Isthmus of (also the name of a province of New Grenada), is that extraordinary ligature or neck of land which connects the continents of North and South America. It is also sometimes called the Isthmus of Da-

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1 Lib. de Oracul. Defect. 2 Tacitus, Annal. cap. 72, 83, et lib. iii. cap. 1. 3 Cudworth's Intell. Syst. cap. iv. note 132. Panama, a name which, however, is much out of use, and ought to be entirely expunged from geographical works.

The isthmus of Panama may be considered as extending from the meridian of 77° to that of 81° west of Greenwich. Its breadth at the narrowest place, which is opposite the city of Panama, is not less than thirty miles; and it swells out at either extremity, where it becomes blended with the continental portions of the western world. Its whole extent is not, however, comprised within the limits of the province which bears the same name; for to the north-east, the Mandingo Indians maintain a fierce, and not unfrequently a turbulent independence, to the present day. The continuity of the great chain of the Andes, which, for the most part, traverses the whole continent of America, is twice broken within the limits above defined. The Northern Cordillera exhibits the first indication of depression in the province of Nicaragua; but it again elevates itself in the province of Veragua, where it expands into a very fine table-land. In the eastern part of the province it breaks into detached mountains of considerable elevation, and of the most abrupt and rugged formation. Still farther to the east, innumerable conical mountains make their appearance, only three or four hundred feet in height, and having their bases skirted by plains and savannahs. These finally disappear, and the country becomes almost uninterruptedly low and flat. Again the conical mountains thicken, and becoming connected, form a small cordillera, which runs from about opposite Portobello to the bay of Mandingo, where the second break occurs. The land then continues low for a considerable distance, and abounds in rivers, those on the north side flowing to the Gulf of Uraba or Darien, and those on the south to that of St Miguel; beyond which point the cordillera again raises itself on an extended scale, and enters South America. The general bearing of the mountains in the vicinity of Panama is north-east and south-west. They vary elsewhere, and appear to maintain some relation to the line of coast, although they do not always run parallel to it. Their height is not considerable. Near Panama they do not exceed 1000 or 1100 feet in elevation. East of Portobello, however, they are considerably higher, and are generally covered with a dense and almost impenetrable forest, which grows on a soil of great depth and extraordinary fertility. Mr Webster, another traveller in this region, observes, with regard to the mountains of the isthmus: "The mountains which I enumerated were measured by us, and found to be less than 2000 feet high. The principal ingredients of the hills are hornblende, jasper, hornstone, and trap-porphyry; basalt, agate, and quartz rock. A crumbly arenaceous quartz rock prevails near Chagres, containing iron, pyrites, and lead. The stones at Portobello have the volcanic character; and the sand on the beach is of a black description, like that of Fernando Noronha. The streets of Portobello are paved with basalt nodules. Quartz rock is very abundant throughout the isthmus, in many varieties; several beds of clay, boles, ochres, and fullers' earth, are also to be found." Limestone is the prevailing rock, which is skirted on the south side with indurated clay, and on the north with coral rock. The latter is impregnated with a singular gelatinous matter, which imparts to it the property of firmly adhering under water to whatever it comes in contact with. It is easily dug out of the earth, but on exposure to the air it becomes very hard and close in the texture. It thus forms an excellent building material, as does the indurated clay. Besides limestone, flint, calcareous, jasper, and ironstone are found in the interior; and near Gatun, on the river Chagres, there is a very fine fire-stone of great utility in the construction of grates, furnaces, and other things which require to stand a high degree of heat. In building materials of all kinds, indeed, Panama is unusually rich; but in the precious metals it is poor. In Panama proper only two mines are worked, Santa Rita and Pequeni, both for gold; but their produce is insignificant. They are situated in the mountains near Portobello. In Veragua and Choco, very pure gold is obtained in considerable quantity by washing; copper and iron are abundant; and mercury and tin are also said to have been found. But very little capital is embarked in the respective works, and the total amount obtained, either by mining or by washing, is comparatively small and uncertain from year to year.

