ay be considered as composed of a series of mountain terraces, which, projecting successively their rugged edges towards the south, present a flight of gigantic steps from the Pyrenees to the Mediterranean. The chains of mountains which terminate and divide the great plains of the Peninsula are branches of the immense ridge that, from the most elevated part of Tartary, runs across Asia and Europe, penetrates into the south of France by Switzerland, and, entering Spain in the direction of the valleys of Roncal and Bastan, separates Navarre from Guipuscon, Biscay from Alava, the highlands of Burgos from the plains of Old Castile, and Asturias from the kingdom of Leon; then crosses Galicia, and dips into the ocean at Capes Ortegal and Finisterre.
The Pyrenees are lateral ramifications of this great trunk, which run east and west on the eastern side of Spain, and take a south-west and north-west direction on the confines of Aragon and Navarre. The accumulated mass of these mountains presents, towards the Peninsula, the convex side of a spherical segment, which, like a shield with its boss to the south, rounds its edges near the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and rears the highest part of its curve on the Spanish territory, between the springs of the rivers Cinca and Ara. This eminence, called Mont Perdu by the French, is known, in Aragon, by the appellation of Tres Sorores, alluding to its three peaks, distinctly seen from Saragossa, of which the highest rises 4114 Spanish yards above the level of the sea. The line of perpetual congelation is there at the height of 2924 yards.
In the minor branches which strike off from the Pyrenees in a south direction, without forming a part of the great secondary chains, which we shall presently describe, there are some mountains too remarkable to be left unnoticed. Such are the Monsein, on the coast of Catalonia, near the town of Arens, and the well-known Monserrat, which rises, on the same coast, to the height of 1479 yards above the sea; such the Sierras of Ribagorza, Barbastro, Huesca, and Jaca, which take their names from the principal cities in their neighbourhood; such, finally, those numerous spurs of the great ridge which run into Navarre, whose various appellations would only tend to confuse the reader.
Of the main ridges which run across the Peninsula, that which rises to the west of the source of the Ebro was called Iberia by the Romans, and formed the limits of the ancient Celtiberia. In its course towards the Mediterranean, the natives, according to a general custom, distinguish the various portions or great links of the chain by the appellation of Sierras, adding the name of some town or notable height in their vicinity. Such are the Sierra de Oca of Urbion (the Distertie of the middle ages), of Moncayo (Mons Caunus), of Molina, Alharracin, and Cuenca. Part of this chain forms the limits of Aragon and Castile; it then penetrates into Valencia, Murcia, and Granada, and ends in the Capes Oropesa (Tenebrium), Martin, Palos, and Gata. The small town of Alcolea, of the province of Soria, stands on this chain, at the height of 1486 yards above the sea. Its mean elevation, on the road between Molina and Ternel, in Aragon, is 1580 yards.
The first point where this great ridge splits into the minor chains, which lose themselves in the Mediterranean, is to the north of Alharracin, in Aragon. Of these branches the most remarkable is that which, entering the province of Valencia, is again subdivided into the smaller ridges which terminate at Peñiscola and Cape Oropesa. The waters that descend from these heights, to the north, mix finally with the Ebro, while the Turia and the Mijares are swelled by those which flow from the southern declivities. On the branch stretching towards Peñiscola, and in the limits of Aragon, rises the Muela de Ares, a conical mountain, deprived of its apex; whose top is an extensive plain covered with luxuriant pasture, and surrounded by fearful precipices, at the elevation of 1562 Spanish yards above the sea. This is one of the highest spots in the Peninsula. The Tagus, the Xucar, and the Cabriel, take their rise among these mountains, and divide the waters which flow from their sides between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Numerous flocks of sheep, both itinerant and stationary, find, in the valleys formed by this chain, the most abundant summer pastures.
From Alharracin, this chain strikes into the territory of Cuenca, in a direction nearly north and south. It then sends off a branch to the east-south-east, on which the Colado de la Plata, or Silver Hill, rises 1598 yards above the sea. It contains a quicksilver mine, which was formerly worked. From the neighbourhood of this town the Sierra de Espadán runs, like an unbroken bulwark, to the sea near Murviedro, in a direction between south-east and north-west. These hills are described as singularly grand and picturesque.
