the bark of a tree of the same name; Quercus Suber, Lin.

In order to take off the bark, an incision is made from the top to the bottom of the tree, and at each extremity another round the tree, perpendicular to the first. When the tree is fifteen years old, it may be barked for eight years successively; and the quality of the bark improves with the age of the tree. When stripped from the tree, which does not therefore die, the bark is piled up in a pond or ditch, and loaded with heavy stones to flatten it, and reduce it into a tabular form. It is then removed to be dried; and when sufficiently dry, put in bales for carriage. If care be not taken to strip the bark, it splits and peels of itself, being pushed up by another bark formed underneath.

The cork tree, and the uses to which the bark may be applied, were known both to the Greeks and Romans. Pliny informs us that the Romans employed it to stop all kinds of vessels; but the use of it for this purpose does not appear to have been common till the invention of glass bottles, of which, according to Professor Beckman, there is no mention before the fifteenth century.

Other vegetable productions have been sometimes employed instead of cork. The spondias lutea, a tree which grows in South America, particularly in moist places, and which is there called monbin or monbain, is sometimes brought to England for the purpose of stopping vessels. The roots of liquorice are applied to the same use, and on this account the plant is much cultivated in Slavonia, and exported to other countries. A tree called quassia, which grows in North America, has been found also to answer as a substitute for cork.

Cork Jacket or Waistcoat, is an invention of one Dubourg, a gentleman fond of swimming, but subject to the cramp, which led him to consider of some method by which he might enjoy his favourite diversion in safety. The waistcoat is composed of four pieces of cork, two for the breasts and two for the back; each nearly equal in length and breadth to the quarters of a waistcoat without flaps; and the whole is covered with coarse canvass, and provid- ed with two holes to put the arms through. There is also a space left between the two back-pieces, and the same betwixt each breast-piece, that they may the more easily fit to the body. Thus the waistcoat is only open before, and may be fastened on the wearer with strings, or buckles and leather straps. This waistcoat does not weigh above twelve ounces, and may be made for an expense of about five or six shillings. Dubourg tried his waistcoat in the Thames, and found that it not only supported him in the water, but that two men could not sink him, though they used their utmost efforts for the purpose.

largest and most populous county in Ireland, and the most southern in position, is bounded on the north by the county of Limerick, on the east by those of Tipperary and Waterford, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the county of Kerry. Its surface comprehends 1,769,560 acres, or 2765 square miles. In length it measures eighty-six miles from Crowhead in the west to Youghal in the east; its breadth, measured in a northeasterly direction from Baltimore to Charleville, is sixty miles. According to Ptolemy, it was inhabited by the tribes of the Juverni, the Coriundi, and the Vodi. Before the arrival of the English it was considered as a distinct sovereignty or principality, over which the Macarths held the chief sway. It was granted by Henry II. to Robert Fitz-Stephen and Milo de Cogan, with the exceptions of the city of Cork and the cantred belonging to the Ostmen of the same city, which the king retained. King John made it shire-ground in 1210, and appointed sheriffs and other local officers for its government. But during many subsequent years, the royal writs were of but little efficacy in many parts of it, as the great families, the principal of which were the Macarths, the O'Sullivans, the O'Callaghans, the O'Driscolls, the O'Learys, the O'Mahonys, the O'Donovans, the Barrys, the Roches, and the Conrons, still virtually commanded the allegiance of the inhabitants. The county is now divided into two ridings, eastern and western, in one or other of which its twenty-two baronies are included as follow: East riding, Barrett's, Barrymore, Condons's and Clangibbon's, Duhallow, Fermoy, Imokilly, Kerrycurrihy, Kinnalea, Kinntalon, Kinsale, East Muskerry, and Orrery and Kilmore; west riding, Bantry, Bere, East and West Carbery (each of which is again subdivided into an eastern and western division), Courcye's, Ibane and Barryroe, Kinalmeaky, and West Muskerry. The city and liberties of Cork constitute a separate jurisdiction, though included in the east riding. These baronies are subdivided into two hundred and twenty-five parishes, and one part of a parish, the remainder of which is in the county of Waterford. The smallest territorial divisions are denominated ploughlands, a vague and undefined measure, said by some writers to contain upwards of four hundred English acres.