This province abounds in rivers, and in the rainy season every mile of land is intersected by a flowing stream, which carries off the surplus water. These disappear during the summer heats; but the following remain permanently, and are considered by Mr Lloyd as worthy of particular description. On the northern side of the isthmus, and consequently flowing into the Atlantic, are the Chagres, Pequeni, Trinidad, and Gatun, which all unite and form one large river before they reach the ocean; and on the south side, and falling into the Pacific, are the Rio Grande, Caymito or Chorrero, Pacoro, Indio, and Ballana or Chepo. The Chagres rises in the mountains which approach the Bay of Mandingo, a considerable distance to the eastward of Portobello. After traversing a great tract of country, when nearly opposite to Portobello it receives the Pequeni, which comes from the south-east, and is of equal magnitude with itself. The united streams form a noble river, but flowing so rapidly, and broken into so many falls, as to render navigation very dangerous, even for canoes. Its velocity abates as it approaches the sea; and at the town of Cruces, which is twenty-three miles direct from the Atlantic, it seldom exceeds from three to three miles and a half per hour, even in the rainy season. Still nearer to the ocean, it rapidly decreases, so that in summer its current is scarcely perceptible. "Few rivers of its size," says Mr Lloyd, "present more beautiful scenery on its banks than does the Chagres above Cruces. For miles together, it is bounded by enormous, abrupt masses of limestone, of the most curious and fantastic forms; in other parts savannahs extend to the very edge of the river, covered with a particularly fine grass called grammallotti; and the noble bongo tree is seen studding the banks, somewhat in the shape of a well-trimmed yew-tree, but growing to a much larger size. In most places the river is shaded from the sun's rays by a large tree called jiggeron, which extends its branches across the river, its leaves being eagerly sought by the fish. The water generally runs over a bed of variously coloured pebbles, and is in summer most brilliantly clear. In many places near its source it is much wider than at its mouth, occasionally breaking into distinct channels, and forming small islands; but in the rainy season these are all connected, and constitute one broad stream, with strong sets and eddies, caused by the abrupt turns, which render its navigation peculiarly perilous." The river Trinidad enters the Chagres about twenty-four miles from its mouth, and is also a large river. It has its origin

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1 We are enabled to present a pretty full account of this hitherto imperfectly described portion of America, from the following circumstance. In November 1827, Mr Lloyd, who had served for some time previously on General Bolivar's personal staff, received from him a special commission to survey the isthmus of Panama, in order to ascertain the most eligible line of communication across it, whether by road or canal. The notes which he made on this occasion have been published in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society; and from the article containing these our account is principally derived. The result of his operations, in so far as they regarded the level of the respective seas, and the elevation of the intervening isthmus, will be found detailed at length in the Philosophical Transactions for 1830, p. 59. very near the south coast, not far from the town of Chorrera. Canoes of various descriptions navigate this river as far as a large town called Capua, which lies south-west of Chorrera, and bring down produce to Chagres. As high as Mr Lloyd went up, which was not, however, as far as Capua, he found it about two hundred feet in breadth, from twenty to twenty-eight feet in depth, and without falls or any other impediment to easy navigation. The river Gatun is also of considerable consequence, although neither very wide nor very deep. It rises in the mountains east of Portobello; and crossing both the roads leading from that city to Panama, joins the Chagres in front of the town of Gatun, about eight miles from the sea. Some considerable lakes exist in the vicinity of its embouchure; and although it is shallow and encumbered with trees during its course, it is very useful as a shelter for shipping during tempestuous weather. With the united assistance of all these rivers, the navigation of the Chagres below the junction of the Trinidad is easy, and very superior to that of some streams of much larger size. The depth below Gatun varies from twenty-six to thirty feet; above that it is twenty-four, and nowhere falls permanently below twenty-two. The banks are wooded to the very edges, and so precipitous that vessels can almost everywhere be brought close to them. The Rio Grande rises to the north-west of Panama, near a mountain called Pedro Miguel, and after receiving some considerable tributaries, becomes navigable for large canoes two leagues above its mouth, which is about two miles from the city of Panama. It is obstructed by a bar, but the tide rising eighteen feet in spring floods, vessels readily enter and find good anchorage within. In some places the Rio Grande very nearly approaches the Obispo, one of the affluents of the Chagres; and much interest was consequently at one time taken in the circumstance, from an idea that the long-wished-for communication between the two oceans might thus be effected. The shallowness of the stream, however, presents an insurmountable objection to this plan. The Caymito, or Chorrera, falls into the Pacific ten miles west of Panama, and is formed by the union of numerous insignificant streams, which take their rise in different parts of the western cordillera. The mouth of this river is not obstructed by a bar, but the tide runs so strongly into and out of it, that the anchorage for shipping is bad, and exposed. It is infested by a prodigious number of alligators, and hence its name, Caymito. Before reaching the Pacific, the Pacora and Indio unite, near the island of Chepillo, about eighteen miles east of Panama, and form a broad, rapid, and winding stream for several leagues above its mouth. On the banks of the Indio an English resident in Panama erected a saw-mill, capable of sawing from fifteen to twenty thousand boards annually. An inexhaustible supply of the finest timber is found in its immediate vicinity; and so great is the fertility of the soil, that a small portion only, laboured by two men, is sufficient to supply ample subsistence for the whole establishment. The river Ballano or Chepo is of great extent, and, under the name of Canada, rises in the province of Darien, near the source of another river called Chucunaque, which falls into the Pacific in the Gulf of San Miguel. The Belluno receives several streams during its course, which is nearly west, and in some degree parallel to the coast for many miles, until it suddenly turns to the southward, and enters the Pacific a few miles east of the Pacora. It is navigable as far as this bend; and on its banks, a little higher up, is situated the town of Chepo, which is of some consequence, as being the assigned place of communication with the Mandingo Indians. Farther on is a fort called Fuerte Terrible, built to prevent their incursions; and the line of the river generally is considered the boundary.