Near the source of the Tagus, the Iberian ridge sends off another branch, which, stretching in almost a southern direction, separates La Mancha from the province of Murcia, to the west of the town of Albacete, and rises into the lofty mountains of Alcaraz and Segura (the ancient Orospeda), dividing the waters between the Guadalquivir and the Segura, the two main streams which severally and finally convey them to the ocean and the Mediterranean. One of the two great limbs which terminate the Iberian ridge runs into the sea at Cape Cervera; the other, bending to the south, skirts the kingdom of Granada, and disappears at Cape Gata. To the latter belongs the mountain called Cabezo de Maria, between Carthagena and Cape Gata, one league west of the town of Vera, on the coast of Valencia. It rises 2287 yards above the sea, and has its summit covered with snow during one half of the year.
Smaller branches of this chain project between the Turia and the Cabriel, which loses itself in the Xucar at Cofrentes. A ridge runs between the last-mentioned river and the Alcoy, another stream, which flows into the sea near Gandia. A minor chain separates the Alcoy and the mouth of the Segura. The province of Valencia is, in fact, divided by mountains into most fertile stripes, watered by numerous streams, and enjoying every blessing which nature grants to the most favoured climates.
The great ridge whose summits divide the waters between the Duero and the Tagus grows out of the Iberian between chain, not far from the sources of the Xalon and the Tagus, to the south of the city of Soria, and the site of the ancient Numantia. Where it divides the province of Guadalaxara from that of Soria, it is called Sierra de Paredes, and Altos de Barona. On one of the hills, north of Siguenza, rises the Henares, which gives its name to the ancient Complutum, now Alcala de Henares, the seat of a university. Near the source of the Lozoya, a rivulet which runs into the Xarana, these mountains are called Somosierra, till, more to the west, they bear the name of Guadarrama; an appellation which they preserve throughout the long course in which they skirt the provinces of Segovia, Avila, Guadalaxara, and Madrid. The Puerto de Navacerrada, the highest point on the road from Madrid to the summer palace of San Isidro, is 2204 yards above the sea.
The mountains of Guadarrama are a very striking object when seen from the neighbourhood of Madrid, on the road to Old Castile. They principally consist of naked, fractured granite rocks, heaped up together, and adorned only towards their bases with single evergreen oaks, while the upper parts are bleak, dreary, and barren, presenting fantastic prominences, and in many places covered with perpetual snow. This chain, in its course towards Portugal, where it ends in the Rock of Lisbon, rises into some remarkable elevations. We shall notice that of Peñalara, between the sources of the Eresma and the Lozoya, 2334 yards above the sea; the Puerto del Pico, in the province of Salamanca; the Peña de Francia, and Sierra de Gata, on the northern limits of Spanish Estremadura.
The minor branches run nearly north and south from the main ridge, and may be traced from the opposite course of the rivers which flow either into the Duero and the Miño, or into the ocean, on the western coast of Galicia.
Almost parallel to the mountains of Guadarrama, we find the ridge which divides the waters between the Tagus and the Guadiana; but it rises to no great height, and is altogether of minor importance.
The third great branch of the Iberian ridge is the Sierra Ridge of Morena (Montes Morenans), which divides the waters between the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir. It begins in the vicinity of Alcaraz, near the eastern limits of the province of La Mancha, issuing from that spur of the Iberian chain which terminates in Cape Palos, and, trending in a direction north-east and south-west, with La Mancha and Spanish Estremadura to the north, and Jaen, Cordoba, Seville, and Algarve in Portugal, to the south, ends in the Statistics. ocean at Cape St Vincent. The pass named Puerto del Rey, where the road from Madrid to Andalusia crosses these mountains, is 821 yards above the sea. Near Cordoba, where the bold skirts of the Montes Marianos are seen, within a short distance to the north, like a screen raised to protect the rich and extensive plains watered by the Guadalquivir, the ridge borrows the name of the neighbouring city. On the southern limits of Extremadura, and to the north of Seville, it is called Sierra de Guadalcanal. The chain now bends to the south-west, forms the northern boundary of the Portuguese province of Algarve, and, through the Sierras de Caldeirao and Monchique, connects itself with Cape St Vincent.
