NAVAL. When we read at our fire-side the account of an engagement, or other interesting operation of an army, our attention is generally so much engaged by the results, that we give but little to the movements which led to them, and produced them; and we seldom form to ourselves any distinct notion of the conduct of the day. But a professional man, or one accustomed to reflection, and who is not satisfied with the mere indulgence of eager curiosity, follows every regiment in its movements, endeavours to see their connection, and the influence which they have had on the fate of the day, and even to form to himself a general notion of the whole scene of action, at its different interesting periods. He looks with the eye of the general, and sees his orders succeed or fail.
But few trouble themselves farther about the narration. The movement is ordered; it is performed; and the fortune of the day is determined. Few think how all this is brought about; and when they are told that during the whole of the battle of Custrin, Frederick the Great was in the upper room of a country inn, whence he could view the whole field, whilst his aides-de-camp, on horseback, waited his orders in the yard below, they are struck with wonder, and can hardly conceive how it can be done; but, on reflection, they see the possibility of the thing. Their imagination accompanies the messenger from the inn yard to the scene of action; they hear the general's orders delivered, and they expect its execution.
But when we think for a moment on the situation of the commander of a fleet, confined on board one ship, and this ship as much, or more closely, engaged, than any other of the fleet; and when we reflect that here are no messengers ready to carry his orders to ships of the squadron at the distance of miles from him, and to deliver them with precision and distinctness, and that even if this were possible by sending small ships or boats, the vicissitudes of wind and weather may render the communication so tedious, that the favourable moment may be irretrievably lost before the order can be conveyed. When we think of all these circumstances, our thoughts are bewildered, and we are ready to imagine that a sea battle is nothing but the unconnected struggle of individual ships; and that when the admiral has once "cried havoc, and let slip the dogs of war," he has done all that his situation empowers him to do, and he must leave the fate of the day to the bravery and skill of his captains and sailors.
Yet it is in this situation, apparently the most unfavourable, that the orders of the commander can be conveyed, with a dispatch that is not attainable in the operations of a land army. The scene of action is unincumbered, so that the eye of the general can behold the whole without interruption. The movements which it is possible to execute, are few, and they are precise. A few words are sufficient to order them, and then the mere fighting the ships must always be left to their respective commanders. This simplicity in the duty to be performed has enabled us to frame a language fully adequate to the business in hand, by which a correspondence can be kept up as far as the eye can see. This is the language of signals, a language by writing, addressed to the eye, and which he that runneth may read. As in common writing certain arbitrary marks are agreed on to express certain sounds used in speech, or rather, as in hieroglyphics, certain arbitrary marks are agreed on to express certain thoughts, or the subjects of these thoughts; so here certain exhibitions are made, which are agreed on to express certain movements to be executed by the commander to whom they are addressed, and all are enjoined to keep their eyes fixed on the ship of the conductor of the fleet, that they may learn his will.
It is scarcely possible for any number of ships to act in concert, without some such mode of communication between the general and the commanders of private ships. We have no direct information of this circumstance in the naval tactics of the ancient nations, the Greeks and Romans; yet the necessity of the thing is so apparent, that we cannot suppose it to have been omitted by the most ingenious and the most cultivated people who have appeared on the great theatre of the world; and we are persuaded that Themistocles, Conon, and other renowned naval commanders of Athens, had signals by which they directed the movements of their fleets. We read, that when Egeus sent his son Theseus to Crete, it was agreed on, that if the ship should bring the young prince back in safety, a white flag should be displayed. But those on board, in their joy for revisiting their country after their perilous voyage, forgot to hoist the concerted signal. The anxious father was every day expecting the ship which should bring back his darling son, and had gone to the shore to look out for her. He saw her, but without the signal agreed on; on which the old man threw himself into the sea. We find, too, in the history of the Punic wars by Polybius, frequent allusions to such a mode of communication; and Ammianus Marcellinus speaks of the speculatores and vexillarii, who were on board the ships in the Adriatic. The coins both of Greece and Rome exhibit both flags and streamers. In short, we cannot doubt of the ancients having practised this hieroglyphical language. It is somewhat surprising that Lord Dudley, in his Arcano del Mare, in which he makes an ostentatious display of his knowledge of every thing connected with the naval service, makes no express mention of this very essential piece of knowledge, although he must, by his long residence in Italy, have known the marine discipline of the Venetians and Genoese, the greatest maritime powers then in Europe.
In the naval occurrences of modern Europe, mention is frequently made of signals. Indeed, as we have already observed, it seems impossible for a number of ships to act in any kind of concert, without some method of communication. Numberless situations must occur, when it would be impossible to convey orders or information by messengers from one ship to another, and coast and alarm signals had long been practised by every nation. The idea, therefore, was familiar. We find, in particular, that Queen Elizabeth, on occasion of the expedition to Cadiz, ordered her secretaries to draw up instructions, which were to be communicated to the admiral, the general, and the five counsellors of war, and by them to be copied and transmitted to the several ships of the navy, not to be opened till they should arrive in a certain latitude. It was on this occasion, says our historian Guthrie, "that we meet with the first regular sets of signals and orders to the commanders of the English fleet." But till the movements of a fleet have attained some sort of uniformity, regulated and connected by some principles of propriety, and agreed on by persons in the habit of directing a number of ships, we may with confidence affirm that signals would be nothing but a parcel of arbitrary marks, appropriated to particular pieces of naval service, such as attacking the enemy, landing the soldiers, and the like; and that they would be considered merely as referring to the final result, but by no means pointing out the mode of execution, or directing the movements which were necessary for performing it.