There are two seasons in Panama, namely, summer or the dry, and winter or the rainy season. The former commences about the end of December, and lasts till April; and the latter occupies the intervening months. The quantity of rain which thus falls during the year is prodigious, but its amount varies at different places. The clouds chiefly congregate over the wooded heights, in consequence of a law of nature which universally prevails. At Portobello, which is closely encircled by them, the rain descends in torrents, frequently accompanied by storms of thunder and lightning, terrible and grand in the highest degree. Where the ground, however, is level to any extent, and has been cleared of its wood, a great difference is perceptible; and at Panama the following alternations have been observed. "In April the weather becomes cloudy about noon; but, after drizzling for half an hour, clears up. In May, from nine to eleven, it is dull, with slight rain; the afternoons being still fine. In June there is rain every morning and evening; but the mid-days are fair. As the season advances the rain gradually increases, and is incessant throughout July, August, September, and October. In November the nights are always wet and cloudy, but throughout the days the sky begins to break. December brings a further improvement; and in January, February, and March, a shower of rain is as uncommon as a gleam of sunshine at the other season of the year." One very remarkable phenomenon occurs throughout the whole isthmus. On the 20th of June, the rain ceases for five or six days, when the sun shines forth with surpassing splendour; nor is any instance known of irregularity in the recurrence of this extraordinary phenomenon. It is accordingly reckoned on with great confidence by the inhabitants, who call it El Veranito, or little summer, and celebrate the occasion by a jubilee of rejoicing. The temperature and salubrity of the climate also vary in different places. Portobello is one of the hottest and most unhealthy places in the world. At Panama, on the contrary, the thermometer, in the rainy season, does not rise higher at night than 82°, and in the day than 87° of Fahrenheit. The winds are variable and cool; and although the rain is incessant, there is thus no stagnation in the atmosphere, and consequently no epidemic sickness. In summer the temperature rises to 90°, and even as high as 93°; and during the day the reflection of the sun from the smooth surface of the Pacific, with the heat of the winds, which blow steadily from the south-east, over a tract of dry savannahs, makes it very sultry. But the land-winds, which come chiefly from the neighbouring mountains at night, are cool, and the climate may be pronounced generally healthy, although great mortality at times prevails. It is believed, however, that this may be attributed to over-indulgence in the use of some articles of diet, which are unusually abundant at certain seasons of the year.

