an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, lying on the north-eastern side of the Gulf of St Lawrence, between the parallels of 46° 40' and 51° 31' north latitude, and the meridians of 52° 44' and 59° 31' longitude west of Greenwich. It is separated on the north-west from Canada by the Gulf of St Lawrence; on the north and north-east it is divided from the coast of Labrador by the strait of Belleisle, which is about fifty miles long by twelve broad; on the south-west it approaches Cape Breton, so as to form the main entrance from the Atlantic Ocean into the gulf; and along the whole of its eastern side extends the Atlantic Ocean. Its form is somewhat triangular, but without any approach to regularity, being on all sides, at very short intervals, indented by broad and deeps bays, creeks, harbours, caves, and estuaries. In this respect its shores resemble those of Nova Scotia, and the serrated appearance which they have on maps is attributable to the same cause. A vast and uninterrupted body of water impelled by the trade-wind from the coast of Africa to the American continent strikes this New part of it with tremendous violence, and working away the softer strata, forms those numerous arms and inlets of the sea which we have mentioned. The same powerful agent, combined with the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, has produced the same effect upon other parts of the coast besides those exposed to its first attack. The coast outline, the only part of Newfoundland which has been satisfactorily explored, is rock, girt all round with abrupt fissures, and having some lofty headlands on the south-west side. Its width, at the broadest part, between Cape Ray and Cape Bonavista, is about 300 miles; its extreme length, measured on a curve from Cape Race to Grijquet Bay, is about 419 miles; and, exclusively of the bendings and inferior inflections of the coast, its circumference may be estimated at about 1000 miles, the whole comprehending an area of 36,000 square miles.
This vast island reposes upon an immense bank, a succession of which has been observed all the way to Nova Scotia. It is apparently a mass of solid rock, having a very wild and rugged appearance from the sea, and being any thing but inviting. On its south-eastern quarter Newfoundland is formed into a peninsula of twenty-six leagues in length by from five to twenty leagues in breadth, the isthmus which unites it with the main land being not more than four miles in breadth. This peninsula is called Avalon. To the north of it, and on the eastern side of the island, lies Trinity Bay, which is separated from that of Bonavista by a narrow neck of land, the point of which is Cape Bonavista. A long neck of land also divides Trinity Bay from Conception Bay on the northern side of Avalon. This bay ranks as the first district in Newfoundland, as well on account of the spirit and enterprise of the inhabitants who people its shores, as from its natural advantages of large harbours, coves, and the like. The scenery on this part of the coast is majestic, wild, and calculated to strike the beholder with awe. On the eastern side of Conception Bay are several islands, one of which is Bell Isle, so called from the shape of a remarkable rock close to its western side. This island is about six miles in length, and extremely fertile. Seven leagues distant from Cape St Francis, the eastern boundary of Conception, are the bay and harbour of St John's, the capital of Newfoundland. A succession of bays indent the coast all round the peninsula of Avalon, the principal of which are, Trepassey Bay, which has a large secure harbour and excellent anchorage, with a considerable fishery carried on in the coves and creeks; and Placentia Bay, which is about sixty miles deep and forty-five broad, lying between Cape St Mary and Cape Rouge, which are fifteen leagues apart. It is very spacious, with several rugged islands near its head. The port and town of Placentia lie on the eastern side, as well as the chief harbour, which, although it can only be entered by one vessel at a time, affords anchorage for one hundred and fifty. Placentia Bay contains several other harbours. It is separated from Fortune Bay by one of those long and narrow necks of land which are so common in the island. Fortune Bay is from sixty to seventy miles deep, and from twenty to thirty miles broad, receiving many rivers from the island lakes, and containing numerous harbours, the principal of which is Fortune Harbour on the eastern side. St Pierre and Miquelon Islets are situated at the mouth of Fortune Bay. They were ceded to France in the year 1814, and the former contains a harbour which is the rendezvous of the French shipping, and the residence of the governor. From this point, all along the south side of Newfoundland to Cape Ray, which forms the northeast entrance of the Gulf of St Lawrence, there are numerous bays, but none of sufficient size or importance to require particular description. On the western side, formed by Cape Anguille and Cape St George, is the Bay of St George, a large and deep inlet of the sea, into which several rivers emerging from lakes in the interior empty themselves. Further to the north is the Bay of Islands, formed by three arms, through which several rivers discharge their waters. One of these, called the Humber, is the most considerable yet discovered, its course having been traced for one hundred and fourteen miles to the north-westward, where it issues from a cape of ten leagues in length. As its name would indicate, this bay contains a number of islands, but none of any particular consequence.
The next large indentation of the sea on the western side of Newfoundland is Bonne Bay, which has also rivers communicating with the lakes inland to Point Rich. The next bay is called Ingornacholix Bay, which contains two harbours; and to the north of it is St John's Bay, which receives the waters of Castor's River. Along the straits of Belleisle, which separate Newfoundland from the coast of Labrador, are a few inconsiderable inlets; but beyond Cape Norman, the north-west point of the island, is a large bay called Pistolet Bay, bounded by Cape Barut. On the northern extremity of Newfoundland are Griquet Bay and Hare Bay, a deep gulf, the bottom of which intersects the island for two thirds of its breadth at this point, branching off into innumerable bays and coves, sheltered by lofty hills. From this haven to White Bay, a very large inlet of the sea, on the eastern side of the island, and thence to Cape St John, the coast is indented at short distances by commodious and much-frequented harbours. The Bay of Notre Dame and the Bay of Exploits are of great extent, and contain a vast number of islands, together with a thriving settlement called Twillingate. The river Exploits is about seventy miles long, but its navigation is obstructed by rapids, some of which have a velocity of nearly ten miles an hour. This river connects the Red India Lake, a large sheet of water in the interior, with the Atlantic. Gander Bay is much of the same description; and all have important salmon fisheries. From Cape St John to Cape Freels the coast is a continuation of ledges, shallows, islands, and rocks, but affords excellent fishing grounds. Bonavista Bay contains several islands, and is itself indented by a number of small inlets and harbours. To the south of it is Catalina Bay, containing Ragged Harbour, which concludes the circuit of the island.