The county contains the three dioceses of Cork, Ross, and Cloyne. The first occupies chiefly the central parts of the county; the church of St Finbar's, in the city of Cork, being the cathedral of the see. Ross lies in the western parts, extending through the baronies of Bantry and Bere, and part of Carbery. Its cathedral, built in the town of Ross, was formerly known by the name of the church of Faughan Ross, from having been founded by St Feaghan, who flourished in the ninth century. The eastern part of the county is occupied by the diocese of Cloyne, the cathedral of which is in the town of the same name. The wardenship of Youghal, formerly an exempted jurisdiction, was united to the last named of these dioceses in 1639. The see of Cloyne was united to that of Cork in 1481, and so continued till 1638. After the restoration it was annexed to those of Cork and Ross, which had been united in 1586, and the three continued to be held in con-

junction until 1678, when that of Cloyne was separated from the others, and has remained so, the union of Cork and Ross having continued to the present day. According to the new arrangements for the church of Ireland, these three dioceses are to be re-united.

The surface of this county is very uneven, forming natural basins or protracted valleys, each being the channel of a large river. Those basins have an easterly direction, and are separated from each other by ridges of elevated land, the highest of which are the Bogra Mountains, a vast uncultivated tract of heath and bog, grazed by numerous herds and flocks during the summer. The Kilworth Mountains are in the north of the county, south of which is the basin of the Blackwater, a river which, rising on the confines of Kerry, and flowing eastward through the northern baronies, enters Waterford county, where, changing its direction southwards, its estuary forms the boundary between the two counties, and spreads itself into Youghal Bay. During its course it receives the Alla, the Awbeg (celebrated by Spencer under the name of the Mulla), the Araglin, and the Bride. Few rivers present a greater variety of rich and picturesque scenery. The Lee rises in the small lake of Gougane Barra, sometimes called Lough Lee, and after expending itself into another lake of larger dimensions named Inchigeela, it flows through the city of Cork, where it becomes navigable for large vessels, and empties itself through a vale of singular beauty into Cork harbour. Its chief branches are the Toone, the Shullane, the Foherish, the Diprise, the Bride, the Awbeg, and the Glannire. The Bandon river flows from the Dumanway Mountains, by Bandon town, into Kinsale harbour; its only tributary stream of any importance is the Brinney. The Arigadeen river passes by Timoleague into Courtmacsherry Bay. The only river of any note which swerves from the eastern direction already noticed is the Illen, which takes a southern direction through the western districts to Skibbereen into Baltimore Bay. The general character of these rivers is rapidity, which, though unfriendly to inland navigation, is singularly favourable to the extension of manufactures, from the multiplicity of mill-sites they form.

The only lakes worthy of notice are those already mentioned as the sources of the Lee, which claim attention, not from their extent, but from their scenic beauties. Gougane Barra is a very small lake, inclosing a still more diminutive island or peninsula, on which the ruins of a religious cell attributed to St Finbar are still visible. Solitary devotion could not have selected a more appropriate spot. From the base of a steep and rocky mountain bursts forth a most copious spring, the waters of which, thrown back by a rugged eminence at a little distance from their source, form the lake. A little farther is the long narrow lake of Inchigeela, extending nearly three miles, studded with several small islands, and surrounded by mountains of rude grandeur and imposing altitude, which exhibit many varieties of cataract and waterfall. The loss of the timber which formerly clothed the mountains and islands has considerably diminished the beauties of these lakes.

