doctrine of the universe, and particularly of the heavenly bodies, their laws, affections, &c., as delivered by Sir Isaac Newton.

The term Newtonian philosophy is applied very differently. Some authors under this denomination include all the corpuscular philosophy, considered as it now stands corrected and reformed by the discoveries and improvements made in several parts of it by Sir Isaac Newton. In this sense it is that sGravesande calls his elements of physics Introductio ad Philosophiam Newtonianam; and in this sense the Newtonian is the same with the new philosophy, standing contradistinguished from the Cartesian, the Peripatetic, and the ancient corpuscular system. By Newtonian philosophy others mean the method or order which Sir Isaac Newton observes in philosophizing, viz. the reasoning and drawing of conclusions directly from phenomena, exclusive of all previous hypotheses; the beginning from simple principles, deducing the first powers and laws of nature from a few select phenomena, and then applying those laws, &c., to account for other things. And in this sense the Newtonian philosophy is the same with the experimental or inductive philosophy, and stands opposed to the ancient corpuscular system. By this philosophy some understand that particular kind in which physical bodies are considered mathematically, and where geometry and mechanics are applied to the solution of the appearances of nature. In this sense the Newtonian is the same with the mechanical and mathematical philosophy. Others, again, by Newtonian philosophy, understand that part of physical knowledge which Sir Isaac Newton has handled, improved, and demonstrated, in his Principia. Lastly, by it is meant the new principles which Sir Isaac Newton has brought into philosophy, the new system founded thereon, and the new solutions of phenomena thence deduced, or that which characterizes and distinguishes his philosophy from all others; and this is the sense in which it ought to be used.

As to the history of this philosophy, we have nothing to add to what has been stated in the preceding and in other articles. It was first made public in the year 1687, by the author, then a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; and in the years 1713 and 1726 republished with considerable improvements. See the articles Astronomy, Attraction, Dynamics, Mechanics; Professor Playfair's Dissertation (part ii. sect. ii. p. 555); and Sir John Leslie's Dissertation (sect. vii. p. 655).

Newton Thomas, lord bishop of Bristol, and dean of St Paul's, London, was born on the 1st of January 1704. His father, John Newton, was a considerable brandy and cider merchant, who having, by his industry and integrity, acquired what he thought a competent fortune, left off trade several years before he died. Young Newton received the first part of his education in the free school of Lichfield, which, the bishop observes with some kind of exultation, had at all times sent forth several persons of note or eminence, from Bishop Smalridge and Mr Wollaston, to Dr Johnson and Mr Garrick. From Lichfield he was, in 1717, removed to Westminster School, and placed under the care of Dr Freind and Dr Nicoll. During the time he remained at Westminster, there were, he observes, more young men who afterwards made a distinguished figure in the world, than perhaps at any other period, either before or since. He particularly mentions Murray, afterwards Earl of Mansfield, with whom he lived upon terms of the greatest friendship to the close of his life. Having passed six years at Westminster School, he went to Cambridge, and entered at Trinity College, where he constantly resided eight months at least in every year, till he took his degrees in arts. Being chosen fellow of his college, he went afterwards to settle in London. As it had been his inclination from childhood, and as he was likewise designed for holy orders, he had sufficient time to prepare himself, and composed some sermons, that he might have a stock in hand when he entered on the ministry. His title for clerical orders was his fellowship; and he was ordained deacon in December 1729, and priest in the February following, by Bishop Gibson. Upon his first setting out in this office, he was curate at St George's, Hanover Square, and continued for several years assistant preacher to Dr Trebeck. His first preferment was that of reader and afternoon preacher at Grosvenor Chapel, in South Audley Street; an appointment which introduced him to the family of Lord Tyrconnel, to whose son he became tutor. He continued in this situation for many years, living much at his ease, and on terms of great intimacy and friendship with Lord and Lady Tyrconnel, "without so much," he tells us, "as an unkind word or a cool look intervening." In the spring of 1744, he was, through the interest of the Earl of Bath, his great friend and patron, presented to the rectory of St Mary le Bow; so that he was forty years of age before he obtained any living. At the commencement of the year 1745 he took his doctor's degree. In the spring of 1747 he was chosen lecturer of St George's, Hanover Square, by a most respectable vestry of noblemen and gentlemen of high distinction. In August following he married his first wife, the eldest daughter of Dr Trebeck, an unaffected, modest, decent young woman, with whom he lived happily for nearly seven years. In 1749 he published his edition of Milton's Paradise Lost, which was well received by the public, and by 1755 had gone through eight editions. After the Paradise Lost, it was judged proper that Dr Newton should likewise publish the Paradise Regained, and other poems of Milton; but these things he thought detained him from other more material studies, though he had the good fortune to gain more by them than Milton did by all his works put together. But his greatest gain consisted in their first introducing him to the friendship and intimacy of two such men as Bishop Warburton and Dr Jortin. In 1754 he lost his father, at the age of eighty-three; and within a few days his wife, at the age of thirty-eight. This was the most severe trial he ever experienced, and it almost overwhelmed him. At that time he was engaged in writing his Dissertations on the Prophecies; and in his affliction he found no better nor more effectual remedy than plunging deeply into study, and fixing his thoughts as intensely as he possibly could upon other subjects. The first volume was published the following winter, but the other did not appear till three years afterwards; and as a reward for his past and an incitement to future labours, he was in the mean time appointed to preach Boyle's lecture. The bishop himself informs us, that twelve hundred and fifty copies of the Dissertations were taken off at the first impression, and a thousand at every other edition; and "though," he adds, "some things have been since published upon the same subjects, yet they still hold up their head above water, and having gone through five editions, are again prepared for another. Abroad, too, their reception has not been unfavourable, if accounts from thence may be depended upon." They were translated into the German and Danish languages, and received the warmest encomiums from persons of learning and rank. In the spring of 1757, he was made prebendary of Westminster, in the room of Dr Green, and promoted to the deanery of Salisbury. In October following, he was made sub-almoner to his majesty, an appointment which he owed to Bishop Gilbert. In September 1761, he married a second wife, the widow of the Rev. Mr Hand, and daughter of Viscount Lisburn; and in the same month he kissed his majesty's hand for his bishopric. On the death of Dr Stone, the primate of Ireland, in the winter of 1764, Mr Grenville sent for Bishop Newton, and in the most obliging manner desired his acceptance of the primacy; but having maturely weighed the matter in his own mind, he declined the offer. In 1768 he was made dean of St Paul's. His ambition was now fully satisfied, and he firmly resolved never to ask for anything more. From this time till his death his health was almost constantly infirm; indeed it is wonderful that such a poor, weak, and slender thread as the bishop's life, should have been spun out to such an amazing length as it really was. In the autumn of 1781, he laboured under repeated illnesses; and on Saturday the 9th of February 1782, his breathing began to be much affected by the frost. His complaints grew worse till the following Thursday, when he got up at five o'clock, and was placed in a chair by the fire, having suffered much in bed. About six o'clock he was left by his apothecary in a quiet sleep; between seven and eight he awoke, and appeared rather more easy, and took a little refreshment. He continued dozing till near nine, when he ordered his servant to come and dress him, and help him down stairs. As soon as he was dressed, he inquired the hour, and bade his servant open the shutter and look at the dial of St Paul's. The servant answered that the clock was about to strike nine. The bishop made an effort to take out his watch with an intent to set it, but sunk down in his chair, and expired without a sigh or the least visible emotion, his countenance still retaining the same placid appearance which was so peculiar to him when in life.