It was James II. when Duke of York, who first considered this practice as capable of being reduced into a system, and who saw the importance of such a composition. He, as well as the king his brother, had always showed a great predilection for the naval service; and when appointed admiral of England, he turned his whole attention to its improvement. He had studied the art of war under Turenne, not as a pastime, but as a science, and was a favourite pupil of that most accomplished general. Turenne one day pointed him out, saying, "Behold one who will be one of the first princes and greatest generals of Europe." When admiral of England, he endeavoured to introduce into the maritime service all those principles of concert and arrangement which made a number of individual regiments and squadrons compose a great army. When he commanded in the Dutch war, he found a fleet to be little better than a collection of ships, on board of each of which the commander and his ship's company did their best to annoy the enemy, but with very little dependence on each other, or on the orders of the general; and in the different actions which the English fleet had with the Dutch, everything was confusion as soon as the battle began. It is remarkable that the famous pensionary De Witt, who from a statesman became a navigator and a great sea commander in a few weeks, made the same representation to the States General on his return from his first campaign.
In the memoirs of James II. written by himself, we have the following passage: "1665. On the 15th of March, the Duke of York went to Gunfleet, the general rendezvous of the fleet, and hastened their equipment. He ordered all the flag officers on board with him every morning, to agree on the order of battle and rank. In former battles, no order was kept, and this under the Duke of York, was the first in which fighting in a line and regular form of a battle was observed." This must be considered as full authority for giving the Duke of York the honour of the invention. For whatever faults may be laid to the charge of this unfortunate prince, his word and honour stand unimpeached. And we are anxious to vindicate his claim to it, because our neighbours the French, as usual, would take the merit of this invention, and of the whole of naval tactics, to them- True it is, that Colbert, the great and justly celebrated minister of Louis XIV., created a navy for his ambitious and vain-glorious master, and gave it a constitution which may be a model for other nations to copy. By his encouragement, men of the greatest scientific eminence were engaged to contribute to its improvement; and they gave us the first treatises of naval evolutions. But it must ever be remembered, that our accomplished, though misguided sovereign, was then residing at the court of Louis; that he had formerly acted in concert with the French as a commander and flag officer, and was at this very time aiding them with his knowledge of nautical affairs. In the memorable day at La Hogue, the gallant Russel, observing one of Tourville's movements, exclaimed, "There, they have got Pepys amongst them." This anecdote we give on the authority of a friend, who heard an old and respectable officer, Admiral Clinton, say, that he had it from a gentleman who was in the action, and heard the words spoken; and we trust that our readers will not be displeased at having this matter of general opinion established on some good grounds.
It was on this occasion, then, that the Duke of York made the movements and evolutions of a fleet the object of his particular study, reduced them to a system, and composed that System of Sailing and Fighting Instructions, which has ever since been considered as the code of discipline for the British navy, and which has been adopted by our rivals and neighbours as the foundation of their naval tactics. It does great honour to its author, although its merit will not appear very eminent to a careless surveyor, on account of the very simplicity which constitutes its chief excellence. It is unquestionably the result of much sagacious reflection and painful combination of innumerable circumstances, all of which have their influence; and it is remarkable, that although succeeding commanders have improved the subject by several subordinate additions, no change has to this day been made in its general principles or maxims of evolution.
Till some such code be established, it is evident that signals can be nothing but arbitrary and unconnected hieroglyphics, to be learned by rote, and retained by memory, without any exercise of the judgment; and the acquisition of this branch of nautical skill must be a more irksome task than that of learning the Chinese writing. But such a code being once settled, the character in which it may be expressed becomes a matter of rational discussion.
Accordingly, the sailing and fighting instructions of the Duke of York were accompanied by a set of signals for directing the chief' or most frequent movements of the fleet. These also were contrived with so much judgment, and such attention to distinctness, simplicity, and propriety, that there has hardly been any change found necessary; and they are still retained in the British navy as the usual signals in all cases when we are not anxious to conceal our movements from an enemy.
Notwithstanding this acknowledged merit of the Duke of York's signals, it must be admitted that great improvements have been made on this subject, considered as an art. The art military has, in the course of a century past, become almost an appropriate calling, and has therefore been made the peculiar study of its professors. Our rivals the French were sooner and more formally placed in this situation; and the ministers of Louis XIV. took infinite and most judicious pains to make their military men superior to all others by their academical education. A more scientific turn was given to their education, and the assistance of scientific men was liberally given them; and all the nations of Europe must acknowledge some obligations to them for information on everything connected with the art of war. They have attended very much to this subject, have greatly improved it, and have even introduced a new principle into the art; and by this means have reduced it to the most simple form of reference to the code of sailing and fighting instructions, by making the signals immediately expressive, not of orders, but of simple numbers. These numbers being prefixed to the various articles of the code of instructions, the officer who sees a signal thrown out by the admiral, reads the number and reports it to his captain, perhaps without knowing to what it relates. Thus simplicity and secrecy, with an unlimited power of variation, are combined. We believe that M. de la Bourdonnais, a brave and intelligent officer, during the war 1758, was the author of this ingenious thought.
We do not propose to give a system of British signals. This would evidently be improper. But we shall show our readers the practicability of this curious language, the extent to which it may be carried, and the methods which may be practised in accomplishing this purpose. This may make it an object of attention to scientific men, who can improve it; and the young officer will not only be able to read the orders of the commander-in-chief, but will not be at a loss, should circumstances place him in a situation where he must issue orders to others.
Signals may be divided into,
I. Day Signals. II. Night Signals; and, III. Signals in a Fog.
They must also be distinguished into, First, Signals of Evolution, addressed to the whole Fleet, or to Squadrons of the fleet, or to Divisions of these squadrons; secondly, Signals of Movements to be made by particular ships; and, thirdly, Signals of Service, which may be either general or particular.