The want of the means of inland navigation is in a great degree compensated by the numerous bays and inlets capable of admitting large vessels, with which the coast is indented. Proceeding westwards from Youghal Bay, and passing that of Ballycotton, which, though large, is wholly unsheltered, the fine and capacious inlet of Cork harbour appears, completely landlocked, and capable of accommodating a royal fleet. Its narrow entrance is defended by batteries on each side, and on the great island opposite to its mouth. Spike Island and Hawlbowling Island, within the harbour, are strongly fortified, and used as naval arsenals. Kinsale harbour, though incommode... Cork by a bar at the entrance, has depth enough within for the largest vessels. Cloghnakilty and Castlehaven harbours are fit for smaller vessels only; but Baltimore Bay has deep water, and enjoys the shelter of Cape Clear Island, and several others at its entrance. Crookhaven is narrow, but well sheltered. Dunmanus Bay, though having deep water and good anchorage, is little frequented except by small craft, or during summer, in consequence of its exposure to the western gales. Bantry Bay is large, safe, and commodious for vessels of any size. Within its entrance is Bear Island, and much farther inwards Whiddy Island, off which lay the French fleet that attempted an invasion in 1796. The water is deep almost close to the shores, and free from rocks and shoals. Ballydonaghan Bay and Qualagh Bay lie near the mouth of Kenmare river. This last-named inlet, though called a river, is an estuary of large dimensions, separating the counties of Cork and Kerry, and capable of accommodating the largest vessels.

The most remarkable among the numerous islands along the coast, besides those already mentioned, are Inchidony, in Cloghnakilty Bay; Cape Clear, Inisherkin, and Ringarona or Donegal Island, in Baltimore Bay; and Dursey's Island, off the southern point of Bere Barony. Of these, Cape Clear is the largest and most remarkable. It was formerly supposed to be the most southern point of Ireland; but Browhead, near Mizenhead, is now found to have the right to this mark of distinction. The inhabitants of Cape Clear live almost wholly secluded from the world, being governed by a system of unwritten law peculiar to themselves. The island has a small lake near its centre, possessed of the singular quality of purifying any tainted vessels that lie for a short time in it.

The climate of Cork is not so varied as might be supposed in a district so extensive, and of a surface so diversified. Its general character is that of a mean between the extremes of heat and cold. Along the sea coast winter is disarmed of much of its severity by the prevalence of southern winds, which seldom suffer the heaviest snow to lie many hours undissolved, except on the northern sides of high hills; the sea breeze equally tempers the violence of the summer heat. There is also reason to believe that the climate has been materially improved by the felling of the forests and the drainage of the bogs and marshes.

The geological divisions of the county may be arranged under four heads. The first includes the calcareous districts in the northern parts. These contain extensive beds of marble and limestone, the base of which is unknown. A second vein of limestone extends from the west of Cork city eastwards to Youghal Bay. Coal appears in the north-western extremity of this district, which, from its approaching the surface in many places considerably distant, may be conjectured to be abundant. It is raised in several places, but the disadvantages of situation in mountainous districts remote from water carriage prevent its general use. The second geological division is chiefly contained in the western mountainous districts, but it also comprehends two elevated ranges which inclose the calcareous basin of the Blackwater. The more northern of these contains siliceous breccia with red argillite, none of which is to be found in the southern. The stone of the highest hills on the northern side of Bantry Bay consists chiefly of masses of siliceous grit; and the secondary hills contain a slaty argillite, intermixed with veins of grit. The eastern mountains have a thick covering of clay; those of the west are more bare and rocky. The third division, or redstone district, occupies most of the northern parts that are not calcareous, and also the whole of the great elevated tract between the basins of the Lee and the Blackwater. The quarries near Cork supply abundance of stone fit for building, but hard to be worked. The fourth or greystone district includes the greater part of the county south of the Lee. It contains several kinds of argillite and of grit, a few veins of calcareous schistus, and a large proportion of slate. The city of Cork, and most parts of the northern districts, are supplied with this article from the numerous quarries along the southern coast. Large masses of quartz, generally inclining to a globular form, and weighing three or four hundredweight, appear frequently on the surface, particularly in Carbery Barony. Near Ross is a very remarkable rock composed entirely of white quartz, the blocks of which are of great size and regular conformation. Bogs of great extent are almost exclusively confined to the mountainous parts; their usual substratum is hard rock or retentive clay. The county contains little of the strong clayey loam so common in England, still less of sandy ground, and no chalk. Iron was formerly raised and smelted in large quantities, until the process was stopped by the exhaustion of the timber used for fuel. Lead, generally combined with quartz, and in small veins, and copper, are of rare occurrence, though there are grounds for conjecturing that this latter metal exists in some of the hills.