It appears that a large proportion of the soil of the isthmus of Panama is exceedingly fertile, and the vegetable productions are most luxuriant. In Mr Lloyd's opinion, it challenges competition with any other part of the world in the vigour and variety of its woods. That gentleman gives a list of about a hundred kinds of wood, of excellent or at least good quality, and which are either unknown or little known in Europe. A number of these are very hard and close grained; some resemble box, which must render them very valuable; and others are similar to birch, beech, ash, elm, and those trees which are familiar to us. There are also cotton trees, cedars, lignum-vitae, a bastard mahogany, fustic, calabash, and so forth. The fruits and excellent vegetables found in the isthmus are those of similar intra-tropical situations. The grains cultivated are rice and Indian corn. The sugar-cane is grown, but not extensively. Coffee and cocoa are cultivated as required for home consumption. The milk-tree (polo de vacce), vanilla plant, and caoutchouc tree, are all abundant in the woods. With the gum which flows from the last-named production, while it is yet in a liquid state, the inhabitants manufacture a sort of water-proof cloth, on the same principle as in this country; but which, thus prepared, is more uniform in its texture, and never cracks. The charcoal made from many of the trees is considered as excellent for smelting; and as such is exported to Peru, where it is in much request. Indeed, from the hardness of much of the wood, the excellence of the charcoal made from it was to be inferred. The barks of some of the trees are medicinal, or abound in tannin. Ink is made both from gall-nuts and from a bush resembling the caper, called alsifax. Other trees yield very rich and brilliant dyes used by the Indians, but, Mr Lloyd believes, as yet unknown in commerce. Many valuable resins are obtained, particularly one distilled from the bark of a tree called palo santo, or holy tree, which is highly fragrant, and is used not only as a remedy for disorders, but is burned as incense. The styrax officinalis of Linnaeus is very abundant, the gum extracted from it selling for two dollars a pound.

The wild animals of the woods are tigers, or rather tiger-cats, which are seldom larger than small Newfoundland dogs; lions, at least so an animal resembling the king of the forest is called; bears; racoons; sejinos, a species of wild boar found in droves; wild hogs in herds; conejos, something like our rabbits, but larger; deer in abundance on the borders of the woods; multitudes of monkeys of various species; together with wild turkeys, both black and coloured; birds resembling our hen-pheasants; pigeons, ducks, and other game, all excellent for food. The most formidable animals are the wild dogs, which, when together in droves, and fired upon, will readily attack one or two men. The tiger does not attack the human species, but preys upon the smaller animals. On the banks of the Pacora, at its mouth, a wild animal is found called macho, or danta, nearly of the size and appearance of a jackass, which, prepared, is considered a great dainty. The isthmus enjoys a bad celebrity for snakes and poisonous reptiles; but the observations of Mr Lloyd do not go to confirm this report. The country people, however, stand in great awe of them, and will seldom move abroad after nightfall, lest they should encounter them. They even go so far as to wear charms round their necks for the protection of their persons. A great pest in the country are what are called ganapatas, or ticks, which, in half an hour's walk in summer, will completely cover the person, and are with difficulty loosened from their hold. There are other smaller insects, very numerous and annoying, amongst which mosquitos are in the usual abundance. Fire-flies are common, and very brilliant; with many other insects, which Mr Lloyd apprehends have not yet found their way into entomological catalogues. Amongst the domestic animals, and those chiefly used for food, are oxen for draught and slaughter, horses, mules, goats, pigs, fowls, and fish. The breed of cattle is of a good size; and the draught-oxen, when well broken, fetch from twenty-five to thirty dollars each. The best of those for slaughter may be bought at from twelve to eighteen dollars each. The race of horses is small, but hardy, and their price varies from fifteen to forty dollars. Mules are the animals most prized in the country; for, as is well known, no other animal is ridden in mountainous districts. Their price sometimes reaches as high as 120 dollars; but they can be obtained for less money. Goats are not so plentiful as might have been expected; but as they are in great request in the West Indies, it is to be inferred that they are exported there whenever they attain the proper size, so that comparatively few on an average remain at Panama. Pigs are few, and of most exorbitant value. When of a good size, and well fattened, they fetch from thirty to thirty-five dollars each. Fish and fowl are plentiful, cheap, and much used; and in Panama market hundreds of young sharks, of the kind denominated shovel-nosed, and from one to two feet and a half long, are daily sold for food. The guana is considered an especial dainty, as are pearl oysters, and many varieties of game, which are brought in from the woods. Even the monkey tribes are eaten, especially in the country bivouacs, although they are seldom offered for sale in the town markets. The chief articles of farinaceous food are maize and rice; yet the home growth of either seems to be rather limited for so fine a region. The greater part of the sugar used in the isthmus is imported in skins from Central America, or from the valley of Cauca, by way of Buenaventura, on the Choco coast, and is consequently very dear. The home produce is chiefly miel or molasses, and raspadura or pan-sugar, which the inhabitants prefer to the finer preparations of the article. Great quantities of wild honey are gathered in the woods; the bees collecting which do not sting, and are thus robbed without precaution.

