a celebrated physician of Italy, was born at Rappallo, in the state of Genoa, in the year 1577. He came into the world in the seventh month; but his father, an ingenious physician, wrapped him up in cotton, and nurtured him so carefully that he lived to be seventy-seven.

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1 The publication of the Ottoman States Gazette, under the title of Takwim Wokai, or Tables of Events, has proceeded with great spirit since its first appearance in January 1832, and contains a variety of articles which throw considerable light on the nature of the reforms which are in progress throughout every department of the state. In this respect, the Takwim Wokai is a more interesting paper than the Moniteur Ottoman, which is by no means the French original of the former, as the public may perhaps have been led to conclude.

2 Travels in Nubia, p. lxviii.

3 Life of the Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh, vol. ii. p. 85, London, 1836, 8vo, 2d edition. years of age. He was trained with great care, became a distinguished man in his profession, and was the author of a great number of works, particularly one *De Monstris*. He was professor of philosophy and physic at Padua, where he died in the year 1655.

**Lichtenberg**, a part of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg, but detached from the other territory of that state. It is situated to the west of the Rhine, surrounded by the lands of Prussia, Bavaria, and Hesse-Homburg; it extends over 248 square miles, contains two towns, ninety-six villages, 4038 houses, and 25,315 inhabitants. The capital is St Wendel, situated on the river Blies.

**Lichtenstein**, a sovereign principality, one of the smallest in Germany. It is situated on the frontier of Switzerland and the Tyrol, and borders on the Rhine. It is fifty-five square miles in extent, and contains 1207 houses, in two towns and nine villages, with 5500 inhabitants. The revenue is said to be about L2000 annually; but the prince has other territory, which has been mediatised, the income of which far exceeds that of the independent sovereign state.

**Lichtervelde**, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of West Flanders, and arrondissement of Bruges. It contains 4250 inhabitants, who are employed in linen manufactures.

**Licinius Stoilo**, a Roman tribune, styled *Stoilo* on account of a law he made, whilst tribune, that no Roman citizen should possess more than 500 acres of land; alleging, that when they occupied more, they could not cultivate it with care, nor pull up the useless shoots (*stalones*) which grow from the roots of trees. He is remembered also for having enacted, that one of the consuls should always be of a plebeian family. He lived about 362 B.C.

**Licinon**, in the Dionysiac solemnities, the mystical van of Bacchus, a thing so essential to all the solemnities of this god, that they could not be duly celebrated without it.

**Licinophori**, in the Dionysiac solemnities, those who carried the lieron.

**Licodia**, a city of the island of Sicily, in the kingdom of Naples, and province of Noto. It stands on a steep rock, rising above the river Dirillo, known as the Eubea of Strabo. It is in a healthy situation, and contains 6950 inhabitants.

**Licola**, or *Lago di Licola*, a lake in the kingdom of Naples, anciently famous for excellent fish; but, in the year 1588, an explosion of a volcano changed one part of it into a mountain of ashes, and the other into a morass. It was anciently known by the name of the Lucrine Lake, the oysters of which are highly commended by Horace.

**Lictors**, amongst the Romans, were officers established by Romulus, who always attended the chief magistrates when they appeared in public. The duty of their office consisted of three parts: 1. *Submoto*, or clearing the way for the magistrate they attended. This they did by word of mouth; or, if there was occasion, by using the rods they always carried along with them. 2. *Animadversio*, or causing the people to pay the usual respect to the magistrate, as to alight, if on horseback or in a chariot; to rise up, uncover, make way, and the like. 3. *Praetitia*, or walking before the magistrates. This they did not confusedly, or altogether, nor by two or three abreast, but singly, following one another in a straight line. They also preceded the triumphal car in public triumphs; and it was a further part of their office to arrest criminals, and to act as public executioners. Their ensigns were the *fusces* and *securis*. As to the number of lictors allowed each magistrate, a dictator had twenty-four, a master of the horse six, a consul twelve, a praetor six; and each vestal virgin, when she appeared abroad, had one.