After the exterior aspect of Newfoundland has been described, the interior comes naturally to be noticed. But this has been very imperfectly explored, and therefore is but little known. In 1823, Mr M'Cormack succeeded in traversing its breadth from Conception Bay on the east to St George's Bay on the west; and from his account it appears, that this portion of it at least is much intersected with lakes and rivers, but poorly wooded, and of a rocky and barren soil. In this respect the island differs greatly from the other North American colonies, producing little timber but what is dwarf and stunted, except on the margins of bays and rivers, where spruce, birch, and poplar sometimes grow to a considerable size. Several high hills, supposed to be situated near the centre of the island, can be discerned from the sea; but the inland country is represented as generally level, so that lakes, rocks, marshes, and extensive alluvial savannahs or plains, with occasional elevations, constitute its characteristic features. The geology of Newfoundland is nearly the same as that of the coast of Labrador. The island, it appears, abounds with minerals of various sorts. Coal and lime have been wrought in more than one part with some success; and there is little doubt as to the existence of copper, iron, and other mines, but it is not likely that they are very productive. There are excellent gypsum quarries near Cape Ray, and there is also a quantity of the mineral called marcasite, copperas stone, and horse gold, which the early discoverers mistook for the genuine metal. With regard to the productions of the island, Mr Bouchette observes: "At the heads of the bays, and along the rivers, there are many tracts of land formed of deposits washed from the hills; the soil of which tracts is of much the same quality as that of the savannahs in the interior of America. These lands might be converted into excellent meadows, and if drained to carry off the water which covers them after the snows dissolve, they would yield excellent barley and oats. The rich pasturage which the island affords adapts it in an eminent degree to the breeding and raising of cattle and sheep, insomuch as to authorize the belief that it might produce a sufficient quantity of beef to supply its fisheries. Firs of various sorts, poplars, birches, and a few maple trees, are found in Newfoundland, with a variety of shrubs. Most of the English common fruits arrive at perfection, and various grasses grow spontaneously in all the plains. The wild animals are nearly the same as those of Prince Edward Island, and indeed of our other American colonies. The Newfoundland dog is an animal whose peculiarities and virtues are too well known to need any detail in this place; it is, however, generally considered that the true original breed exists now only on the coast of Labrador.
"The climate is severe, and the winter long; but it has generally been represented more unfavourable than strict truth will warrant. The excess of humidity and constant visitation of dense fogs, which have been commonly ascribed to these coasts, is by no means a continual visitation. The sea-winds often bring a considerable quantity of vapour to the southern and eastern coasts; but it is only when the wind blows from the sea that this inconvenience is felt. The range of the thermometer is nearly the same as in Canada, but as the length of the island extends over nearly five degrees of latitude, it will of course vary. The harbours on the Atlantic shore are generally freed from their icy bonds earlier than any other within the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the western shore is seldom visited by fogs. The heat of the summer is sometimes oppressive in the daytime, but the mornings and evenings, as in almost all insular situations, are temperate and agreeable. The breaking up of the winter, when the vast shoals of ice formed in the northern regions are driven along the coast by the winds, is the most disagreeable time of the year. The inhabitants, however, maintain excellent health, and, notwithstanding the exposure and hardships of a fisherman's life, frequently attain a remarkable longevity."
The most remarkable feature connected with Newfoundland is the fogs above alluded to. Those of the Gulf of St Lawrence are attributed to the coldness of the gulf-waters, which is supposed to be permanent a few feet below the surface, as well as at great depths. This cold water is brought to the surface by winds, and, reducing the temperature of the air below the dew point, forms vapour. The fogs on the banks of Newfoundland are also, in all likelihood, caused by cold currents of water being brought to the surface. On the great bank the surface of the water is many degrees colder than it is in the neighbouring sea, and much less than that of the gulf-stream, which is within a short distance of it.
The most valuable vegetable productions of the island are potatoes and cabbages; and next to these turnips, carrots, parsnips, pease, radishes, and most garden roots, yield the most abundant crops. Besides the great staple of the island, fish, the numerous large and small sheets of water abound in divers kinds of excellent trout and eels of a great size, and lobsters, lance, herrings, mackerel, salmon, are in great abundance; plaice, sole, halibut, and thornback, are
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1 Bouchette's British Dominions in North America, vol. ii. pp. 167, 189. Newfoundland likewise found on the coast. The capelin arrives periodically in such immense shoals as to change the colour of the sea. Herrings likewise arrive during spring and autumn in prodigious numbers. As a product of the coast may be mentioned kelp, which, with other sea-weed, is used as manure.