The brink of the last mountain plain towards the south of Spain is skirted by the ridge of Granada and Ronda, which, striking off at the extremity of the Iberian chain, is successively called Sierra de Gador, Sierra Nevada, Bermeja, and de Ronda, till it ends in various points of the coast, but most conspicuously in the Rock of Gibraltar.
Part of Sierra Nevada rises above the highest Pyrenees. The Cumbre de Mulhacen is 4254 yards above the sea, the Picacho de Veleta 4153. The line of perpetual congelation is found in these mountains at the height of 3305 yards.
The five great streams which water the plains lying between the great mountain ridges, are the Miño, the Ebro, the Duero, the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Guadalquivir.
The Miño. The Miño, or Minho (Minius or Bœnis), rises in Galicia, in the district of Lugo, from a beautiful spring called Fuente Miña. This river is navigable only to Salvatierra, two leagues above Tuy. The Ebro rises, near Reynosa, out of a spring so copious that it turns a corn-mill a few steps from its source. After a course of 110 leagues, it flows into the Mediterranean at Alfuques. From the boundaries of Navarre to the sea, the Ebro makes a progress of 1° 12' 42" towards the south. The chief towns on this stream are Logrono and Calahorra, in the province of Rioja; Tudela, in Navarre; Saragossa, in Aragon; and Tortosa, in Catalonia. It is a misfortune for Spain that this great river presents strong obstacles to navigation, both in its course and where it reaches the sea. Of the plans which have been conceived, and partly executed, to obviate these impediments, we shall presently have occasion to speak. The Duero, or Douro, has its source to the north of the city of Osma, in a deep lake, at the summit of that portion of the neighbouring chain of mountains called Sierras de Urbion. Its course is at first towards the south, passing by Garray and Soria, where it turns to the west, continuing in that direction till it reaches Miranda. From this town to Moncorvo the river falls again into a south direction. It lastly takes a decided course to the ocean, which it reaches near Oporto, having traversed a distance of 150 leagues. This river is navigable up to the tower of Moncorvo, a space of thirty leagues. The navigation, which was formerly obstructed by rapids, has been expedited through the exertions of the Portuguese company of Alto Douro. Some of the smaller streams flowing into the Duero rise at remarkable heights. The Adaja, which descends from the northern slope of the great chain between the Duero and the Tagus, is, at Avila, 1271 yards above the sea; the Eresma, when it flows by the castle of Segovia, 1107 yards above the same level. We have mentioned that elevated part of the chain between the Tagus and the Guadiana which takes the name of Albaracin, and the truncated mountain called Muela de San Juan. An insconsiderable spring, denominated Pie Izquierdo, is the source of the majestic Tagus. In its course through the province of Cuenca it is considerably augmented by the contributions of several streams. Before its waters reach Aranjuez, they surmount the rocky edge of its native mountain, and, dashing upon the plain beneath, sink into a pool of such great depth, called Olla de Borlaque. The Tagus, now running placidly through the plains of Zorita and the royal gardens of Aranjuez, at the elevation of 621 yards above the sea, directs its course to Toledo, passes by Talavera, Alcantara, Abrantes, and Santarem, losing itself finally in the sea near Lisbon. The latitudes of several towns on the banks of the Tagus show the gradual inclination of its stream towards the south. The sources of the Guadiana are found north of Alcaraz, in La Mancha, at the pools of Riudera. The course of the river is first to the north-west for eight leagues. It is then absorbed by the soil, and disappears for seven leagues. The first gathering of its waters, after their subterraneous dispersion, takes place near Daymiel. The spot is called Ojos (Eyes) de Guadiana. The stream now proceeds to Ciudad Real, the chief town of the province of La Mancha, to Merida, Badajoz, Mertola in Portugal, and, re-entering the Spanish territory, terminates in the ocean at Ayamonte. In its course to this point, the Guadiana passes over a space of more than 100 leagues, but it is not navigable higher than Mertola in Portugal. The Guadalquivir occupies the centre of the plain which lies between the Sierra Morena and the chain of Granada, where it takes its course to the north-east of Jaen. The chief towns on its banks are Andujar, Cordoba, Seville, and San Lucar (Templum Luciferi). At the ferry near Mengibar, on the road from Madrid to Granada, the Guadalquivir is 203 yards above the sea. This river is navigable for large vessels up to Seville; but its bed being constantly raised and obstructed by growing shallows, the navigation is extremely tedious.