The communication across the isthmus is maintained chiefly by two lines of road; one from Panama to Portobello, and another equally from Panama, by way of Cruces, to Gorgona, down the Chagres, to the seaport of the same name at its mouth. There are some others in use, but little known, and under the Spaniards their improvement and multiplication were much discouraged. Mr Lloyd strongly recommends a new line to be formed, differing from them all, and beginning on the Atlantic at a fine bay called Limon or Navy Bay, about five leagues east from Chagres. From this he proposes it should proceed to the river Chagres, some miles above its mouth, where its course approaches this bay by a canal; thence up the river to a favourable situation on the south bank of the Trinidad, where its shores are excellently suited for being converted into wharfs and landing places, both for goods and cattle; and thence finally to Panama or Chorrera by a railroad, the latter being the shorter distance, but the former the preferable route, both as conducing to a better seaport, and as terminating in Panama, the capital and the centre of trade. Mr Lloyd's reasons for suggesting this innovation will be found detailed at length in the article to which we have already referred. The present roads are exceedingly bad, and they traverse a mountainous part of the country. That between Panama and Portobello is in this respect greatly the worse of the two, being in many places almost impassable in the rainy season, from the steepness of the ascents and descents. But the roads to Cruces and Gorgona also lead across a mountainous country, and are extremely difficult in bad weather; a considerable part of the latter, indeed, being merely the bed of what is in winter a large stream.

The isthmus of Panama is divided into two provinces, viz. Panama which includes the Darien, and Veragua. These again are divided into cantons, having a certain number of parishes in each. According to a census taken in 1822, the latest which we have been able to obtain, the following was the state of the population in the two provinces.

Province of Panama.—The canton of Panama, which comprehended eight parishes besides the capital, contained 16,724 souls; the canton of Chorrera, containing four parishes and the capital Chorrera, 7411 souls; the canton of Los Santos, containing eight parishes and the capital Los Santos, 21,348 souls; the canton of Nata, containing four parishes and the capital, 17,108 souls; the canton of Portobello, containing four parishes and the capital, 2425 souls; and the canton of Darien, containing seven parishes and the capital Tavisa, 1172 souls.

Province of Veragua.—The canton of Santiago, containing six parishes and the capital, 14,170 souls; the canton of Remedios, containing three parishes and the capital, 5010 souls; the canton de la Mesa, containing three pa- rishes and the capital, 8722 souls; and the canton of Alange, containing six parishes and the capital, 7465 souls.

The summary of the province of Panama gives the total number of inhabitants as 66,188, and that of Veragua as 35,367. The total population of the whole isthmus was 101,550 in the year 1822, nor has it altered to any great extent since. Most of these cantons, with the exception of Portobello and Darien, which are almost uncultivated, are alike in their resources; but distinct reports of the produce of each were not obtained by Mr Lloyd. The population is distributed into white and coloured; and most of the descendants of mestizoes, and even mulattoes, are considered as white, provided they be in easy circumstances. Wealth is here a powerful charm in dissolving caste. One person in every five has a house, or, in other words, the average number in a family is five. From the excess of births above deaths in one of the cantons, that of Los Santos, it appears that the rate of increase is one and a half per cent., which is low when compared with that of the United States, for instance, where the increase exceeds three and approaches four per cent. Of the houses, almost a half are marked as belonging to the country, which indicates at once security and the prevalence of agricultural occupations. Mr Lloyd thinks that the canton of Los Santos may be taken as a fair specimen of the others; with the exceptions already stated, and also that of Panama, the presence of the capital and the emporium of trade giving a preponderance in its favour. In general, however, the western and central districts, with the islands in the Bay of Panama, are the best cultivated and most populous, Los Santos being one of them. Elsewhere the landlords keep their estates chiefly in grass, to save trouble; and the population is nowhere industrious, although strong and enduring under occasional fatigue. The extreme fertility of the soil is one of the main causes of the general indolence; for with a small expenditure of labour, a man can procure a respectable subsistence for himself and family. They are, however, quite susceptible of steadily practising habits of industry when the stimulus employed is powerful enough to call forth their energies. "There are within the province," Mr Lloyd observes, "several regiments of militia, formed of the lower classes of people and Indians, excellent workmen in felling timber and clearing ground, and particularly apt in acquiring any mechanical art." They are exceedingly simple in their habits, and are easily maintained, so that, in the projected communication between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, workmen will be obtained at a cheap rate; a circumstance of very great importance to the success of the undertaking.