The great extent of a large fleet, the smoke in time of battle, and the situation of the commander-in-chief, who is commonly in the midst of the greatest confusion and hottest fire, frequently makes it very difficult for the officers of distant ships to perceive his signals with distinctness. Frigates, therefore, are stationed out of the line, to windward or to leeward, whose sole office it is to observe the admiral's signals, and instantly to repeat them. The eyes of all the line signal officers in the private ships of war are directed to the repeating frigates, as well as to the admiral; and the officers of the repeating frigate, having no other duty, observe the admiral incessantly, and, being unembarrassed by the action, can display the signal with deliberation, so that it may be very distinctly seen. Being minutely acquainted with the substitutions which must be made on board the admiral when his masts and rigging are in disorder, his perhaps imperfect signal is exhibited by the repeating frigate in its proper form, so as to be easily understood. And to facilitate this communication, the commanders of the different squadrons repeat the signals of the commander-in-chief, and the commanders of division repeat the signals of the commanders of their squadron.
Every evolution signal is preceded by a signal of advertisement and preparation, which is general, and frequently signals are by a gun, to call attention; and when all the signals have preceded been made which direct the different parts of that evolution, another signal is made, which marks the close of the complex signal, and divides it from others which may immediately follow it. And as the orders of the commander-in-chief may relate either to the movements of the whole fleet, a directive of those of a single division, or those of certain private ships, the Executive Signal, which dictates the particular movement, is accompanied by a Directive Signal, by which these ships are pointed out, to which the order is addressed.
The commander of a ship to which any signal is addressed, is generally required to signify by a signal, which is ge- Naval Signals.
It may happen that the commander who throws out the signal for any piece of service, sees reasons for altering his plan. He intimates this by a general annulling signal, accompanying the signal already given. This will frequently be more simple than to make the signals for the movements which would be required for re-establishing the ships in their former situation.
All these things are of very easy comprehension, and require little thought for their contrivance. But when we come to the particular evolutions and movements, and to combine these with the circumstances of situation in which the fleet may be at the time, it is evident that much reflection is necessary for framing a body of signals which may be easily exhibited, distinctly perceived and well understood, with little risk of being mistaken one for another. We shall take notice of the circumstances which chiefly contribute to give them these qualities as we proceed in describing their different classes.
I. Of Day Signals.
These are made by means of signals of different colours; but before we proceed to the description of the signals by means of colours, such as flags, banners, or triangular flags, pendants, or vanes, we must take notice of the ostensible distinctions of the various divisions and subdivisions of a fleet, so that we may understand how the same signal may be addressed to a squadron, division, or single ship or ships. We suppose it known that a fleet of ships of war is distributed into three grand divisions, which we shall term squadrons, called the van, centre, and rear. These denominations have not always a relation to the one being more advanced than the other, either towards the enemy or in the direction of their course.
In a land army, the position of every part is conceived from its reference to the enemy; and the reader, conceiving himself as facing the enemy, easily understands the terms van, centre, and rear, the right and left wing, and so forth. But the movements of a sea army having a necessary dependence on the wind, they cannot be comprehended unless expressed in a language which keeps this circumstance continually in view. The simplest and most easily conceived disposition of a fleet, is that in which it is almost indispensably obliged to form in order to engage an enemy. This is a straight line, each ship directly ahead of its neighbour, and close-hauled. This is therefore called the line of battle. In this position, the two extremities of the fleet correspond to the right and left wings of an army. Suppose this line to be in the direction east and west, the wind blowing from the north-north-west, and therefore the fleet on the starboard tack; the ships' heads are to the west, and the westernmost division is undoubtedly the van of the fleet, and the easternmost division is the rear. And it is in conformity to this arrangement and situation that the list of the fleet is drawn up. But the ships may be on the same east and west line, close-hauled, with their heads to the west, but the wind blowing from the south-south-west. They must therefore be on the larboard tack. The same ships, and the same division, are still, in fact, the van of the fleet. But suppose the ships' heads to be to the eastward, and that they are close-hauled, having the wind from the south-south-east or the north-north-east, the ships which were the real van on both tacks in the former situation, are now, in fact, the rear on both tacks; yet they retain the denomination of the van squadron of this fleet, and are under the immediate direction of the officer of the second rank, while the other extremity is under the direction of the third officer. This subordination therefore is rather an arrangement of rank and precedence than of evolution. It is, however, considered as the natural order to which the general signals must be accommodated. For this reason, the division which is denominated van in the list of this fleet, is generally made to lead the fleet when in the line of battle on the starboard tack, and to form the weathermost column in the order of sailing in columns; and, in general, it occupies that station from which it can most easily pass into the place of the leading division on the starboard line of battle ahead. Although this is a technical nicety of language, and may frequently puzzle a landsman in reading an account of naval operations, the reflecting and intelligent reader will see the propriety of retaining this mode of conceiving the subordinate arrangement of a fleet, and will comprehend the employment of the signals which are necessary for re-establishing this arrangement, or directing the movements while another arrangement is retained.