Near the town of Mallow is one of the most celebrated mineral springs in Ireland. It resembles the waters of Bristol in its sensible and operative qualities, and is applied to the same medicinal purposes. Strong chalybeate springs have been discovered at Kanturk and in the neighbourhood of Macroom. St Bartholomew's well, near the city of Cork, is of a sulphureous quality.

The inhabitants of this county are in general of the middle size, muscular in their limbs, and capable of enduring great fatigue. Instances of men of very large stature and athletic proportions are not uncommon. The O'Driscolls, who formerly possessed Cape Clear, are described as being much above the common height. A thigh bone of one of the last members of that family is still to be seen, and, according to the measurements of some scientific persons, must have belonged to a man upwards of seven feet in height. In the labouring classes, the women as well as the men perform their journeys on foot, and seldom seem to be affected by fatigue, though loaded with heavy burdens. Before the general extension of posts, messages were usually conveyed by foot runners, who executed their missions with surprising speed. Fifty Irish miles a day was considered as no very extraordinary performance for an active footman. It is somewhat remarkable that though both sexes are equally well-limbed in childhood, the full grown women are seldom well formed in their legs; a circumstance attributable only to their carrying heavy burdens, and to their mode of sitting in a crouching posture in their cabins. When young they are well-looking; but owing to early marriages, frequent childbirths, and the smoky state of their dwellings, they soon contract an old and withered look. In their disposition the labouring classes are lively and cheerful; indeed grave or gloomy dispositions are very uncommon. They indulge in sports of every kind, particularly in dancing, in which they move with ease and alacrity, keeping accurate time with the music. Nor are they less remarkable for a continual flow of conversation, even though there be but two persons present. In a convivial party, the difficulty generally is to find a listener. The Irish language still continues to be a common medium of intercourse in many parts; but its use is every year more and more limited to the unfrequented and mountainous districts.

There is a great intermixture of English blood among the inhabitants. Besides the followers of Strongbow, whose descendants have long ranked among the most influential families, the English settlers were the founders of most of the towns. To these succeeded the numerous bands of adventurers whose services were rewarded at different periods with grants of conquered or forfeited lands. With these came many followers, whose intermarriages with the natives gradually instilled into their posterity the manners and prejudices of the natives. The Danes also, who possessed several of the sea-ports and the adjoining districts, increased these international varieties of character. It is said that this people, at no very distant period, had maps of the lands formerly held by them in Ireland, and that they frequently threw in an Irish settlement as part of a daughter's marriage portion.

The easy communication between this county and the Spanish peninsula also led to a commercial intercourse, which, together with the military invasions of the Spaniards during the reigns of the Tudors, has had its due effect in impressing a distinctive character on the inhabitants.

The population of the county, including that of the city and liberties, was ascertained to be as follows in the several annexed periods:

1791. By returns of the hearth-money collectors, 460,434 1812. By the first parliamentary census.............603,328 1821. By the second parliamentary census..........730,444 1831. By the third parliamentary census...........807,446

The census of 1821 is the only one of these which can be considered as approximating to accuracy; yet the two others, taken under acts of parliament, though avowedly imperfect, afford sufficient data for inferring a rapid and undeviating increase of population. It has nearly doubled in forty years.

Previously to the Union, the country returned twenty-six members to parliament; two for the county at large, and two for each of the boroughs of Baltimore, Bandon, Castlemartin, Charleville, Cloghernakilty, Doneralee, Kinsale, Mallow, Middleton, Rathcorncum, and Youghal. At the Union, the number was reduced to eight: two for the county, two for the city, and one for each of the boroughs of Bandon, Kinsale, Mallow, and Youghal. The reform act has made no change in the representation. The number of freeholders entitled to vote at the county election, before the disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders, was about 6000; by that measure it was reduced to 3100. Under the reform act it amounts to 4020.