The capital of the isthmus is Panama, the site of which has been once changed. The old city stood about three miles east from the present situation; and, on the first arrival of the Spaniards in 1515, it was occupied by an Indian population, who were attracted to the spot on account of the vast abundance of fish on the coast, and gave the name of Panama to their place of residence, that word in their language signifying "much fish." The natives, however, were speedily dispossessed by their ruthless invaders; and, as early as the year 1521, the title and privileges of a city were conferred on the Spanish town by the Emperor Charles V. In the year 1670, old Panama was reduced to a heap of ruins by the pirate Morgan; and it was after this catastrophe that the city was built on the spot where it now stands. Panama is situated in latitude 8° 57' north, and longitude 79° 30' west from Greenwich, on a rocky tongue of land shaped nearly like a spear-head, extending a considerable way into the sea. Its harbour is protected by a number of islands lying at a little distance from the mainland, and some of which are of considerable size, and highly cultivated. These spots upon the sea, scattered around the Bay of Panama, are the gardens of the town, and afford a plentiful supply of fruit and vegetables. There is good anchorage under the lee of all of them; and, besides the productions of the soil, good water can be obtained from nearly the whole of them. The plan of the city is somewhat irregular; but the principal streets extend across the peninsula, which allows a current of air freely to circulate; and the rules for cleanliness are here more strictly observed than is usual in Spanish American towns. The fortifications which encircle the town are neither regular nor strong, although the walls are high, and the bastions have been constructed from time to time, as circumstances required that the place should be protected. The buildings are of stone, and generally most substantial, those of a large size having patios or courts. They are constructed in the old Spanish style. Amongst edifices of a public nature may be mentioned a beautiful cathedral, four convents, now nearly or altogether deserted, a nunnery, a college de la Compania, and also the walls of another, which was begun on a magnificent scale, but was never finished, and is now crumbling to ruins. Immediately around Panama, eastward along the coast, and north-westward from it, the land is low and flat; but westward and north-eastward, the mountains approach it closely; and, from a hill in the vicinity, about six hundred feet in height, a view may be obtained of the sea with its islands, and the country with its forest-mantled mountains, and its green savannahs. The beach is fringed with plantain and banana trees, growing amongst oranges, figs, and limes, and numberless rich shrubs, shaded by the tamarind, which crowns them all, except the cocoa-nut, with its feathery top and naked stem. Panama is celebrated for its gold chains, in the manufacture of which the natives are remarkably expert. The hat which goes by the name of this city, and is a favourite head-dress in the country, is brought from Guayaquil, and costs from two to twenty dollars. This city enjoyed a long period of prosperity; but it has materially declined since America cast off the Spanish yoke. Yet it possesses advantages in regard to situation which may yet be turned to great commercial account; and Panama may still be restored to more than its former opulence and splendour. The population amounts to nearly 11,000.

Portobello is situated in latitude 9° 34' 35" north, and longitude 77° 45' west, close to the sea, at the foot of immense mountains, which surround the whole of the port. It consists of one long street, which environ the bay, and from it smaller ones branch off where the ground renders this practicable. There are, besides, two squares, one in front of the treasury, which is built of stone; and another formed on one side by the church, which is also of stone, and a capacious edifice, considering the smallness of the population. It has been allowed, however, to fall into ruin; and the same may be said of all the public and most of the private buildings. The hospital, and even the fortifications, are dilapidated; and of the houses in town only a few remain tenable. Portobello has an unhappy notoriety for the insalubrity of its climate, and has acquired the title of the Sepulchre of Europeans. The heat is most oppressive, and the town being closely environed by mountains, the freshness of the sea-breezes is never felt. Immense forests also cover the mountains, and the denseness of their foliage excluding the sun's rays, the earth remains moist, and a thick unhealthy vapour is continually exhaling, which collecting in clouds, covers the town like a pall, and keeps up an almost perpetual rain. Not only the human species, but even the lower animals, degenerate, and cease to produce in this Golgotha; so that not a cattle-estate is to be found in its vicinity, all the meat consumed being brought from Panama. The mountains and forests, which abound with animals of various kinds, extend to the very foundations of the houses, so that it is no uncommon thing to find wild hogs and small tigers usurping the abodes of man. Toads of a large size are also so abundant, that after a night of rain they cover the streets like a living pavement, and it is impossible to walk without crushing them. The population is now extremely limited, about eleven hundred; the greater part being negroes and mulattoes, with a few old Spaniards, tenacious of their property, and who are rapidly dying out. Occasionally a few visitors from Panama arrive with goods, which they dispose of at an exorbitant rate; and a small detachment of troops is sent from the capital to do duty for a short time.