This being understood, it is easy to contrive various methods of distinguishing every ship by the place which she holds in the fleet, both with respect to the whole line, with respect to the particular squadron, the particular division of that squadron, and the particular place in that division. This may be done by a combination of the position and colour of the pendants and vanes of each ship. Thus the colour of the pendants may indicate the squadron, their position or mast on which they are hoisted may mark the division of that squadron, and a distinguishing vane may mark the place of the private ship in her own division. The advantages attending this method are many. In a large fleet it would hardly be possible for the commander-in-chief to find a sufficient variety of single signals to mark the ship to which an order is addressed, by hoisting it along with the signal appropriated to the intended movement. But by this contrivance one-third part of these signals of address is sufficient. It also enables the commander-in-chief to order a general change of position by a single signal, which otherwise would require several. Thus, suppose that the fore, main, and mizen masts, are appropriated, with the proper modifications, for exhibiting the signals addressed to the van, the centre, and the rear squadrons of the fleet, and that a red, a white, and a blue flag, are chosen for the distinguishing flags of the officers commanding these squadrons; then, if the commander-in-chief shall hoist a red flag at his mizen topgallant mast-head, it must direct the van squadron to take the position then occupied by the rear squadron, the evolution necessary for accomplishing this end being supposed known by the commander of the squadron, who will immediately make the necessary signals to the squadron under his particular direction. In the same manner, the distinguishing signal for the leading ship of a squadron being hoisted along with the signal of address to the whole fleet, and the signal for any particular service, will cause the three or the nine leading ships to execute that order.
All that has been said hitherto may be considered as so many preparations for the real issuing of orders by the commander-in-chief. The most difficult part of the language remains, viz. to invent a number of signals which shall correspond to that almost infinite variety of movements and services which must be performed.
Distinctness, simplicity, and propriety, are the three essential qualities of all signals. A signal must be some object easily seen, strongly marked, so that it may be readily understood, with little risk of its being mistaken for another. When made by flags, banners, or pendants, they must be of the fullest colours, and strongest contrasts. The ships are frequently at a very great distance, so that the inter- vening air occasions a great degradation of colour. They are seen between the eye and a very variable sky; and in this situation, especially in the morning or evening, or a dark day, it is not easy to distinguish one full colour from another, all of them approaching to the appearance of a black. At the distance of a very few miles hardly any full colours can be distinguished but a scarlet and a blue. Red, blue, yellow, and white, are the colours which can be distinguished at greater distances than any others, and are therefore the only colours admitted as signals. Even these are sometimes distinguished with difficulty. A yellow is often confounded with a dirty white, and a blue with a red. All other dark colours are found totally unfit. But as these afford but a small variety, we must combine them in one flag, by making it striped, spotted, or chequered, taking care that the opposition of colour may be as great as possible, and that the pieces of which the flags are made up may not be too minute. Red must never be striped nor spotted with blue; and the stripes, spots, or chequers, should never be less than one-third of the breadth of the flag.
Difference of shape, as flags, banners, or pendants, is another distinction by which the expression may be varied. And in doing this, we must recollect, that in light winds it may be difficult to distinguish a flag from a banner, as neither are fully displayed for want of wind to detach the fly from the staff.
Lastly, signals may be varied by their position, which may be on any lofty and well detached part of the masts, yards, or rigging.
Simplicity is an eminent property in all signals. They are addressed to persons not much accustomed to combinations, and who are probably much occupied by other pressing duties. It were to be wished that every piece of service could be indicated by a single flag. This is peculiarly desirable with respect to the signals used in time of battle. The rapid succession of events on this occasion call for a multitude of orders from the commander-in-chief, and his ship is frequently clad over with flags and pendants, so that it is exceedingly difficult for the signal officer of a private ship to distinguish the different groups, each of which make a particular signal.
These considerations are the foundation of a certain propriety in signals, which directs us to a choice amongst marks which appear altogether arbitrary. Signals which run any risk of being confounded, on account of some resemblance, or because their position hinders us from immediately perceiving their difference, should be appropriated to pieces of service which are hardly possible to be executed, or can hardly be wanted, in the same situation. No bad consequence could easily result though the signal for coming to closer action should resemble that for unmooring, because the present situation of the ships makes the last operation impossible or absurd. Such considerations direct us to select for battle signals, those which are of easiest exhibition, are the most simple, and have the least dependence on the circumstance of position; so that their signification may not be affected by the damages sustained in the masts or rigging of the flag-ship. Such signals as are less easily seen at a distance, should be appropriated to orders which can occur only in the middle of the fleet. Signals which are made to the admiral by private ships may be the same with signals of command from the flag-ship, which will considerably diminish the number of signals perfectly different from each other.
With all these attentions and precautions a system of signals is at last made up, fitted to the code of sailing and fighting instructions. It is accompanied by another small set for the duty of convoys. It must be engrossed in two books; one for the officer of the flag-ship, who is to make the signals, and the other is delivered to every private ship. In the first, the evolutions, movements, and other operations of service, are set down in one column, and their corresponding signals in another. The first column is arranged, either alphabetically, by the distinguishing phrase, or systematically, according to the arrangement of the sailing and fighting instructions. The officer whose duty it is to make the signals turns to this column for the order which he is to communicate, and in the other column he finds the appropriated signal.
In the other book, which is consulted for the interpretation of the signals, they are arranged in the leading column, either by the flags, or by the places of their exhibition. The first is the best method, because the derangement of the flagship's masts and rigging in time of action may occasion a change in the place of the signal.
The Tactique Navale of the Chevalier de Morogues contains a very full and elaborate treatise on signals. We recommend this work to every sea-officer, as full of instruction, much improved since its publication, but we cannot but ascribe much of the improvements to it. We believe that the author is the inventor of that systematic manner of addressing the order or effective signal to the different squadrons and divisions of the fleet, by which the art of signals is made more concise, the execution of orders is rendered more systematic, and the commanders of private ships are accustomed to consider themselves as parts of an army, with a mutual dependence and connection. We are ready enough to acknowledge the superiority of the French in manoeuvring, but we affect to consider this as an imputation on their courage. Nothing can be more unjust; and dear bought experience should long ere now have taught us the value of this superiority. What avails that courage which we would willingly arrogate to ourselves, if we cannot come to action with our enemy, or must do it in a situation in which it is almost impossible to succeed, and which needlessly throws away the lives of our gallant crews? Yet this must happen, if our admirals do not make evolutions their careful study, and our captains do not habituate themselves, from the first hoisting a pendant, to consider their own ship as connected with the most remote ship in the line. We cannot think that this view of their situation would in the least lessen the character which they have so justly acquired, of fighting their ship with a courage and firmness unequalled by those of any other nation. And we may add, that it is only by such a rational study of their profession, that the gentleman can be distinguished from the mercenary commander of a privateer.
