associations voluntarily formed by a number of individuals for promoting knowledge, industry, or virtue. They may therefore be divided into three classes; societies for promoting science and literature, societies for encouraging and promoting arts and manufactures, and societies for diffusing religion and morality and relieving distress. These, however, are so numerous and fluctuating, that it would be difficult to offer any thing like an accurate account of them. The reader is referred for information on the subject to the articles, London, Dublin, Edinburgh, and the other towns and countries where these institutions have been established. We shall only notice the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh.

The Royal Society of London is an academy or body of persons of eminent learning, instituted by Charles II., for the promoting of all the different branches of physical knowledge. The origin of this society is traced by Dr. Sprat, its earliest historian, no farther back than to "some space after the end of the civil wars" in the seventeenth century. The scene of the first meetings of the learned men who laid the foundation of it, is by him fixed in the university of Oxford, at the lodgings of Dr. Wilkins, warden of Wadham College. But Dr. Birch, on the authority of Dr. Wallis, one of its earliest and most considerable members, assigns it an earlier origin. According to him, certain worthy persons, residing in London about the year 1645, being "inquisitive into natural and the new and experimental philosophy, agreed to meet weekly on a certain day, to discourse upon such subjects, and were known by the title of The Invisible or Philosophical College." In the years 1648 and 1649, the company who formed these meetings was divided, part retiring to Oxford and part remaining in London; but they continued the same pursuits as when united, corresponding with each other, and giving a mutual account of their respective discoveries. About the year 1659 the greater part of the Oxford society returned to London, and again uniting with their fellow-labourers, met once, if not twice a-week at Gresham College, during term-time, till they were scattered by the public distractions of that year, and the place of their meeting made quarters for soldiers. On the restoration in 1660 their meetings were revived, and attended by a greater concourse of men eminent for their rank and learning. They were at last taken notice of by the king, who having himself a considerable taste for physical science, was pleased to grant them an ample charter, dated the 15th of July 1662, and afterwards a second dated 16th April 1663, by which they were erected into a corporation, consisting of a president, council, and fellows, for promoting natural knowledge; and to give their investigations, against which strange prejudices were entertained, every possible support, he sometimes honoured their meetings with his presence.

Their manner of electing fellows is by balloting. Their council consists of twenty-one, including the president, vice-president, treasurer, and two secretaries, eleven of which are continued for the next year, and ten more added to them; all being chosen on St. Andrew's day.

The services which this illustrious society has rendered to the public are very great. They have improved naval, civil, and military architecture; advanced the security and perfection of navigation; improved agriculture; and put not only this kingdom, but also Ireland, the plantations, &c., upon planting. They have registered experiments, histories, relations, observations, &c., and reduced them into one common stock; and have, from time to time, published those which they reckoned most useful, under the title of Philosophical Transactions, &c. They have a library adapted to their institution; towards which Mr. Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, contributed the Norfolcian library, and which has been vastly increased by a continual series of benefactions.

The Royal Society of Edinburgh was incorporated by royal charter on the 29th of March 1783, and has for its object the cultivation of every branch of science, erudition, and taste. Its rise and progress towards its present state was as follows. In the year 1718 a literary society was established in Edinburgh by the learned Ruddiman and others, which in 1731 was succeeded by a society instituted for the improvement of medical knowledge. In the year 1739 the celebrated MacLaurin conceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this society, by extending it to subjects of philosophy and literature. The institution was accordingly new-modelled by a printed set of laws and regulations, the number of members was increased, and they were distinguished from that time by the title of The Society for Improving Arts and Sciences, or more generally by the title of The Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. Its meetings, however, were soon interrupted by the disorders of the country during the rebellion in 1745; and they were not renewed till the year 1752. Soon after this period the first volume of the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh was published, under the title of Essays and Observations, Physical and Literary, and was followed by other volumes of acknowledged merit. About the end of the year 1782, in a meeting of the professors of the university of Edinburgh, many of whom were likewise members of the Philosophical Society, and warmly attached to its interests, a scheme was proposed by the late Dr. Robertson, principal of the university, for the establishment of a new society on a more extended plan, and after the model of some of the foreign academies. It appeared an expedient measure to solicit the royal patronage to an institution of this nature, which promised to be of national importance, and to request an establishment by charter from the crown. The plan was approved and adopted; and the Philosophical Society, joining its influence as a body in seconding the application from the university, his majesty, as we have already observed, was graciously pleased to incorporate The Royal Society of Edinburgh by charter.

Members are elected by ballot. The general business of the society is managed by a president, two vice-presidents, with a council of twelve, a general secretary, and a treasurer. These officers are chosen by ballot annually on the last Monday of November. All public deeds, whether of a civil or of a literary nature, are transacted by this board, and proceed in the name of the president or vice-president.

As it was thought that the members would have a greater inducement to punctual attendance on the meetings of the society, if they had some general intimation of the nature of the subjects which were to be considered, and made the topics of conversation, it was therefore resolved to divide the society into two classes, which should meet and deliberate separately. One of these classes is denominated the Physical Class, and has for its department the sciences of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, medicine, natural history, and whatever relates to the improvement of arts and manufactures. The other is denominated the Literary Class, and has for its department literature, philology, history, antiquities, and speculative philosophy. There are many valuable papers in the volumes that have been published of the Transactions of this society.