Chagres is a miserable place, about thirty-two miles west from Portobello. It is situated in a little sandy bay, at the mouth of the river Chagres, on its north side, and consists of an assemblage of dirty, rude, ill-conditioned huts, built of reeds. From the nature of the surrounding country, it is open to no wind but a westerly one, and is thus, like Portobello, extremely unhealthy. A castle, in which ten guns are mounted, protects the mouth of the river and the small harbour. The inhabitants are chiefly black or coloured, with the exception of a few custom-house officers, and the commandant of the castle. They are said to amount to about two thousand in number. Chagres and Portobello are the only towns or villages on the Atlantic shore of the isthmus; and, as we have seen, they are of a very inferior description. About nine miles east from Chagres is Navy Bay, called also the Bay of Limon. It is large and spacious, being three miles in width at the entrance. The other towns of Panama are of little importance. Gatun is but a small village. Gorgona is somewhat larger, being a point where passengers going to the capital frequently land. Cruces, however, is the place to which goods are always conveyed. It is pleasantly situated on a fine open plain, upon the left or southern bank of the river Chagres, about thirty-four miles from its mouth, and eight hours' ride from Panama. The inhabitants of these places are nearly all owners of canoes or mules, or store-keepers for taking charge of goods, or bagas, that is, persons employed in working canoes. Cruces and Gorgona are also resorted to in summer as watering-places by the inhabitants of Panama, being considered very healthy; and the town of Chorrera, situated upon the river of that name, enjoys the same advantage.

The trade on the Atlantic shore of the isthmus is maintained with Jamaica by a British man-of-war, which sails monthly for the purpose of conveying letters and specie; with Carthagena by government vessels, twice a month; and with the same and a few other points by independent traders, which bring freight to Chagres, and there exchange it. On the Pacific side it embraces all parts of the coast, both north and south, which find it their interest to communicate with Europe in this way. Specie is conveyed across the isthmus to be embarked at Chagres at an expense of ten dollars two reals for every five thousand dollars or ounces; and there is, besides, a transit duty of three per cent. on silver, and one per cent. on gold. Return goods are brought to Panama, where they are lodged in the custom-house immediately on their arrival. If for exportation, they pay a duty of two per cent.; and if for home consumption, according to the nature of the article. The trade of the isthmus is very limited, but it is believed to be improving. The financial affairs of the government of Panama stood thus in 1827—Receipts, 241,682 dollars; expenditure, 238,929 ditto; leaving a balance in the treasury of 2753 dollars. The income is not one third of what it was in 1812, when Panama was attached to Spain; but this arose from that exclusive system of dealing which was universally practised by that power.

The upper classes in the isthmus belong to the common stock of Spanish America, but are by no means so far advanced in civilization as their neighbours. The white people, and particularly the women, who are exceedingly retired in their manners, are noted for a tinge of the European complexion, which is scarcely to be looked for from their geographical position. They are very superstitious and illiterate, children being brought up in the very worst manner. Hence, although there is a well-conducted college at Panama, the blessings which it would otherwise diffuse are greatly counteracted by the negligence with which parents superintend their offspring, allowing them to associate indiscriminately with the lowest negroes of their own age. They thus acquire habits of gambling and other kinds of low vice; the first being the curse of the country, and indeed of almost every part of the former dominions of Spain in the western world. The inhabitants display a considerable turn for commerce; and, from the highest to the lowest, each keeps a shop or tienda. The lower classes also pursue different handicrafts; but, with the exception of goldsmiths' work, to which we have already alluded, they are rude in all. The field for this branch of art, however, as for every other which contributes to luxury, is now much curtailed. But the dress of the women, on occasions of religious processions or rejoicings, is still very splendid. They decorate their persons with a profusion of ornaments, amongst which pearls are conspicuous for their number and brilliancy. These are procured amongst the islands off the coast, by diving, which is pursued as a favourite occupation, although both very laborious and uncertain.