II. Night Signals.
It is evident, that the communication of orders by night must be more difficult and more imperfect than by day. We must, in general, content ourselves with such orders as are necessary for keeping the fleet together, by directing the more general movements and evolutions which any change of circumstances may render necessary. And here the division and subordinate arrangement of the fleet is of indispensable necessity, it being hardly possible to particularise every ship by a signal of address, or to see her situation. The orders are therefore addressed to the commanders of the different divisions, each of whom is distinguished by his poop and top-lights, and is in the midst of, and not very remote from, the ships under his more particular charge. Yet even in this unfavourable situation, it is frequently necessary to order the movements of particular ships. Actions during the night are not uncommon. Pursuits and rallyings are still oftener carried on at this time. The common dangers of the sea are as frequent and more disastrous. The system of signals therefore is very incomplete till this part be accomplished.
Night signals must be made by guns, or by lights, or by both combined. Gun-signals are susceptible of variety both in number and in disposition. The only distinct variation which can be made in this disposition, is by means of the time elapsed between the discharges. This will easily admit of three varieties, slow, moderate, and quick. Half-minute guns are as slow as can easily be listened to as appertaining to one signal. Quarter-minute guns are much better, and admit of two very distinct subdivisions. When the gunners, therefore, are well trained to this service, especially since the employment of firelocks for cannon, intervals of fifteen or twelve seconds may be taken for slow firing, eight or ten seconds for moderate, and four or five seconds for quick firing. If these could be reduced to one-half, and made with certainty and precision, the expression would be incomparably more distinct. A very small number of firings varied in this way will give a considerable number of signals. Thus five guns, with the variety of only quick and moderate, will give twenty very distinguishable signals. The same principle must be attended to here as in the flag-signals. The most simple must be appropriated to the most important orders, such as occur in the worst weather, or such as are most liable to be mistaken. Quick firing should not make part of a signal to a very distant ship, because the noise of a gun at a great distance is a lengthened sound, and two of them, with a very short interval, are apt to coalesce into one long-continued sound. This mode of varying gun-signals by the time must therefore be employed with great caution, and we must be very certain of the steady performance of the gunners.
Note, that a preparatory signal or advertisement that an effective signal is to be made, is a very necessary circumstance. It is usual, at least in hard weather, to make this by a double discharge, with an interval of half a second, or at most a second.
Gun-signals are seldom made alone, except in ordinary situations and moderate weather; because accident may derange them, and inattention may cause them to escape notice, and, once made, they are over, and their repetition would change their meaning. They are also improper on an enemy's coast, or where an enemy's cruisers or fleets may be expected.
Signals by lights are either made with lights simply so called, that is, lanthorns shown in different parts of the ship, or by rockets. Lights may differ by number, and by position, and also by figure. For the flag ship always carrying poop or top-lights, or both, presents an object in the darkest night, so that we can tell whether the additional lights are exhibited about the mainmast, the foremast, the mizenmast, and the like. And if the lights shown from any of these situations are arranged in certain distinguishable situations in respect to each other, the number of signals may be greatly increased. Thus three lights may be in a vertical line, or in a horizontal line, or in a triangle; and the point of this triangle may be up or down, or forward, or aft, and thus may have many significations.
Lights are also exhibited by false fires or rockets. These can be varied by number, and by such differences of appearance as to make them very distinguishable. Rockets may be with stars, with rain fire, or simple squibs.
By varying and combining these, a very great number of signals may be produced, fully sufficient to direct every general movement or evolution, or any ordinary and important service. The Chevalier de Morogues has given a specimen of such a system of night signals, into which he has even introduced signals of address or direction to every ship of a large fleet; and has also given signals of number, by which depths of soundings, points of the compass, and other things of this kind, may be expressed both easily and distinctly. He has made the signals by rockets perfectly similar in point of number to those by lanthorns, so that the commander can take either; a choice which may have its use, because the signals by rockets may cause the presence of a fleet to be more extensively known than may be convenient.
The commander-in-chief will inform the fleet by signal that guns, or perhaps rockets, are not to be used that night. This signal, at the same time, directs the fleet to close the line or columns, that the light signals may be better observed.
It is indeed a general rule to show as few lights as possible; and the commander frequently puts out his own poop and top-lights, only showing them from time to time, that his ships may keep around him.
The signal lanthorns on board the flag ship, and a lanthorn kept in readiness on board of every private ship, to answer or acknowledge signals from the commander-in-chief, are all kept in bags, to conceal their lights till the moment they are fixed in their places, and the preparatory or advertising signal has been made. The commander-in-chief sometimes orders by signal every ship to show a light for a minute or two, that he may judge of the position of the fleet; and the admiral's signal must always be acknowledged by those to whom it is addressed.
It is of particular importance that the fleet be kept together. Therefore the leading ships of the fleet, on either tack, are enjoined to acknowledge the signals of the commander-in-chief by a signal peculiar to their station. Thus the commander-in-chief learns the position of the extremities of his fleet.