**Liddel, Duncan**, professor of mathematics and of medicine in the university of Helmstadt, was born in the year 1561, at Aberdeen, where he received the elementary part of his education in languages and philosophy. About the age of eighteen he repaired to the University of Frankfurt, where he spent three years in a diligent application to the mathematics and to philosophy. From Frankfurt he proceeded to Wroclaw or Breslau in Silesia, where he is said to have made uncommon progress in his favorite study of mathematics, under the direction of a very eminent professor, Paulus Wittichius. Having studied at Breslau for the space of one year, he returned to Frankfurt, and remained there for three years, giving the most intense application to the study of physic. A contagious distemper having broken out at that place, the students were dispersed, and Liddel retired to the university of Rostock. Here he renewed his studies, rather as a companion than as a pupil of the celebrated Bruceus, who, though an excellent mathematician, did not scruple to confess that he was instructed by Liddel in the more perfect knowledge of the Copernican system, and other astronomical questions. In 1590 he returned once more to Frankfurt; but having there heard of the increasing reputation of the Academia Julia, established at Helmstadt by Henry duke of Brunswick, Mr Liddel removed thither; and soon after his arrival was appointed to the first or lower professorship of mathematics. From this, however, he was promoted to the second and more dignified mathematical chair, which he occupied for nine years, with much credit to himself and to the Julian Academy. In 1596, he obtained his degree in physic, was admitted a member of the faculty, and began publicly to teach physic. By his teaching and his writings he was the chief support of the medical school at Helmstadt, was employed as first physician at the Court of Brunswick, and had much practice among the principal inhabitants of that country. Having been several times elected dean of the faculties both of philosophy and physic, he had in the year 1600 the honour of being chosen protector of the university. But neither academical honours, nor the profits of an extensive practice abroad, could make Dr Liddel forget his native country. In the year 1604 he took a final leave of the Academia Julia; and after travelling for some time through Germany and Italy, he at length settled in Scotland, where he died in the year 1613, in the fifty-second year of his age. By his last will he bestowed certain lands purchased by him near Aberdeen upon the university there, for the education and support of six poor scholars. Amongst a variety of regulations and injunctions for the management of this charity, he appointed the magistrates of Aberdeen his trustees, and solemnly denounced the curse of God against any person who should abuse or misapply it. His works are: 1. *Disputationes Medicinae*, Helmstadt, 1603, 4to.; 2. *Artis Medicae succinctae et perspicue explicatae*, Hamburg, 1607, 8vo., dedicated to James VI.; and divided into five books, viz. *Introductio in totum Medicinam*, *de Physiologia*, *de Pathologia*, *de Signorum Doctrina*, *de Therapeutica*; 3. *De Febribus Libri tres*, Hamburg, 1610, 12mo.; 4. *Tractatus de Dente Aureo*, Hamburg, 1628, 12mo. This last production Dr Liddel published, in order to refute a ridiculous story then current, of a poor boy in Silesia, who, at seven years of age, having lost some of his teeth, produced a new tooth of pure gold. The imposture was discovered to be a thin plate of gold, skilfully drawn over the natural tooth by an artist of that country, with a view to excite the public admiration and charity. He was also the author of *Artis Conservandi Sanitatem Libri duo*, Aberdeen, 1651, 12mo.; a posthumous work.

**Lie**, in morals, denotes a criminal breach of veracity. Archdeacon Paley, in treating of this subject, observes, that there are falsehoods which are not lies, that is, which are not criminal; and that there are lies which are not literally and directly false. Cases of the first class are those, 1. where no one is deceived; as, for instance, in parables, fables, novels, jests, tales to create mirth, or ludicrous embellishments of a story, in which the declared design of the speaker is not to inform, but to divert; compliments in the subscription of a letter; a prisoner's pleading not guilty; an advocate asserting the justice, or his belief of the justice, of his client's cause. In such instance no confidence is destroyed, because none was reposed; no promise to speak the truth is violated, because none was given or understood to be given. 2. Where the person you speak to has no right to know the truth, or, more properly, where little or no inconvenience results from the want of confidence in such cases; as where you tell a falsehood to a madman for his own advantage; to a robber, to conceal your property; to an assassin, to defeat or to divert him from his purpose. It is upon this principle that, by the laws of war, it is allowable to deceive an enemy by feints, false colours, spies, false intelligence, and the like; but by no means in treaties, truces, signals of capitulation or surrender. The difference is, that the former suppose hostilities to continue, whilst the latter are calculated to terminate or suspend them.

As there may be falsehoods which are not lies, so there may be lies without literal or direct falsehood. An opening is always left for this species of prevarication, when the literal and grammatical signification of a sentence is different from the popular and customary meaning. It is the wilful deceit that makes the lie; and we wilfully deceive when our expressions are not true in the sense in which we believe the hearer apprehends them. Besides, it is absurd to contend for any sense of words, in opposition to usage; for all senses of all words are founded upon usage, and upon nothing else. A man may also act a lie; as by pointing his finger in a wrong direction, when a traveller inquires of him his road; or when a tradesman shuts up his windows, to induce his creditors to believe that he is abroad; for to all moral purposes, and therefore as to veracity, speech and action are the same, speech being only a mode of action.