The importance of this colony has exclusively arisen from its fisheries. The different settlements amount to between sixty and seventy in number, and are scattered on the shores of the eastern and southern sides of the island, but principally on the former. There are, indeed, some inhabitants on the western shore, near its southern extremity; but they do not extend to the northward of St George's Bay, although the vicinity of that bay has proved extremely fertile. The settlements are generally formed at the heads of the bays, particularly Conception Bay, thence to St John's, and southward to Cape Race. The principal are, besides St John's, the Bay of Bulls, Brigus, Cape Broyle Harbour, Ferryland, Ferronore, and Renowes. St John's, the capital of the island, is a place of considerable strength, situated about seventy miles to the north of Cape Race, and about one hundred and twenty south of Twillingate Island in the Bay of Exploits, which is the most northerly settlement, latitude 47° 35' north, longitude 52° 48' west. The harbour is one of the best in Newfoundland, being formed between two mountains, the eastern points of which leave an entrance, called the Narrows. This is the only assailable part, but it is so well defended, that any vessel attempting to force an entrance would inevitably be destroyed. There are about twelve fathoms of water in the middle of the channel, with tolerably good anchorage ground. The most lofty perpendicular precipices rise to an amazing height upon the north side, and the southern shore appears less striking in its altitude, only from a comparison with the opposite rocks. There is a light shown every night on the left side of the entrance, where there are also a small battery and a signal-post. Other batteries of greater strength appear towering above the rocky eminences towards the north. At about two thirds of the distance between the entrance and what may properly be termed the harbour itself, there is a dangerous shelf called the Pancake, opposite the chain rock, so called from a chain which extends across the strait at that place, to prevent the admission of any hostile fleet. There are other fortifications besides those already noticed, planted upon the heights around the town, so as to render St John's perfectly secure against any sudden attack. Fort Townshend is situated immediately over the town, and is the usual residence of the governor. Forts Amherst and William are more to the north; and there is also a small battery perched on the top of a single pyramidal mount, called the Crow's Nest. The town itself forms one long straggling street, extending nearly parallel to the shore on the north side of the port, from which branch out several narrow lines of houses, that can only be called lanes. The houses are chiefly built of wood, although diversified by some of brick and a few of stone; but they are most irregularly placed, in consequence of an act of the British legislature, passed in 1820, after the great fires, which directs, that where the houses are built of stone, the street shall be forty feet in width, and where of wood, fifty; so that all the stone houses project ten feet into the street. The principal feature of the town consists in its multitude of wharfs and fishing stages, which entirely line the shore. The government wharf is a fine broad quay, open to the accommodation of the public. The roadway of the main street is very rugged and irregular, and the general appearance of the town indicates exactly what it is, viz. a fishing station. St John's has repeatedly and severely suffered from fires. In 1815, a great amount of property was destroyed by a visitation of this sort, which was repeated in November 1817, with increased severity, property to the amount of L500,000 having been destroyed. Within a few days afterwards, another conflagration consumed nearly all of the town that had been left by the former one; and in August of the same year a fourth calamity nearly completed its destruction. There are places of public worship of various denominations at St John's, two school-houses, and a book society; and five newspapers are also published. The population of the town is constantly fluctuating. At the height of the fishing season it is perfectly crowded, but the greater part of these are strangers, who return with their vessels to Europe. The resident population may be estimated at 11,000. The society of this town has for some years rapidly advanced in respectability and civilization; partly on account of several merchants deeply engaged in trade having settled here, and many of the industrious inhabitants having raised themselves to comparative opulence; and partly owing to the administration of justice having been placed upon a more permanent footing than formerly. The settlements extend almost continuously along the southern shore, as far as Fortune Bay; and at most of the harbours there are places of public worship. The establishment at St George's Bay is perhaps more agricultural than any other on the island; but Conception Bay, being the most populous, requires more particular notice. "Harbour Grace is a good port," says Captain Robinson; "and the town is considerable, and of a respectable appearance. Conception Bay, in which it is situate, is the richest and most populous country district in Newfoundland, containing altogether about 14,600 inhabitants, a large proportion of the 86,000 which the most recent census (1820) gave for the whole population of the island. They are distributed in a number of small towns, or fishing and agricultural hamlets; near another of which, Port Grace, a remarkable basin is hollowed out in the cliffs by the action of frost, or the more certain operation of time, in the decaying slate clay of which the rocks are composed. First an arch is entered twenty feet wide by twenty feet high, and beyond is the basin itself, which is about 300 feet in circumference, and surrounded by perpendicular rocks 120 feet in height, with a border of dwarf spruce at top. At one corner, a little exit among broken masses of rock carries off the superfluous water; the depth near the centre of the cavity is about fourteen feet." On leaving the harbour, the same writer observes: "The harbour is good; and though the space between the end of the bar and the north shore is rather narrow, a large ship, well handled, may beat through, or back and fill in and out, with the tide."
Near the extremity of Port Grace Harbour are the remains of a supposed ancient colony, which some have attributed to the Danes or Icelanders; a sea-king of the latter people having, according to tradition, been driven by stress of weather upon this part of the coast about the year 1000. The ruins were discovered by a party of settlers, who, proceeding up a river which falls into Conception Bay, observed, at the distance of six or seven miles above the bay, the appearance of stone walls rising just above the surface. "On removing the sand and alluvial earth, they ascertained these to be the remains of ancient buildings, with oak beams, and mill-stones sunk in oaken beds. Enclosures resembling gardens were also traced out, and plants of various kinds were found growing about the place, not indigenous to the island; but the most decisive proof of these ruins being the remains of an ancient European colony, was drawn from the different kinds of coins found about them, some of Dutch gold, which the inhabitants considered to be old Flemish coins; others of copper without inscriptions." Captain Robinson, however, throws doubt on the antiquity of the buildings, and asserts that they are not older than the settlement of Lord Baltimore in 1623. Newfoundland is justly considered as a very important colony, both from the value of the fisheries there established, and also on account of the hardy race of seamen who are trained up in that useful pursuit. In the article Fisheries in this work will be found an account of the early trade of the colony, so that, in order to show its present condition, it may be sufficient to give the returns applicable to a recent period. The following table shows the progress of trade since 1822.