In framing a set of night signals, great attention must be given to their position, that they be not obscured by the sails. The nature of the order to be given will frequently determine this. Thus, an order for the rear ships to make more sail, will naturally direct us to exhibit the signal at the mizen peek; and so of other pieces of service. Lanthorns exposed in groups, such as triangles, lozenges, and the like, are commonly suspended at the corners of large frames of laths, at the distance of a fathom at least from each other. Attempts have been made to show lights of different colours; but the risk of mistake or failure in the composition at the laboratory, makes this rather hazardous. Coloured lanthorns are more certain; but when the glasses are made of a colour sufficiently intense, the vivacity of the light, which at no time is very great, is too much diminished. Besides, the very distance changes the colour exceedingly and unaccountably.
III. Of Signals in a Fog.
These can be made only by noises, such as the firing of cannon and muskets, the beating of drums and ringing of bells. Fog signals are the most difficult to contrive of any, and are susceptible of the least variety. The commander-in-chief is principally concerned to keep his fleet together; and unless something very urgent requires it, he will make no change in his course or rate of sailing. But a shift of wind or other causes may make this necessary. The changes which he will order, it will be prudent to regulate by some fixed rule, which is in general convenient. Thus, when a fleet is in the order of sailing upon a wind, and a fog comes on, the fleet will hold on the same course. If the wind should come a little more on the beam, the fleet will still keep close to the wind. Certain general rules of this kind being agreed on, no signals are necessary for keeping the fleet together; and the ships can separate or run foul of each other only by difference in their rate of sailing, or by inaccurate steering. To prevent this, the commander-in-chief fires a gun from time to time, and the ships of the fleet judge of his situation and distance by the sound. The commanders of divisions fire guns, with some distinction from those of the commander-in-chief. This both informs the commander-in-chief of the position of his squadrons, and enables the private ships of each division to keep in the neighbourhood of their own flag ship. On board of every private ship the drum is beaten, or the bell is chimed every quarter of an hour, according as the ship is on the starboard or larboard tack. By such contrivances, it is never difficult to keep a fleet in very good order when sailing on a wind. The wind is almost always moderate, and the ships keep under a very easy sail. It is much more difficult when going large, and separation can be prevented only by the most unrestrained attention. The greatest risk is the falling in with strange ships steering another course. But evolutions and other movements are frequently indispensable. The course must be changed by tacking or wearing, and other services must be performed. None, however, are admitted but the most probable, the most simple, and the most necessary.
The commander-in-chief first informs the fleet by the preparatory fog signal, that he is about to order an evolution, and that he is to direct it by fog signals. This precaution is indispensable to prevent mistakes. Along with this advertising signal he makes the signal of the movement intended. This not only calls the attention of the fleet, but makes the ships prepare for the precise execution of that movement. The commanders of divisions repeat the advertising signal, which informs their ships of their situation, and the private ships beat their drums or chime their bells. Thus the whole ships of the fleet close a little, and become a little better acquainted with their mutual position. It is now understood that a movement is to be made precisely a quarter of an hour after the advertisement. At the expiration of this time, the effective signal for this movement is made by the commander-in-chief, and must be instantly repeated by the commanders of divisions, and then the movement must be made by each ship, according to the sailing and fighting instructions. This must be done with the utmost attention and precision, because it produces a prodigious change in the relative position of the ships; and even although the good sense of the commander-in-chief will select such movements for accomplishing his purpose as produce the smallest alterations, and the least risk of separation or running foul of each other; it is still extremely difficult to avoid these misfortunes. To prevent this as much as possible, each ship which has executed the movement, or which has come on a course thwarting that of the fleet, intimates this by a signal properly adapted, often adding the signal of the tack on which it is now standing, and even its particular signal of recognition. This is particularly incumbent on the flag ships and the leading ships of each division. After a reasonable interval, the commander-in-chief will make proper signals for bringing the fleet to a knowledge of their reunion in this new position.
This must serve for a general account of the circumstances which must be attended to in framing a code of signals. The arbitrary characters in which the language is written must be left to the sagacity of the gentlemen of the profession. It must be observed, that the stratagems of war make secrecy very necessary. It may be of immense hazard if the enemy should understand our signals. In time of battle it might frequently frustrate our attempts to destroy them, and at all times would enable them to escape, or to throw us into disorder. Every commander of a squadron, therefore, issues private signals, suited to his particular destination; and therefore it is necessary that our code of signals be susceptible of endless variations. This is exceedingly easy, without any increase of their number. The commander needs only intimate that such and such a signal is so and so changed in its meaning during his command.
We cannot leave this article without returning to an observation which we made almost in the beginning, viz. that the system of signals, or, to speak more properly, the manner of framing this system, has received much improvement from the gentlemen of the French navy, and particularly from the most ingenious thought of M. de la Bourdonnais, of making the signals the immediate expressions of numbers only, which numbers may be afterwards used to indicate any order whatever. We shall present our readers with a scheme or two of the manner in which this may be done for all signals, both day, night, and fog. This alone may be considered as a system of signals, and is equally applicable to every kind of information at a distance. Without detracting in the smallest degree from the praise due to M. de la Bourdonnais, we must observe, that this principle of notation is of much older date. Bishop Wilkins, in his Secret and Swift Messenger, expressly recommends it, and gives specimens of the manner of execution; so does Dr. Hook in some of his proposals to the Royal Society. Gaspar Schottus also mentions it in his Technica Curiosa; and Kircher, amongst others of his Curious Projects.