The state of education is as follows, according to the reports of the board of education in 1824–26. There were then 1354 schools, in which somewhat more than 69,000 pupils were instructed. Of these, 45,000 were boys and 24,000 girls. Of the whole number, 9494 were of the established church, 58,174 were Roman Catholics, 340 dissenters; and of the remaining 1110, the religious persuasion had not been ascertained. Of the total number, 51,847 paid for their education; and but 17,771 were educated through the contributions of private individuals, or by grants of public money; and of these two latter classes, the one amounted to 15,392, the other only to 5242. The great preponderancy of the Roman Catholic religion may be fairly inferred from the preceding statement. The number of dissenters' children receiving education is extremely small, and chiefly limited to the city of Cork and a few of the larger towns.

In a district of such extent and variety of surface, the state of agriculture must be liable to much variation. The more populous parts near the sea, and in the vicinity of the great lines of communication, exhibit very favourable specimens of agricultural improvement. In the more retired and mountainous districts, several of which, from the want of well-constructed roads, are still nearly impervious except to the residents, the cultivation of the soil is carried on according to the habits of the past century. Spade cultivation is used to a considerable extent. In the improved parts, limestone and sea-sand are largely used, where facilities of carriage are to be had. Dairies are much attended to. The character of the Cork butter stands high, both in the British and foreign markets. In several parts fences are made of a high bank, with a broad top, on which furze is sown. This plant, if due attention be paid to it, not only forms an impenetrable hedge, but, by being cut periodically, affords a valuable supply of fuel in the districts remote from a sea-port, and where turf is not easily procurable.

Manufactures are not carried on to any great extent, notwithstanding the frequent attempts made to establish them. Linen cloth is wrought in some places, but not in much larger quantities than the demands of the surrounding districts require. Sail-cloth is wrought in the liberties of Cork. A factory for the finer kinds of woollen cloth was erected about thirty or forty years ago at Middleton; but it was soon afterwards relinquished, and the buildings converted into a barrack. The woollen manufacture is now confined to frieze and coarse blanketings. An attempt lately made to establish the silk trade, by naturalizing the silk worm, completely failed, after a large portion of land had been planted with mulberry trees for their sustenance. The only extensive manufactures are those of whisky and porter, which cause a considerable demand for the agricultural produce. There are large paper-mills on some of the numerous mill-sites; but the late changes in the excise laws, and the interference of British paper-makers, whose extensive capital enables them to furnish the article on terms highly advantageous to the purchaser, have rendered this manufacture a very hazardous speculation. The supply of salted provisions for the navy and the West Indies during the late war, was a source of great profit both to the city of Cork, where the business was chiefly carried on, and to the farmers throughout the county. The export, though considerably diminished since the peace, is still of much importance.

The county abounds in antiquarian relics. Among the most ancient are cromlechs, raths, pillars consisting of a single stone, and sometimes two pillars dissimilar in height, placed at a short distance from each other, and caves in several instances of considerable length. Vaults with low entrances are often found in raths; these also are sometimes of a square form. The remains of ancient monasteries and other ecclesiastical structures are numerous, but none of them is very remarkable. Many examples occur of the relics of very small churches, built of stone without mortar, and totally destitute of architectural ornament. There have been built two round towers in the county; one at Cloyne, the other at Kinneagh. Ruins of military structures are equally common, bearing strong marks, even in their dilapidated condition, of the period in which they were erected. Some few are well preserved, and are the residences of families of respectability.