By the last arrangement affecting this country, it forms the north-western boundary of New Grenada, one of the three republics into which Colombia separated in the year 1832.

We are unwilling to enter at any length into the much agitated question of a communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, because it is at present only a matter of speculation, and, from all appearances, the work will be one of distant and very uncertain fulfilment. There are no less than five plans by which it is proposed to effect this junction. Beginning with the most northerly, it has been suggested that the Gulf of Mexico might be united to the Gulf of Tehuantepec in the Pacific, by means of a canal which should join the sources of the Chimalpa to those of the Rio del Passo. The distance (thirty-eight leagues), and other circumstances, render this plan by no means a favourite. Its realization is more important to the state of Mexico than to the general interests of the commercial world. By the second and third plans, the lines of communication pass through Central America, and a notice of them will be found in the article NICARAGUA. The communication through the Isthmus of Panama has occupied more attention than any of the others; and although it will not answer for a ship-canal, it presents great facilities for transferring merchandise from one ocean to the other, at a trifling expense, by a river and canal sufficiently deep for steam-boats. Mr Lloyd's attention was chiefly directed to the practicability of a railroad along the level country between the mouth of the Trinidad and the town or river of Chorrera; and no doubt this work would be very beneficial. But many persons are of opinion, that by deepening the Obispo, and the Mandingo, which flows into it, and then connecting these rivers by a canal with the Rio Grande, at the point whence it is navigable to the Pacific, the desired object would be attained fully as well by the plan of Mr Lloyd. The distance from the Chagres, at the point where the Obispo enters it, to the Rio Grande, is twelve miles; and the Obispo, at its junction with the Mandingo, or nearly at that part, approaches to within four miles and a half of the Rio Grande, the interval between the two rivers presenting no serious obstacle, and being nearly flat. This is certainly the shortest route; but whether it is practicable, or is even the best, remains to be determined by proper surveyors and engineers. Before individuals sent out in these capacities shall have examined the country and published their reports, no correct judgment can be formed upon the merits of the several plans. A question here arises, and it is one which ought to be deliberately discussed before anything is done in the matter, namely, should the communication be of that limited nature which would render it necessary for the goods to be transported by smaller craft or by railroads from one vessel in the Atlantic to another in the Pacific; or ought it to be a large ship-canal, capable of admitting vessels of deep draught, and thus effectually uniting the two oceans at once? Such a plan is said to be practicable at the isthmus of Cupica; and this is the last of the five which we mentioned as having been proposed. Humboldt, who is a great authority, is of opinion that Cupica Bay merits the serious attention of men of science, from the great facilities it presents for solving the problem of a ship-canal. The scheme is simply to connect Cupica Bay, in the Pacific, with the large river Atrato, flowing into the Atlantic, by forming a canal across the interval, which is ascertained to be a perfect level. The course of the river Naipi, before its confluence with the Atrato, intersects this level country within five leagues of the Bay of Cupica. The Atrato flows through the province of Choco, in which it rises, and reaches the Atlantic at the southern end of the Gulf of Darien, in the Bay of Choco.

One thing is certain, that were such a communication between the two great oceans effected, it would prove of incalculable utility to all nations engaged in maritime commerce, and sooner or later it will unquestionably be opened. Geographically, this would be nearly the shortest possible route from Europe, North America, a great part of Asia, as well as from Africa to every port on the western coast of the New World. With regard to the more obvious saving of space to be travelled over, need say nothing; a glance at a map of the world will show at once what would be gained. Therefore, although only the smaller work were carried through, there would be an immense saving in time, by the greater certainty of good and safe passages in a voyage from Panama to Canton, Australia, and every port and island in the Pacific Ocean, notwithstanding the necessity for disembarkation and transhipment. But the advantages of a canal of sufficient size to allow large vessels to proceed right across the isthmus would be incomparably greater. They must, however, be so obvious to every mind, that we need not enlarge upon them in this place. But by whom is either of the two works to be accomplished? The question is not a British one alone, nor even an European; it is more particularly an American question, though the whole commercial world would be more or less remotely affected by it. It is not likely, therefore, that any individual nation will be so generous as to undertake the expense on its own account; and there must be either a joint-stock company of governments formed, who will agree to defray so much each of the expenditure, or a joint-stock company of individuals, who will accomplish some one line of communication or another, and indemnify themselves for their outlay by planting tolls upon it.

(P. B. R.)