M. de la Bourdonnais's method is as follows:—He chooses pendants for his effective signals, because they are the most Bourdonnais's making part of one signal, may be hoisted by one halyard, doing this being stopped on it at the distance of four or six feet from each other. If it be found proper to throw out another signal at the same time and place, they are separated by a red pendant without a point. His colours are chosen with judgment, being very distinctly recognised, and not liable to be confounded with the addressing signals appropriated to the different ships of the fleet. They are, for
| No. | Description | |-----|-------------| | 1. Red | Red, with blue tail. | | 2. White | White, with blue tail. | | 3. Blue | Blue, with red tail. | | 4. Yellow | Yellow, with yellow tail. | | 5. Red, with white tail | Red, with white tail. | | 6. Red, with blue tail | Red, with blue tail. | | 7. White, with blue tail | White, with blue tail. | | 8. White, with red tail | White, with red tail. | | 9. Blue, with yellow tail | Blue, with yellow tail. | | 10. Yellow, with blue tail | Yellow, with blue tail. |
Three sets of such pendants will express every number under a thousand, by hoisting one above the other, and reckoning the uppermost hundreds, the next below it tens, and the lowest units. Thus the number 643 will be expressed by a pendant red with blue tail, a yellow pendant below it, and a blue one below the last.
This method has great advantages. The signals may be hoisted in any place where best seen, and therefore the signification is not affected by the derangement of the flagship's masts and rigging. And by appropriating the smaller numbers to the battle signals, they are more simple, requiring fewer pendants.
As this method requires a particular set of colours, it has its inconveniences. An admiral is often obliged to shift his flag, even in time of action. He cannot easily take the colours along with him. It is therefore better to make use of such colours as every private ship is provided with. One set of 11 will do, with the addition of three, or at most of four pendants, of singular make, to mark 100, 200, 300, 400. Two of these flags, one above the other, will express any number under 100, by using the 11th as a substitute for any flag that should be repeated. Thus the 11th flag, along with the flag for eight or for six, will express the number 88 or 66. Thus we are able to express every number below 500, and this is sufficient for a very large code of signals.
And in order to diminish as much as possible the number of these compound signals, it will be proper that a number of single flag signals be preserved, and even varied by circumstances of position, for orders which are of very frequent occurrence, and which can hardly occur in situations where any obstructions are occasioned by loss of masts or otherwise. And farther, to avoid all chance of mistake, a particular signal can be added, intimating that the signals now exhibited are numerary signals; or, which is still better, all signals may be considered as numerary signals; and those which we have just now called single flat signals may be set down opposite to, or as expressing the largest numbers of the code. This method requires the signal of advertisement, the annulling signal, the signal of address to the particular ship or division, the signal of acknowledgment, the signal of indistinctness, of distress, of danger, and one or two more, which in every method must be employed.
Another method of expressing numbers with fewer colours is as follows: Let the flags be A, B, C, D, E, F, and arrange them as follows:
| | A | B | C | D | E | F | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 |
The number expressed by any pair of flags is found in the intersection of the horizontal and perpendicular columns. Thus the flag D, hoisted along with and above the flag F, expresses the number 40, &c. In order to express a greater number, (but not exceeding 84), suppose 75, hoist the flag C, which expresses 33, or 75 wanting 42, and above them a flag or signal G, which alone expresses 42.
This method may be still farther improved by arranging the flags thus:
| | A | B | C | D | E | F | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 |
In this last method the signification of the signal is totally independent of the position of the flags. In whatever parts of the ship the flags D and E are seen, they express the number 23. This would suit battle signals.
Another method still may be taken. Flags hoisted anywhere on the foremast may be accounted units, those on the mainmast tens, and those on the mizenmast hundreds. Thus numeral signals may be made by a ship dismasted, or having only poles in their place. Many other ways may be contrived for expressing numbers by colours, and there is great room for exercising the judgment of the contriver. For it must always be remembered, that these signals must be accompanied with a signal by which it is addressed to some particular ship or division of the fleet, and it may be difficult to connect the one with the other, which is perhaps shewn in another place, and along with other executive signals.
One great advantage of these numeral signals is, that they may be changed in their signification at pleasure. Thus, in the first method, it can be settled, that on Sundays the colours A, B, C, D, &c., express the cyphers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., but that on Mondays they express the cyphers 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., and so on through all the days of the week. This mean of secrecy is mentioned by Dr. Hooke for the coast and alarm signals; where, by the bye, he shews a method for conveying intelligence over land very similar to what is now practised by the French with their telegraph.
It is equally easy to express numbers by night signals. Thus M. de la Bourdonnais proposes that one discharge of a great gun shall express 7, and that 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, shall be expressed by lights. Therefore to express 24, we must fire three guns, and shew three lights. This is the most perfect of all forms of night and fog signals. For both the manner of firing guns and of exhibiting lights may be varied to a sufficient extent with very few guns or lights, and with great distinctness.
Thus, for guns. Let F mark the firing of a single gun at moderate intervals, and f/f a double gun, that is, two discharged at the interval of a second. We may express numbers thus:
| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | F | F, F | F, F, F | F, F, F, F | F, f/f | F, F, f/f |
It might be done with fewer guns if the f/f were admitted as the first firing. But it seems better to begin always with the single gun, and thus the double gun beginning a signal distinguishes the tens, &c.
In like manner, a small number of lights will admit of a great variety of very distinct positions, which may serve for all signals to ships not very remote from the commander-in-chief. For orders to be understood at a very great distance, it will be proper to appropriate the numbers which are indicated by signals made with rockets. These can be varied in number and kind to a sufficient extent, so as to be very easily distinguished and understood. It is sufficient to have shewn how the whole, or nearly the whole notation of signals, may be limited to the expression of numbers.