If we except the series of small lakes from which the river Guadiana takes its rise, there are in Spain few lakes that merit particular notice. The most remarkable of these is the lake of Alburlera, in the province of Valencia. This lake begins near the village of Cataroja, about a league north of the city of Valencia, and extends nearly four leagues, as far as Cullera. When it is full, it is about four leagues in length, and two in breadth; but it is so shallow that small boats can scarcely float in it. To supply the deficiency of water, an engine is employed, by which the neighbouring waters are drawn into the bed of the lake; and any superabundant water occasioned by heavy rains is carried off into these by means of an artificial opening. This lake contains a great many fish, and numerous aquatic birds make it their haunt.
According to Professor Hausmann, viewing Spain as a whole, a threefold principal difference is to be observed. The northern zone, which extends to the Ebro, differs entirely in its characters from the middle zone; and this again is completely different from the southern zone, which is bounded on the north by the Sierra Morena and a part of the Ostrandes. The northern zone, which includes Galicia, Asturias, the Basques, Navarre, the northern part of Aragon and Catalonia, is a widely extended, mountainous, and hilly country. The snow-fields and glaciers of the Pyrenees on the one side, and on the other the north and north-west winds, have a marked influence in lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, and in increasing the supply of water. The increased humidity is favourable to vegetation, which on the whole very much resembles that of the south of France; and the variety of rocks containing lime, clay, and sand, and also their frequent alternations, operate beneficially on the soil. Everywhere it invites to cultivation, and the inhabitants of this region are active husbandmen. The middle part of Spain, which comprises Old and New Castille, a part of Aragon, Leon, and Extremadura, is not so favourably circumstanced. Generally speaking, it is deficient in either beauty or variety of aspect. The broad and lofty table-lands present a uniform and monotonous surface, destitute of trees, and scorched by the rays of the sun. The corn-fields are wretchedly cultivated, and desert heaths of cistus everywhere meet the eye. Plantations of olive-trees are rare; here, in short, every kind of vegetation dwindles for want of water. In most cases the rivers carry but little water in comparison with the extent of the land and the number of considerable mountain chains. The causes of this great deficiency are principally the extreme dryness of the atmosphere; the inconsiderable cover of snow on the mountains, and its short continuance; the absence of forests and great moors on the heights; and the comparatively inconsiderable breadth of the mountain ranges. The southern and south-western part of Spain, which comprehends Andalusia, Granada, and Murcia, is very different from that just described. On the opposite side of the Sierra Morena the whole land has a more southern aspect, which announces itself not only by the vegetable, but likewise by the animal kingdom. The great difference of climate is produced by the southern situation, the exposure of the acclivity on the south and south-west to the African winds, and the strong reflection of the solar rays from the lofty naked mountain-walls. The mountain ranges are more closely aggregated, the valleys more deeply cut; and there is also a greater difference in the rocks and in their position, so that extensive table-lands cannot be formed. The south of Spain thus possesses not only a much higher temperature, one fit for the orange and the palm, but also a more varied and more favourable soil for cultivation. In East Valencia and Murcia, in the south of Andalusia and the Algarves, in Western Alemtejo and South Extremadura, the rich and varied vegetation rivals that of the fertile plains of Syria. In Andalusia frosts are unknown, and the snow, if it ever falls, melts the moment it touches the soil; so that it is not surprising that, in the cultivated districts, the Spaniards, so famous for their maritime expeditions of yore, should have introduced many vegetables from remote parts of the world, thus giving a perfectly tropical appearance to the country. There is, however, a deficiency of moisture, but it seems only to affect the growth of some of the lower species of plants.