| Years | Great Britain | British Colonies | Foreign States | Total | |-------|---------------|------------------|----------------|-------| | | No. Tons | No. Tons | No. Tons | No. Tons | | 1822 | 297 | 38,167 | 274 | 20,818 | | 1823 | 289 | 39,813 | 254 | 21,015 | | 1826 | 279 | 35,196 | 295 | 24,594 | | 1827 | 279 | 37,595 | 268 | 22,417 | | 1829 | 275 | 38,608 | 319 | 17,507 | | 1830 | 286 | 39,856 | 321 | 26,963 | | 1831 | 274 | 37,577 | 385 | 30,643 | | 1832 | 268 | 36,265 | 362 | 27,881 | | 1833 | 251 | 35,171 | 419 | 33,287 |
A more detailed view of the shipping employed with different countries is thus shown by custom-house returns.
| Year ending 5th January 1833. | Year ending 5th January 1832. | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------| | Inwards | Outwards | | United kingdom | 245 | 34,322 | 1969 | | Guernsey and Jersey | 6 | 849 | 53 | | British West Indies | 54 | 4,940 | 356 | | British North America | 363 | 27,532 | 1535 | | Foreign British vessels | 132 | 16,276 | 1017 | | Europe Foreign vessels | 5 | 565 | 40 | | United British vessels | 68 | 7,938 | 451 | | States Foreign vessels | 5 | 849 | 42 | | Madeira | | | | | Azores | 5 | 438 | 27 | | Brazil | 2 | 415 | 23 | | Gibraltar | 2 | 275 | 14 | | St Pierre | 3 | 112 | 12 | | Porto Rico | 2 | 171 | 13 | | Total | 892 | 95,242 | 5552 |
The following table presents a view of the principal exports from Newfoundland.
Besides these articles, various kinds of skins are exported, and also whalebone, pine-board, juniper plank, billets, knees, oars, staves, and the like; but the above returns show that the cod and seal fisheries are by far the most important branches of the trade of Newfoundland.
For an account of the nature of the Newfoundland fisheries, and their importance to Great Britain, the reader is referred to the article Fisheries.
The principal imports consist of bread, flour, pork, and beef, butter, rum, molasses, wine, brandy, and gin, coffee, tea, sugar, oatmeal, salt, pease and beans, lumber, shingles, and the like. The value, together with that of the exports, has been as follows.
| Imports valued in Sterling Money. | Exports valued in Sterling Money. | |----------------------------------|----------------------------------| | Year | From Great Britain | From British Colonies | From Foreign States | Total Value of Imports | To Great Britain | To British Colonies | To Foreign States | Total Value of Exports | | 1822 | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | | 1826 | 656,327 | 177,123 | 34,002 | 867,752 | 245,578 | 82,952 | 400,668 | 729,198 | | 1827 | 204,758 | 131,090 | 179,600 | 512,443 | 293,745 | 121,746 | 343,814 | 759,305 | | 1830 | 549,816 | 157,731 | 181,714 | 889,261 | 316,596 | 116,513 | 331,477 | 764,586 | | 1831 | 546,839 | 130,286 | 91,291 | 768,416 | 252,959 | 140,520 | 292,771 | 685,680 | | 1832 | 530,954 | 177,958 | 102,441 | 829,353 | 393,584 | 132,258 | 277,690 | 803,532 | The total value of the Newfoundland trade may be estimated, in round numbers, at £2,000,000 sterling per annum, independently of its great importance in a maritime point of view. But besides the trade in fish and oil carried on by Great Britain in the British seas, that of America and France is also of immense extent and importance. To France it averages about 300,000 quintals of fish, and not only are bounties given for this article, and for the vessel so much per ton, but also for those men employed who have never before been at sea. No bounty whatever is paid by our government, so that our fishermen have to compete under the greatest disadvantages. But this is not all. In 1814, the French obtained a right to a large extent of the coast fishery; or rather the right which they had enjoyed previously to 1792 was then restored, and the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were ceded to them, to serve as a shelter for the French fishermen. This privilege, which was conferred by treaty, they have rendered exclusive, and so late as 1833 drove some English vessels off the coast of Newfoundland, not allowing them to fish upon the shores of their own island. The Americans also take every possible advantage of the privileges granted by us as regards the latitude fixed, fishing close to the land during night; and they likewise injure their neighbours by throwing their offal into the sea. Of the entire quantity of cod-fish which they take, not less than 1,500,000 are reckoned as caught on our own shores. The regular trade of Britain, besides suffering from the causes mentioned, is seriously injured by the extensive smuggling which the foreign fishermen carry on. From 1815, when the French and American vessels were allowed the privilege of fishing in the British seas, till 1820, the tonnage of the British vessels employed in the trade fell off about one third. The deep-sea fishery, in particular, is now almost abandoned by the English to the Americans and French. Indeed everything relating to British interests, in connection with the Newfoundland fisheries, appears to have been grossly mismanaged or neglected.