We have taken little notice of the signals made by private ships to the commander-in-chief. This is a very easy business, because there is little risk of confounding them with other signals. Nor have we spoken of signals from the flag ships whose ultimate interpretation is number, as when ships are directed to change their course so many points. Those also are easily contrived in any of the methods already described; also when a private ship wishes to inform the commander-in-chief that soundings are found at so many fathoms. In like manner, by numbering the points of the compass, the admiral can direct to chase to any one of them, or may be informed of strange ships being seen in any quarter, and what is their number.
Of late years, that is, within this century, a great improvement has taken place in the signal department of the Royal Navy. The following brief memorandum on the subject will give as general an idea on the subject as could be given without the introduction of coloured plates, and more copious explanations than are consistent with the plan of this work.
There are three volumes of signals in use in the navy; one is called "General Signals," the other "Night and Fog Signals," the other "Vocabulary Signals, for the use of her Majesty's fleet." The General Signals consist of a set of numerical references, from 1 to 999, and contain all the most general orders relating to action, sailing, manoeuvring, and every other evolution in use, either at sea or at anchor. All these signals are made by means of a set of numeral flags, from 1 to 9, with the addition of zero; a set of divisional flags, to distinguish the different parts of a fleet; flags to affirm signals, to annul them, and to prepare measures; interrogative, answering, compass, geographical, and horary pendants. These, with the union jack, compose the flags in use when the general signal-book is employed. All these flags and pendants depend upon their form and colour for their distinction, and are hoisted at the most conspicuous places for being seen, but seldom more than three at a time. Besides these, distant signals are made with square and tri- angular flags and pendants, without any regard to their colour. They are numeral, and each has its signification attached to its number in the general signal-book. The distinctive mark of a distant signal is a ball, which is used as a preparative, a stop, or an answer.
In the general signal-book are detailed sets of instructions relative to the line of battle and order of sailing, each signal for a specific evolution being accompanied by a plate, explanatory of the measure contemplated.
The Night Signals are made with lanterns, rockets, blue lights, and guns. The numbers are not many, and care is taken to confine the signals to those objects of the most general application in practice, so as not to complicate or confuse; for it may be observed, that night signals are almost always very difficult both to make and to interpret.
The Vocabulary Signals are made by means of twenty-one symbols, named A, B, &c., to Y inclusive, (all the alphabet, omitting J, U, W, X, and Z, but retaining I and V). There are no numeral flags used in this code, and no more than three symbols are used at one time. These symbols are made with square and triangular flags, with the occasional use of pendants, to distinguish the alphabetical, the military, and the geographical, parts of the vocabulary from one another. The vocabulary signals, with their significations, are arranged in the following order: words and sentences, alphabet, military phrases and terms, geographical table, and list of the navy. The words and sentences are placed together, the words being arranged in alphabetical order, the sentences immediately following their most prominent words. This book is divided into three parts, but as the number of words required to be used would exceed the power of combination of three symbols, a distinctive pendant is used, to signify which portion of the book is to be referred to, and in this way the same combinations may be used several times over. The military table consists of such technical terms and phrases as are likely to occur on general service. The geographical table contains the names of places, while the body of the volume consists of words and sentences for universal use.
A code of signals for the use of the mercantile marine was published by Captain Marryat, of the Royal Navy, in 1817; it has, we believe, been in general use ever since, and has run through many editions.
The flags and pendants used in Captain Marryat's mercantile code of signals are fifteen, exclusive of the Union Jack, which, by order in Council, when used in the merchant service, is to have a white border all round, such border being one-fifth of the breadth of the Jack itself without the border.
There are ten numerical flags, which represent the figures in arithmetic, and are used throughout the whole of Captain Marryat's code of signals.
The Union Jack, as above distinguished from that used by men of war, which Jack, we may mention, viz. that with the white border, is now used in the navy only as a signal for a pilot.
The first distinguishing pendant is hoisted over the number, or at some other mast-head, when the number of a merchant ship is shown in part second of the code.
The rendezvous flag is hoisted over the number of the port in part third.
The sentences in part fourth are expressed by the numerical flags alone.
The second distinguishing pendant is hoisted over the numbers in the first division of the vocabulary.
The telegraph flag is hoisted at some other mast-head, when the numbers in the second division of the vocabulary are shown.
The numerical pendant is hoisted over a number, when merely the figures are intended to be shown.
The code of signals consists of six parts:
1st. A list of the names of men-of-war. 2d. A list of the names of merchant ships, copied from Lloyd's Register. 3d. A list of ports, headlands, rocks, reefs, shoals, &c. 4th. A selection of sentences. 5th. The first division of the vocabulary consists of compass signals, ships' stores, auxiliary verbs, and final terminations, to assist in spelling words. 6th. The second division of the vocabulary consists of the alphabet, and words most likely to be used in commercial and maritime affairs. The alphabet is introduced for the purpose of spelling words which are not found in the vocabulary.
It is certainly much to be wished, that every means should be used to induce merchant ships to adopt some code of signals; and we trust the gallant and accomplished author, who is so well known in other walks of literature, will not relax his exertions in this humble but very useful department of writing, but that he will study, by fresh editions, to keep his code always up to the wants of the day.
For the rest, we are of opinion that the subject of signals, both in the navy and in the merchant service, is one which requires more attention than it has yet met with. It would seem highly desirable, for instance, that a universal code, sanctioned by their respective governments, should be adopted amongst all the trading nations of the world. If the great maritime countries were to promulgate one grand code, it would speedily be adopted by all, and every ship would then be able to communicate with any other at sea, without the necessity of coming within hail, which is always troublesome, and often impossible. We all now use the same or similar charts; we all use the same methods of navigating our ships, by chronometers, lunars, and so forth; the manipulations of our seamanship are all alike; and why should not our means of communicating by signal be the same?