Passing over such productions of the soil as are only interesting to the botanist, we shall enumerate those which come under the cognizance of the husbandman. Spain may be reckoned one of the most fruitful countries of Europe, and it presents a great variety of products. Wheat, rye, barley, maize, and flax, are cultivated in almost all the provinces, but still not in crops sufficient for home consumption. Oats are neglected, barley being given to the cattle instead of that grain. Oil and soda are the principal products of the southern shores of the Mediterranean; the others are sumach, and different esculent plants of an admirable quality. In the same part of the country are fields of saffron, plantations of rice, which stretch out like so many plains, and the cotton shrub thrives as on its native soil. The mulberry trees are very luxuriant, and their leaves afford rich nourishment to the bombyx, which easily accounts for the superior quality of the silk. In the south of Spain there is an immense variety of the most delicious fruits, not only such as are common in temperate climates, but many which naturally belong to the tropical regions. The sugar-cane grows near the cotton plant, and numerous olives furnish the oil which forms so important a branch of commerce. Kali, from which barilla is extracted, is produced in great abundance in Valencia; anise, maize, and different dye-stuffs in Murcia; and the honey of Cuenza is still as celebrated as it was in the time of the Romans. Among the vegetable products we may briefly mention chestnuts and a variety of other nuts, the cork-tree, palm, lemon, banana, date, pomegranate, fig, citron, cheremoya, laurel, bay, cypress, almond, and strawberry tree; potatoe and other culinary vegetables; forests of oak, pine, and other trees, chiefly in Catalonia, the Asturias, Galicia, and the Sierra Morena.
Extensive valleys covered with rich pastures are found in Navarre, and numerous herds are fattened on them. In the Asturias considerable forests still exist, chiefly of evergreen oaks, from which naval timber is obtained. But of all the vegetable productions of Spain, the vine is the most important, the lands being almost everywhere favourable to its culture. The excess of the vintage above the quantity consumed in the country forms a considerable branch of the export trade, and it is capable of being greatly extended. The best wines are those of Peralta in Navarre; Ribadavia and Betanzos in Galicia; Mansanares and Val de Penas in La Mancha; Xeres or Sherry, San Lucar, and Rota, in Seville; Cabra, Lucena, and Campine, in Cordova; Malaga in Granada; and lastly, Alicante in Valencia. Sherry wine is produced in great quantities in the plain of Xeres, and a considerable portion is exported to this country. Mr Jacob estimates the quantity of this wine annually produced at 40,000 pipes, of which 15,000 are exported, mostly to England. The finest wine is produced in Malaga, but not in large quantities.
Mr Swainson thus describes the zoology. "The native zoology has been so little investigated, that nothing beyond a meagre list could be furnished of indigenous animals. In the mountains of Asturias the ibex is not uncommon, and the Alpine squirrel (Sciurus Alpinus) is only found in the Pyrenees. In the southern parts, bordering on the African shore, a few species of warblers have recently been found, which are as yet unknown to the rest of Europe. The European bee-eater frequents the vicinity of Gibraltar in large flocks during the season of migration. Among the domesticated animals, the horse and sheep deserve particular notice, as having been long celebrated throughout Europe. The best horses are generally about four feet six or eight inches in height; they have all the fire, docility, grace, and action of the beautiful Arabians of Barbary, and there can be no doubt of these noble animals having been introduced by the Moors and crossed with the native breed. Those of Andalusia, Granada, and Extremadura, are the most distinguished. At Xeres are found two perfectly distinct races; the one, which possesses the fine qualities above mentioned, is still preserved in all its purity at Chartreux. The other race is larger, stronger, less elegant, and used for common purposes. But little care has latterly been bestowed in keeping up the more noble breed, so that fine horses are not so common in Spain as formerly. The mule in so mountainous a country is particularly useful, and, with the ass, is principally used for conveying goods into the interior. The breeds of the latter are very fine, and are hardly excelled by those of Egypt. Spain is still celebrated for its Merino race of sheep. The flocks are kept constantly travelling during the greater part of the summer, but are carefully pent up in winter. This race, subdivided into breeds, is extended over the greater part of Spain, but those of Cavage and Negrate are the best. A third breed, the Sowam, appears more hardy, and passes the winter in Extremadura, Andalusia, and New Castille. These three constitute what is called the Transhumante, or travelling race, to distinguish them from the Estautes, or those of a somewhat inferior breed, which do not migrate. The best fleeces are those which appear almost black on their surface, caused by the dust adhering to the peculiar greasy pile; for it is invariably found that such fleeces are of the purest white beneath." There is a very large breed of oxen in the country round Salamanca; but the cattle of Spain have been much neglected, the mountaineers deriving all their milk and butter from goats. Fine cattle, however, are reared in the Asturias; and pigs are very common on the mountains of the same province. The wild boar, the wolf, the bear, and different kinds of deer, are still found in Spain, but these are gradually becoming extinct. The chamois and the lynx still find shelter in the Pyrenees and Statistics. The mountains of Cuenca. The wild animals of the southern part of Spain are very similar to those of the north of Africa.