The affairs of the island are administered by a house of assembly, consisting of fifteen members chosen by the people, to which is added a legislative and executive council. The laws are in the English language, and are administered by circuit courts. There is no militia in the island, and the police force is small. The revenue is derived from custom-duties, amounting to about £15,000 per annum, and licenses, £1000. To meet the expenditure, a parliamentary grant of about £10,000 was for several years given; but this was withdrawn in 1832, and since then the revenue has not covered the expenditure by about that amount, so that its restoration has been found necessary. The moral aspect of Newfoundland is rather encouraging. Considerable unanimity has usually existed amongst the different religious persuasions, consisting of Wesleyans, Roman Catholics, and Congregationalists; the dissenters being generally more numerous than the Episcopalians, over whom there is an archdeacon. The Catholic church is governed by a bishop. There are several newspapers published in the island, and of late years a taste for literature has been diffusing itself. There are between thirty and forty schools, as well for adults as for children. At St John's there is a commercial society, out of which a chamber of commerce is chosen annually, to watch over and promote the trade and fisheries. There are several benevolent societies and two benefit societies. The population of Newfoundland for several years was as follows:
| Year | Males | Females | Total | |---------|-------|---------|-------| | 1822-23 | 31,746 | 20,411 | 52,157 | | 1827-28 | 34,617 | 23,471 | 58,088 |
To these numbers must be added 2000 individuals distributed over distant parts of the coast, which could not be visited by those who took the census. The population necessarily fluctuates greatly, so that much difficulty is experienced in obtaining correct returns. The resident inhabitants are now (1837) reckoned at about 90,000.
When Newfoundland was first visited, it was found to contain two distinct races of aborigines; the one termed Red Indians, and the other Esquimaux. Both are now almost extinct; the former, it is supposed, is entirely so, as deadly feuds were waged between them and the early settlers. Besides, the Mic-mac Indians, who were introduced into the island from Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, carried on with the Red Indians an exterminating war, which proved far more fatal to them than the hostilities of the Europeans. A female of this tribe was captured in 1818, and from her a vocabulary of their language was obtained.
Without dwelling upon the tradition which represents Newfoundland as having been settled at a very early period by one Biron, a sea-king or pirate of Iceland, we have authentic evidence of its re-discovery by John Cabot, on the 24th of June 1497. Sailing under the commission of Henry VII. in these seas, he described a headland, which, as a lucky omen, he called Bonavista, a name which it still retains. It was at that time inhabited by native Indians, three of whom he brought home, clothed in skins, and speaking a language which no person understood. It was afterwards visited by navigators from France and Portugal, who reported favourably of the abundance and excellency of its cod fishery, European fishermen were soon attracted to its coasts. In 1536 an English vessel attempted to winter upon the island, but the crew nearly perished from starvation. Not deterred by this failure, however, nor by that of a former attempt, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in 1583, landed on the island with two hundred followers, and, under a patent of Queen Elizabeth, took quiet possession of the country. But too desirous of prosecuting his discoveries, his crews became disaffected, and having separated into two parties, one of them returned home. Most of those who followed him were lost in a gale of wind off the Sable Island, and the remainder perished, along with himself, on their voyage homewards. Subsequent attempts were made to explore and settle Newfoundland, but it was not until the year 1623 that the first colony was established under Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore. His son was made governor of the colony, which he named Avalon, and soon afterwards proceeding thither himself, it increased and flourished under his auspices. Ten years subsequently Charles I. issued a regulation for "governing of his majesty's subjects inhabiting in Newfoundland, or trafficking in bays," &c.; and about the same time Lord Falkland sent a colony from Ireland. Other individuals obtained grants of land; and about the year 1654, fifteen settlements, comprehending three hundred families, had been made on the island, notwithstanding the constant bickerings between the English and French, the latter having established a colony at Placentia. On the breaking out of the war after the accession of William III., these assumed a more serious character, and, after various recriminations, St John's was compelled to surrender to the French in 1696. The captors set fire to the fort and town, and destroyed most of the British settlements. To repair these losses, our government despatched a squadron; but the cowardice of one commander and the ignorance of another frustrated the design. The re-establishment of peace put an end to hostilities for the time; but they were resumed in 1702, during which year most of the French settlements were destroyed, and a great many fishing-boats were burned or captured. In the following year an expedition miscarried, and this circumstance encouraged the French to attempt the conquest of the whole island in 1705. For this purpose five hundred men were despatched from Canada; but being repulsed from Petty Harbour, a port within nine miles of St John's, they extended their ravages over the different settlements as far as Bonavista. In 1706 the French trade received a severe blow from an English commander, who, with only ten vessels, crippled the armed force on the station, and destroyed a number of the enemy's vessels in the harbours along the coast. These disasters, however, did not deter the French from attempting the permanent expulsion of the English. In the year 1708 they completely demolished the town of St John's; and shortly afterwards Carbonia, the only settlement of consequence remaining in our hands, was partially destroyed. From this time until the conclusion of the peace of Utrecht the French remained in quiet possession of Newfoundland; but by this treaty the island, with all the adjacent ones, was declared to belong to Great Britain, the French being only allowed the use of the two islets of St Pierre and Miquelon. The final conquest of all the American colonies extinguished any claims which the French might set forth to possession in these seas; and they were glad to receive back at the peace of 1763 the privilege above conferred. The revolutionary war in America occasioned fresh disputes as to the right of fishing upon the banks of Newfoundland. The New Englanders had hitherto enjoyed the right of taking fish, and on this being resisted, they retaliated, by refusing to supply the colony with many articles of provision upon which it depended. This reciprocal annoyance caused the subject to form one of the articles of the treaty of peace, signed at Paris in 1783, by which it was stipulated that the inhabitants of the United States should have liberty to take fish of every kind on such part of the coast of Newfoundland as British fishermen should use, but not to dry or cure their fish upon the island. The question of supplies from America was a long time agitated, but finally authorized by act of parliament in 1822, confining the transit of goods to British bottoms. Newfoundland has had a resident governor ever since the year 1728. Civil and judiciary courts were early established; and about the year 1750, a superior court was added. But for many years the imperfect administration of justice continued to be a subject of complaint amongst the colonists. Bills have been repeatedly passed for the purpose of placing matters upon a more satisfactory footing; and in 1832 a representative government was granted to Newfoundland, similar to that enjoyed by Nova Scotia.
