the famous Athenian orator, was born at Athens in the year B.C. 381. He lost his father at the early age of seven, and was placed under the conduct of guardians, who robbed him of his substance and neglected his education. But Demosthenes repaired this loss by his love of eloquence and his extraordinary abilities. He became the disciple of Isocrates and Plato, and applied himself to study the orations of Isocrates. At the age of seventeen he gave an early proof of his eloquence and abilities in a suit against his guardians, from whom he obtained the restitution of the greater part of his estate. His rising talents were, however, impeded by various natural defects; but these were at last conquered by dint of resolution and unwearied attention. He declaimed by the sea-shore, that he might become habituated to the noise of a tumultuous assembly, and with pebbles in his mouth, that he might correct a defect in his speech. He practised at home with a naked sword hanging over his shoulder, that he might check an ungraceful motion to which he was subject. He also confined himself in a subterraneous cave, in order to devote himself more closely to studious pursuits; and in order to eradicate all curiosity of appearing in public, he shaved one half of his head. In this solitary retirement, by the help of a glimmering lamp, he composed the greater part of those orations which have been the admiration of every succeeding age; though his contemporaries and rivals inveighed against them, and observed that they smelt of the lamp. His abilities as an orator raised him to consequence at Athens, and he was soon placed at the head of the government. In this public capacity he roused his countrymen from their indolence, and animated them against the encroachment of Philip of Macedonia; but in the battle of Cheronæa, the hero of the Agora betrayed his pusillanimity, and saved his life by an ignominious flight. After the death of Philip, he declared himself warmly against Alexander his son and successor; and when the Macedonians demanded of the Athenians to give up their orators, Demosthenes reminded his countrymen of the fable of the sheep, which delivered up their dogs to the wolves. By the prevalence of party, however, he was forced to retire from Athens; and in his banishment, which he passed at Trozen and Aegina, he lived with more effeminacy than became his character. When Antipater made war against Greece after the death of Alexander, Demosthenes was publicly recalled from his exile, and a galley was sent to fetch him from Aegina. His return was attended with much splendour, and all the citizens crowded to the Piræus to see him land. But his triumph and popularity were shortlived. Antipater and Craterus were near Athens, and demanded that all the orators should be delivered into their hands. Demosthenes fled to the temple of Neptune in Calauria; and when he saw that all hopes of safety were vanished, he took a dose of poison, which he had always carried in a quill, and expired on the day on which the Thesmophoria were celebrated, 329 years before Christ. The Athenians raised a brazen statue to his honour, with an inscription, setting forth, that if his actual means had equalled his mental resources, Greece would not have bowed to the Macedonian.

Demosthenes has been deservedly considered as the prince of orators. Indeed no orator had ever a finer field than Demosthenes in his Olynthiacs and Philippics, which are his principal orations; and undoubtedly to the greatness of the subject, and to that integrity and public spirit which breathe in them, these productions owe a large portion of their merit. The subject is, to excite the indignation of his countrymen against Philip of Macedon, the public enemy of the liberties of Greece; and to guard them against the treacherous measures by which that crafty tyrant endeavoured to lull them into a neglect of their danger. In order to attain this end, we see him using every proper means to animate a people distinguished for justice, humanity, and valour, but who had in many respects become corrupt and degenerate. He boldly accuses them of venality, indolence, and indifference to the public good; whilst, at the same time, he reminds them of their former glory and of their present resources. His contemporary orators, who had been bribed by Philip, and who persuaded the people to remain at peace, he openly reproaches as traitors to their country; and he not only prompts to vigorous measures, but teaches how these are to be carried into execution. His orations are strongly animated, and full of impetuosity and ardour of public spirit. His composition is not distinguished by ornament and splendour. It is an energy of thought peculiarly his own, which forms his character, and raises him above all others. He seems not to attend to words, but to things. We forget the orator, and think only of the subject. He has no parade and ostentation, no studied introductions; he is like a man full of his subject, who, after preparing his audience by a sentence or two for the reception of plain truths, enters directly on business.

The style of Demosthenes is strong and concise, though occasionally, it must be confessed, somewhat harsh and abrupt. His words are highly expressive, and his arrangement firm and manly. Negligent of lesser graces, he seems to have aimed at that sublime which consists in sentiment. His action and pronunciation are said to have been uncommonly vehement and ardent; which, from the manner of his writings, we should readily believe. His character appears to have been of the austere rather than of the gentle kind. He is always grave, serious, passionate; never degrading himself, nor attempting any thing like pleasantry. If his admirable eloquence have any fault, it is that it sometimes borders on the hard and the dry. He may be thought to want smoothness and grace, which is attributed to his imitating too closely the manner of Thucydides, who was his great model for style, and whose history he is said to have transcribed eight times with his own hand. But these defects are more than counterbalanced by that force of masculine eloquence which, as it overpowered all who heard it, cannot in the present day be read without emotion.

Cicero calls him a perfect model, and such as he himself wished to be. These two great masters of eloquence have been often compared, but the judgment hesitates to which the preference should be given. The Archbishop of Cambrai, however, seems to have stated their merits with great justice and perspicuity in his Reflections on Rhetoric and Poetry. "I do not hesitate," says he, "to declare that I think Demosthenes superior to Cicero. I am persunded no one can admire Cicero more than I do. He adorns whatever he attempts; he does honour to language; he disposes of words in a manner peculiar to himself; his style has great variety of character. Whenever he pleases he is even concise and vehement; for instance, against Catiline, against Verres, against Antony. But ornament is too visible in his writings; his art is wonderful, but it is perceived. When the orator is providing for the safety of the republic, he forgets not himself, nor permits others to forget him. Demosthenes seems to escape from himself, and to see nothing but his country. He seeks not elegance of expression, unsought for he possesses it. He is superior to admiration; he makes use of language, as a modest man does of dress, only to cover him. He thunders, he lightens; he is a torrent which carries every thing before it. We cannot criticise, because we are not ourselves. His subject enchains our attention, and makes us forget his language. We lose him from our sight: Philip alone occupies our minds. I am delighted with both these orators; but I confess that I am less affected by the infinite art and magnificent eloquence of Cicero, than by the rapid simplicity of Demosthenes."