalle vice-president. These measures, however, did not suffice to tranquillize the country; and the *Pipiolos* and *Pelucones* soon afterwards re-assembled their adherents in the neighbourhood of the capital; the former, who were the most numerous, being commanded by Lastra, who was seconded by Viel, Tupper, and Rondisoni, all foreign officers in the service of Chili. When on the eve of a general engagement, a proposal was made to adjust their differences by mutual agreement. Lastra and Viel, the commander and second in command of the *Pipiolos*, were invited to meet the heads of the other party at their own head-quarters. They did so; but the *Pelucones*, violating their pledges, took them prisoners, on which their followers dispersed, the greater part retiring to Valparaiso, where they were joined by Freyre, who had refused to acknowledge the existing authorities. Had he collected all the adherents of the *Pipiolos* at that place, as recommended by Tupper, they would have greatly exceeded the number of their opponents; but Freyre pursued a different course, which proved most disastrous to his party. His troops were embarked in small vessels; some were lost, others taken by the *Pelucones*, and the remainder reached Concepcion in a very forlorn condition. Freyre passed some time in going to Coquimbo, before appearing at Concepcion, where his army was joined by Viel, who had escaped from confinement. The opposing armies of Freyre and Prieto met near Cancharayada on the 17th, that of the former being 1700, the latter 2300 men. An action took place, in which Freyre was defeated, with the loss of 800 men and six officers killed, among whom were the gallant Colonel Tupper, and Captain Bell of the navy. Viel, who had scarcely taken any part in the action, escaped with 200 men, and with difficulty reached Coquimbo, where he afterwards surrendered on terms, and was banished to Peru. Rondisoni went to Europe.

Left without opponents, the Pelucón party obtained the entire ascendancy in Chili, and have since ruled the country. Prieto was elected president, and still retains the supreme authority, Portales being vice-president. They are supported by the Estanguero party, and the principal proprietors; but the other party are gradually acquiring influence, as intelligence and improvement advance. The present government have greatly strengthened their influence by conciliating the good will of the clergy, to whom they have restored the greater part of the church property formerly confiscated by the government. The army is likewise in a very complete and efficient state, being well paid and clothed with all the requisite equipments, and in an excellent state of discipline. It consists of 3000 regular troops, and an equal number of militia, all of whom are efficient; and although many of them were formerly of the Pipiole party, they have been so well treated by the present government that they may be depended upon.

The Pincheyras, consisting of several brothers, for some years emulated the deeds of the notorious Benavides, allied themselves with the Indians, and having secured safe retreats in the Cordillera of the Andes, between the territories of the Tehuelches and Araucanians, and being joined by numbers of the worst characters of Chili, carried on a war of plunder and rapine in Chili and the southern Argentine provinces, especially Mendoza; indeed on one occasion they were so daring as to enter the valleys of the Cachapoal and Maypu, and levy contributions on the inhabitants. An expedition was lately sent against them, which succeeded in killing one of the two surviving brothers, and in defeating his followers. The remaining brother yielded himself up on receiving terms, and is now with Bulnes, the governor of Concepcion. The delinquents have been punished according to their deserts, and tranquillity is restored all over the country; while the most favourable prospect now presents itself of future prosperity to Chili, which, as has been justly remarked, is the Italy of South America, and requires nothing but a good and permanent government, and national instruction and freedom, to form one of the most desirable countries in the universe.

Molina's History of Chili; Hall's Voyage to the Pacific; Miers' Travels in Chili; Memoirs of General Miller; Campaigns and Cruizes in Venezuela, New Grenada, and the Pacific Ocean.