Minerals. Spain has long been celebrated for its richness in minerals, and large veins of various metals are still found in several parts of the country. Gold and silver mines were formerly worked; but they have been given up, although grains of these metals are still found. Lead is found in considerable quantities; the principal veins, as the lead-gleam veins of Sinares, are found in granite. The colossal deposit of galena, which yielded 600,000 quintals of lead in 1829, lies in irregular masses in a limestone formation. The principal mines are near Tortosa in Catalonia; at Zoma, Benasques, and Plan in Aragon; in Estremadura, in Murcia, in Old Castille, in Seville; and at the district of Linares, in Jaen. Mercury is also found, and at Almaden there is a rich mine of this valuable mineral, which is wrought in the clay slate. Iron ore occurs in very large quantities, principally in the northern provinces. In the Pays Basque, the lias formation is very rich in iron ore; and at Solomostro, near Bilbao, enormous deposits of carbonated iron are found. Veins of copper, antimony, and sulphur, are occasionally discovered, but not in such quantities as to be worth working. Coal also exists in considerable quantities in many provinces; and this mineral is gaining in importance every year, from other fuel becoming scarce.
Although Spain possesses all the advantages of climate, and the soil is generally fertile, the agriculture of the country is in a state of deplorable backwardness. A variety of causes has been assigned for this, but the principal cause is what has been appropriately termed the curse of the Mesta. This is a privilege granted to the proprietors of flocks to conduct their sheep into different provinces for the sake of pasturage. In their progress the sheep commit considerable depredations on the crops. The law of entail, which exists in Spain in its worst form, is also supposed to hinder improvement in agriculture; but perhaps the most serious obstacle to improvement is the want of internal communication, and the indolence of the rural population. The farms are generally small, and the farmers of a district live together in villages. There is no rotation of crops, and the wheat, after a slight ploughing, is sown at the commencement of the rains. The operation of thrashing and cleaning the grain is performed in the open air, and the grain is left in the fields or concealed in caves till sold. Implements of husbandry are of the rudest description; farmers are unknown except about the sea-coast, and the spade is still in use in some of the mountainous parts of the country. The most careful cultivation is to be found in the huertas of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia, which are well irrigated by the waters of the Xeñil, Segura, and Xucar. Rice is produced in Valencia, and a mild red pepper is the chief vegetable cultivated in Murcia. These three provinces are considered as the gardens of Spain, and annually yield three and four crops of vegetables, maize, and a mild red pepper. In spite of this fertility, however, it is calculated that the entire lands of Spain do not yield more than from one and a half to two per cent. to the proprietors. Some improvements have recently been introduced, but even now scarcely a fourth of the surface of the country is applied to any profitable use. A far greater extent of land is devoted to pasturage than is required for the maintenance of the cattle; and only about a twelfth of the superficies is occupied by wood. In Biscay, agriculture has made many improvements; and in spite of the disadvantages of soil, the population of this district is more numerous, and grain cheaper, than in the fertile plains to the south and east of Seville; which, if properly cultivated, might supply all Spain.