NEW GALLOWAY, a small royal burgh of Scotland, in the centre of the stewartry of Kirkcudbright. It is pleasantly situated on the western bank of the Ken. The town is formed of a single street, stretching along the public road. The parish church is about half a mile from the town, on the north side. There is attached to the townhouse a criminal and debtor's jail, surmounted by a steeple and town clock. Below the town a handsome stone bridge was erected over the river in 1822. The inhabitants are entirely supported by the retail trade arising from the demands of the population of the surrounding country. It was erected into a royal burgh in 1629. By the set or constitution which, in 1708, received the sanction of the convention of royal burghs, the town ought to be governed by a provost, two bailies, a treasurer, and fifteen councillors; but as the parliamentary constituency do not amount to that number, the council is never complete. It has no funds or property of any description, with the exception of customs and small dues, which do not amount to L3 yearly. It returns a member to parliament along with Wigton, Stranraer, and Whithorn. The population amounts to about 500.
NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the United States of North America, is bounded on the north by the mountainous ridges which separate Canada from the states of the union, on the east and south-east by Maine and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by Vermont. It is situated between 42° 41' and 45° 11' of north latitude, and between 70° 40' and 72° 28' of west longitude; extending in length about 168 miles, whilst its average breadth is about fifty miles, and its area is computed at 9491 miles. On the map its shape nearly resembles a wedge inserted between the states of Maine and Vermont, and having Massachusetts for its base. New Hampshire, for its narrow extent, differs more in relative elevation than any other state of the union, and of course the extremes of temperature are in corresponding excess. The line of coast is indented with small inlets of the sea, and skirted by a narrow sandy plain. At no great distance the country swells into a mountainous region, and New Hampshire has justly been called the state of hills, and also the granite state. The highest peaks of the White Mountain range, some of them 7000 feet in height, are more elevated than any others in the United States, with the exception of the Rocky Mountains. Between the Merrimack and the Connecticut are situated many considerable mountains; the names of the principal heights being Monadnock, Sunapee, Kearsarge, Carr's Mountain, and Moosehillock. As a whole, the physiognomy of New Hampshire is bold and prominent, and, although rugged, often sublime in the highest degree. The mountains of the state are in the centre, with a zone of finely-diversified hill and dale country around, the hills consisting generally of stony and moist land, and affording excellent pasturage. There are no extensive barrens, and most of the land is capable of cultivation. Many of the valleys are beautifully green, sheltered, and fertile. The rivers in particular have rich alluvial bottoms or intervale lands, the soil, although encumbered with stones, having a considerable degree of fertility. The state originally was heavily timbered, and in the interior there are still considerable tracts of forest country. There are extensive plains of warm, light, sandy, and peculiar soil, resembling, when cleared, the poorer lands of the high western prairies, covered in their natural state with white pine, and called pine plains. Mount Washington, one of the White Mountains, often visited by travellers, Mr Hinton thus describes: "After climbing the side of the mountain for some distance, the forest trees begin to diminish in height, till, at the elevation of about four thousand feet, you come to a region of dwarfish evergreens, about the height of a man's head, which put forth numerous branches, and surround the mountain with a formidable hedge, a quarter of a mile in thickness. On emerging from this thicket, you are above all woods, at the foot of what is called the bald part of the mountain, which is very steep, and consists of a huge pile of naked rocks. After attaining the summit, the traveller is recompensed for his toil, if the sky be serene, by a most noble and extensive prospect." On the south-east there is a view of the Atlantic Ocean, the nearest part of which is sixty-five miles distant in a right line; on the south, Winnipiseogee Lake lies full in view; in the south-west is the lofty summit of Moosehillock; and far away in the horizon is the Grand Monadnoc. The barren rocks, which extend a great distance in every direction from the summit, add a melancholy cast to the grandeur of the scene. The notch or gap in the White Mountains is also frequently visited as a curiosity. It is on the west side of the mountains, near the source of Saco River. It is a deep and narrow defile, in one part only twenty-two feet wide. The mountain appears as if cleft quite to its base, perpendicularly on one side, and on the other at an angle of forty-five degrees." The Lake of Winnipiseogee, mentioned above, is the largest sheet of water in New Hampshire, being about twenty-three miles in length. It is sprinkled with numerous islands, and abounds in the finest kinds of fresh-water fish. Umbagog Lake is situated partly in this state and partly in Maine. Squam, Ossipee, Sunapee, and Newfound Lakes, are also large collections of water. Five of the largest rivers of New England have their sources in this state, viz. the Connecticut, Merrimack, Androscoggin, Saco, and Piscataqua. There are also a number of interior streams; and throughout, New Hampshire is remarkably well watered, the water being generally of the purest quality. In reference to the geological features of the state, it may be mentioned, that the high ridge of mountains which divides the waters of the Connecticut from those of the Merrimack is composed of the older primitive rocks. Granite prevails in the northern and more elevated part, and mica slate in the southern. A beautiful fine-grained granite occurs in many parts of the state, and great quantities of it are transported to Boston as a building stone. To the eastward of the great ridge, mica slate, gneiss, and greenstone, are found. Steatite or greenstone of good quality is found at Orford and Francestown, and primitive limestone abounds in several places. New Hampshire also possesses beds of iron ore of excellent quality, and copper ore has likewise been discovered. Plumbago is found at some places in large quantities, and of excellent quality. These are the principal minerals which this state produces in such quantities as to be much regarded by the inhabitants.