The city of Cork is situated on the river Lee, about eleven miles from its mouth. Though now second only to the metropolis of Ireland in magnitude and importance, it was but lately that it attained so high a situation. Originally it was confined to a swampy island, formed by the diverging branches of the river; from which circumstance it derived its name of Corcagh, which signifies low marshy land. Its commencement is thought to be coeval with that of the bishopric founded by St Finbar in the seventh century. In the ninth century it was walled in by the Danes. At the time of the arrival of the English, and for several centuries afterwards, it consisted merely of a single street, passing through the island from north to south, con- Cork: connected by bridges secured by gates, and having a few lanes branching out in an eastern and western direction, together with a suburb on the southern bank of the river. In 1690, it was besieged and taken by the Duke of Marlborough for William III. The Duke of Grafton, a natural son of Charles II. and a volunteer in the besieging army, was killed before the walls. Since that period, the city has increased rapidly in size and wealth, covering not only the island, but extending northwards and southwards over the adjacent mainland. Its increase is chiefly attributable to its advantageous situation for the provision trade, which was carried on here with great profit during the American and French revolutionary wars. The detached parts of the city have been connected by bridges of elegant construction; the lesser branches of the river, which formed several petty islets, have been arched over, several fine streets erected, and public buildings, both for civil and ecclesiastical purposes, raised on a scale commensurate with the growing prosperity of the place. The exchange, the corn-market, and the court-house, are built according to approved rules of modern architecture. The jails for the county and city are extensive and well arranged. The barracks afford accommodation for 4000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. The new market is held in a spacious building, according to the plan of the town market of Liverpool. The ecclesiastical buildings have not kept pace with those just described. The cathedral, dedicated to St Finbar, is a structure of very moderate architectural pretensions, being remarkable chiefly for a tower at its west end, supporting a spire of considerable height and of very inelegant form. The principal Roman Catholic place of worship is of large proportions, and highly ornamented in the interior. The situation of the city, in a valley closely surrounded by grounds of considerable elevation, renders it generally gloomy, and very subject to rain and fogs; but its environs are peculiarly beautiful. On the west, the Mardyke Walk extends for a mile along the banks of the Lee; and the roads in other directions towards the Black Rock, Blarney, Glanmire, and, above all, to Cove, exhibit a variety of highly ornamental and picturesque scenery, seldom to be paralleled in the environs of a great city.

The public institutions are numerous. Of those of a benevolent character, the principal are, the house of industry, founded in the hope of extirpating mendicity; the fever hospital; the asylum for lunatics and for penitent prostitutes; the foundling hospital, and the lying-in hospital; besides several schools, in which corporeal support is combined with intellectual improvement. The most remarkable of these is the blue-coat school. The principal literary association is the Cork Institution, the endowment of which, granted by parliament in 1807, for maintaining lectureships in several branches of science, and for the support of a botanic garden and museum of minerals, has been lately withdrawn. A society of arts was formed in 1815. Besides these, there are libraries and reading-rooms, supported by voluntary subscriptions. In former times, the city was celebrated for several monastic institutions, founded for the double purpose of ascetic devotion and acts of beneficence. Among these were an Augustinian, a Franciscan, and a Dominican friary, and a preceptory of the knights templars.

The municipal government, according to a charter granted by James I. in 1608, is vested in a corporation consisting of a mayor, two sheriffs, a board of aldermen, a recorder, and an unlimited number of freemen, who are all entitled to vote at the elections of members of parliament. The number of freemen previously to the passing of the reform act was 1700; since that period it has increased to 3876, of which 2331 are freemen, and 1555 freeholders. The city, including the liberties, occupies a considerable district, covering 45,000 acres. It contains fifteen parishes, besides seven parts of parishes, the remaining parts of which are in the county at large. Seven of these parishes are in the city itself; the remainder are spread over the liberties.

The population of the city and liberties was, in 1831, 100,658, and in 1831, 107,007. That of the city alone was as follows, according to the undenominated authorities:

| Year | Population | |------|------------| | 1810 | Dr McArthy, Roman Catholic bishop co-adjutor | 84,000 | | 1812 | Imperfect census of this year | 74,992 | | 1821 | Detailed census of this year | 75,256 | | 1831 | Imperfect census of this year not stated |

The relative importance of the boroughs now entitled to return members to parliament may be easily inferred from the following table:

| Borough | Acres | Population | Constituency Before Reform Act | After Reform Act | |---------|-------|------------|--------------------------------|-----------------| | Bandon | 439 | 9820 | 13 | 230 | | Kinsale | 273 | 6897 | 64 | 310 | | Mallow | 6897 | 7688 | 550 | 530 | | Youghal | 212 | 9600 | 290 | 425 |