The climate of New Hampshire is subject to the extremes of heat and cold, and to great and sudden changes, yet it is reckoned healthy, the air being generally pure and salubrious. Winter commences in November, and continues till April, the lakes being ordinarily frozen four months in the year, during six weeks of which travelling by means of a species of sledge is quite common, both on the ice and on terra firma. The open fields are commonly cleared of snow by the end of April; but the cold weather, which commences as early as the first of September, continues till May. In all the states in this neighbourhood the autumn is a delightful season. New Hampshire is an agricultural state, and by far the greater number of the inhabitants are engaged in the cultivation of the soil. The articles principally cultivated are, wheat, rye, Indian corn, oats, barley, pulse, and flax. The quantity of live stock is considerable, consisting of horned cattle, sheep, swine, and horses. Apples are abundant, and no good husbandman considers his farm as complete without an orchard; but other kinds of fruit are not so extensively cultivated. The principal articles of export are, lumber, fish, beef, pork, horses, neat cattle, sheep, flax-seed, and pot and pearl ashes. The manufactures of New Hampshire have of late years greatly increased. In 1831 there were forty cotton mills, which manufactured during that year 29,060,500 yards of cloth, and employed 875 males and 4090 females, besides some children. There are likewise some woollen establishments, ten or twelve paper mills, a number of iron foundries, and works for preparing the ore; and glass is also manufactured. In this and in some other states, large quantities of carpeting, of an inferior quality, are made in families, but these are not noticed in the estimated amount of exports. Mr Pitkins, in his statistics of the United States (1835), observes regarding this manufacture in New Hampshire: "The agent for New Hampshire, in his return to the secretary, says that the amount of carpeting made in the counties of Rockingham, Strafford, Grafton, and Coos, mostly in families, and sold in other states, exceeds, in his opinion, the amount of foreign articles consumed." The value of the imports from December 1832 to December 1833 was 167,754 dollars; and the value of the exports for the same period was, of domestic produce, 145,355 dollars, and of foreign produce, 9903 dollars; total, 155,258 dollars; the tonnage entered being 17,126. From the same source (the American Almanac) we learn, that for the year ending the 30th of September 1835, the value of the imports was 71,514 dollars; that of the exports, of domestic produce, 75,076 dollars, and of foreign produce, 6605 dollars, total, 81,681 dollars; whilst the tonnage which entered was, 6564, and that which departed, 3996 tons. This remarkable falling off in the trade of the state we have no other means of accounting for, than by supposing that the trade in this part of the United States is becoming more and more concentrated at Boston, where goods of all kinds can be more readily disposed of; and this, we have been informed by a native of the country, is the fact. Amongst the towns where the principal manufacturing establishments are situated may be mentioned Exeter, Dover, Peterborough, Franconia, Pembroke, New Ipswich, Keene, and Durham. In 1833, there were in New Hampshire twenty-six banks, having a capital of 2,655,008 dollars, and a circulation of 1,389,970 dollars. The number of post-offices was 289, and the amount of postages for the preceding year was 23,429 dollars. There are several savings' banks and insurance offices in this state. At the commencement of the war in 1775, New Hampshire had only one newspaper; but in 1834 twenty-seven were published, besides a few other periodicals. The following table exhibits a view of the counties and county towns.
| Counties | Population in 1820 | Population in 1830 | County Towns | Population | Distance from Concord | Washington | |----------|-------------------|-------------------|--------------|------------|-----------------------|------------| | Rockingham | 40,526 | 44,452 | Portsmouth | 9082 | 45 | 491 | | Strafford | 51,415 | 58,916 | Exeter | 2759 | 39 | 474 | | Merrimack | 32,743 | 34,619 | Dover | 5449 | 40 | 490 | | Hillsborough | 35,781 | 37,762 | Gilmanton | 3816 | 20 | 500 | | Cheshire | 26,753 | 27,016 | Gilford | 1872 | 30 | 504 | | Sullivan | 18,628 | 19,687 | Rochester | 2155 | 40 | 500 | | Grafton | 32,989 | 38,691 | Concord | 3727 | ... | 474 | | Coos | 5,151 | 8,390 | Amherst | 1657 | 30 | 448 | | Total | 243,986 | 269,533 | Keene | 2374 | 55 | 431 |
Portsmouth, the largest town, and the only seaport in the state, is situated on the south side of Piscataqua River, three miles from its junction with the sea, in latitude 43° north, and longitude 70° 45' west. The harbour is consi NEW HAMPSHIRE.
It is so well fortified by nature, that it can be made secure against any attack, with little trouble or expense. Several forts have been planted upon commanding positions. A lighthouse on Great Island indicates the entrance, and the largest ships can come close up to the wharfs. Portsmouth is well provided with houses of public worship, and contains a custom-house, an insurance office, and several banks. This town enjoys considerable trade; but as a great portion of that from the interior of the state centres at Boston, and a part at Portland, its commerce is not so extensive or flourishing as it would otherwise be, and, as has already been shown, it is on the decline. In Navy Island, on the Piscataqua, opposite to Portsmouth, there is a navy yard of the United States. The island belongs to the general government, and is convenient for building ships of war, being well furnished for this purpose. Portsmouth has suffered much from fires at different periods, the places of the buildings destroyed being supplied by brick edifices. A very handsome bridge across the Piscataqua connects it with the state of Maine. This town was settled in 1633, and incorporated by charter in 1638.
Concord, the capital of New Hampshire, and the seat of government, is situated on both sides of the river Merrimack, in latitude 43° 12' north, and longitude 71° 29' west. The principal portion of the town is exceedingly pleasant, extending along the western bank of the river for nearly two miles. It contains a state-house, a state-prison, a court-house, several places of public worship, and above two hundred dwelling-houses. Two bridges connect the chief village with that on the opposite bank, and much of the trade of the upper country centres here; whilst the importance of the town is increased by the boat navigation which has been opened between this place and Boston by means of the Merrimack River and Middlesex Canal. The town of Concord issues three or four gazettes, and is altogether a place of large and growing business. Exeter is a handsome village, fifteen miles south-west of Portsmouth; it is situated at the head of tide-water on the Exeter River, and small vessels ascend to it. This village contains a number of public buildings, with three or four churches, and is the seat of very considerable manufactures. Philips' Exeter Academy, in this place, is one of the most ancient, opulent, and useful institutions in the United States, having many of the advantages and endowments of a college. Dover is a large manufacturing village, situated on the western bank of the Piscataqua, twelve miles north-west of Portsmouth, and through it flows the Cocheco. This river has several falls, the largest of which, being upwards of forty feet perpendicular, is at the centre of the town, and affords water-power equal to any in New England. Large iron and cotton manufactories have been erected upon these falls, and upon others a few miles higher up the river. Dover contains a number of good public buildings, has a considerable share of shipping, and is one of the most flourishing towns in the state. The greatest part of the timber exported from New Hampshire is brought to this place. Keene is a pleasant town, in the south-west part of the state, on the Ashuelot. The principal towns on the Connecticut River are Walpole, thirteen miles north-west of Keene; Charlestown, twelve miles north of Walpole; Hanover, the seat of Dartmouth College; Haverhill, twenty-seven miles north of Hanover; and Bath, adjoining Haverhill, at the head of the boat navigation. There are, besides, numerous thriving and beautiful villages. The common schools are well supported, and flourishing academies are established in many of the towns. Dartmouth College, at Hanover, was founded in 1770, and ranks as the third literary institution in New England. In 1836 there were connected with it ten instructors, 1858 alumni, 512 ministers, and 186 students, with 6000 volumes in the college libraries, and 8500 volumes in the students' libraries. The funds of this institution are considerable, the annual income being above 4000 dollars. It has likewise a medical school of deserved reputation at Hanover, where there are three professors and about eighty students. Philips' Exeter Academy, at Exeter, is an old and flourishing institution. It has funds amounting to about 80,000 dollars, a library of 700 volumes, and a handsome philosophical apparatus. Its officers are, a principal, a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, and an assistant. The funds are appropriated in part to the support of theological students. There are a great number of less extensively-endowed academies, and the primary and other schools established throughout the state are upon the general footing of the New England system. The state has a literary fund amounting to 64,000 dollars, formed by a tax of one half per cent. upon the capital of banks. The proceeds of this fund, and also an annual income of 9000 dollars derived from a tax upon banks, are appropriated for the support of schools; and for maintaining common schools, 90,000 dollars are annually raised by a separate tax. There are in New Hampshire 159 churches for Congregationalists, and eleven associations; the Baptists have ninety churches and six associations; the Free-will Baptists have a hundred congregations; the Methodists, seventy-five ministers; the Presbyterians, ten congregations; the Christians, twenty-three congregations; the Unitarians, seventeen congregations; the Friends, fifteen societies; the Episcopalians, nine congregations; the Roman Catholics, two congregations; and the Shakers, two societies. The clergy of New Hampshire are supported by salaries, which are raised by subscription, or by voluntary taxation on property, or by contribution. The average salary of the Congregational ministers is about 400 dollars, that of the Episcopalian 600 dollars, that of the Unitarian 500 dollars, that of the Baptist 300 dollars, but those of other persuasions have still less. The inhabitants are a strong, healthy, industrious, and well-informed people; frugal, religious, and jealous of their rights. The salubrity of the climate is proved by the fact, that many instances of considerable longevity occur in the state.
As in the other states of the Union, internal improvements have within the last ten years made considerable advances in New Hampshire. Several canals have been constructed around falls in the Merrimack, viz. Bow Canal, three miles below Concord, with four locks, and passing a fall of twenty-five feet; Hooksett Canal, fifty rods long, with three locks, and a lockage of sixteen feet, passing Hooksett Falls; Amoskeag Canal, with nine locks, and a lockage of forty-five feet, passing Amoskeag Falls, nine miles below Hooksett Falls; Union Canal, immediately below Amoskeag, overcomes seven falls in the river, and has seven locks in nine miles. A canal is now in progress around Sewall's Falls, in Concord. The Nashua and Lowell Railroad, extending from Nashua, New Hampshire, to Lowell in Massachusetts, about fifteen miles in length, was incorporated in the year 1836, and is now (1837) in progress. This railroad is expected to be continued from Nashua to Concord. The Concord Railroad Corporation has been organized.
The early history of New Hampshire will be found in the article NEW ENGLAND. In the year 1741 a final separation took place between it and Massachusetts. A constitution was established in 1784; but in 1792 this constitution was altered and amended by a convention of delegates held at Concord, and it is that now in force. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, which together are styled The General Court of New Hampshire. Every town or incorporated township having one hundred and fifty rateable polls may send one representa- tive, and for every three hundred additional polls it is entitled to an additional representative. The senate consists of twelve members, who are chosen by the people in districts. The executive power is vested in a governor, and a council which consists of five members. The governor, council, senators, and representatives, are all elected annually by the people, their term of service commencing on the first Wednesday in June, upon which day the general court meets yearly at Concord. The right of suffrage is granted to every male inhabitant of twenty-one years of age, excepting paupers, and persons excused from paying taxes at their own request. The judiciary power is vested in a superior court and a court of common pleas. The judges are appointed by the governor and council, and hold their offices during good behaviour, but not beyond the age of seventy years.