"The kingdoms of Old Castille and Leon," says a writer in the Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. v. "are justly considered the granaries of Spain. They have their outlets in the north by various ports from Gijon to St Sebastian, the principal being Santander and Bilboa. The provinces of Burgos and Palencia are the nearest points from which these ports get any considerable supply; the distance being from 130 to 140 English miles from each. The elevated and rich campos which extend from Logrono to Burgos, and thence on each side of the Arlanza and Pisuegra, and along the Caution, and numerous other streams which water the provinces of Palencia, Valladolid, and Zamora, yield immense quantities of wheat; and further to the west, and on the south side of the Douro, the provinces of Toro and Salamanca may be considered as forming a portion of the richest wheat country in Spain, or perhaps in the world. The crop is often so abundant for a series of years, that the produce of the fields at a distance from the villages is sometimes allowed to rot on the ground, the expense of conveying it home being considered beyond its value. It was calculated that the accumulated surplus of four or five successive years, in the silos and granaries of these plains, amounted at the close of the harvest of 1828 to 6,000,000 of fine gas, or 1,200,000 Winchester quarters. The ordinary cost of carriage does not exceed seven or eight shillings for every hundred miles; but the means of transport are so defective and so badly organized, that when any extraordinary demand for exportation takes place, the rates advance accordingly. Thus, in September 1828, the usual price was seven or eight shillings; but in consequence of extensive demands from France and England, it rose two months after to fourteen shillings and sixteen shillings per quarter. The grain of Spain is of the finest quality, that of Andalusia bearing a price ten or fifteen per cent. higher than any foreign grain brought to the markets of Cadiz. In spite of her facilities for agriculture, it is remarkable that Spain regularly imports, upon an average, 400,000 quarters of grain. This may arise from the want of proper means of transporting grain from one province to another, and not from any deficiency in the produce of the country." Several of the provinces, such as Galicia, Asturias, part of Leon, Santander, Biscay, and the kingdom of Navarre, barely produce sufficient for the consumption of their inhabitants. Catalonia does little more than maintain the half of its inhabitants; Valencia exports rice, but both it and Murcia import wheat; Cuenca, Guadalaxara, Segovia, Avila, and Madrid, produce less than their consumption. The provinces of Old Castille, part of Leon, Estremadura, part of Andalusia and Toledo, produce such an abundance that they might supply all the deficiencies of the other parts of Spain, and also export to foreign countries in seasons of plenty. Minano calculates the gross amount of agricultural produce in 1828 at L76,965,000, and the net produce at L28,403,666. The same authority estimates the number of cattle, &c., in the kingdom in 1826 as follows: horned beasts, 2,944,885; horses, 400,495; mules, 228,646; sheep, 18,687,159; goats, 5,187,668; asses, 641,788; swine, 2,728,283; bee-hives, 1,697,593.
The manufactures of Spain are in a very depressed state, although some thriving manufactories exist, principally on the sea-coast. The manufacture of silk was formerly the grand staple of trade, and although now much depreciated, it is calculated to furnish employment for nearly 16,000 persons. Numerous manufactories of various kinds have been established in Catalonia within the last twenty years; those of silk and cotton are the most extensive, and are in a thriving state. The looms of Valencia are calculated to employ at the present day nearly 3000 persons, and produce tissues, gauzes, and ribbands, equal to the French manufactories. The silk manufacture of Talavera de la Reyna and Saragossa are still in high repute. The latter province also produces cloth, which is much in request. Galicia annually imports 20,000 hundredweight of flax, which is conveyed to Santiago, and distributed throughout the villages of this province to be converted into linen, and sold in the Castilles. In the north, Bilboa and Santander, in the south, Seville and Cadiz, are the great entrepôts for the exportation of wool, which is also spun and manufactured into cloth in Catalonia and Barcelona. These manufactures, however, are by no means sufficient for the inhabitants, and almost every species of manufacture is imported. In Catalonia there are numerous manufactories of coarse cloth, which enjoy a monopoly; coarse cloths of foreign manufacture being almost prohibited by a heavy tax. The finest cloth is manufactured in Valencia, and the trade is in a flourishing state, employing nearly 10,000 hands. Tanning is the most active branch of manufacture in the northern provinces. Potteries are numerous, but the articles produced are generally of an inferior description. There is a royal porcelain manufactory at Madrid, the produce of which is very superior, but it costs the government more than it returns. Hat and paper manufactories have also been established, and have met with considerable success. The manufacture of arms forms a part of the trade of Spain, but the quantity made is by no means great. There are two large factories in Biscay; at Abaceti and Toledo swords are made; at Segovia, fire-arms; and at this latter place, as well as at Seville and Placentia, there are good founderies. Seville carries on a considerable trade in leather, a species of which, prepared with gall-nuts, is in much request. Ferrel and Vittoria possess considerable tanneries; and the former has an establishment where varnished leather is made. Iron manufactories are very numerous in Biscay, but none of them is conducted on an extensive scale. In almost every village in this province some kind of iron ware is manufactured; horse-shoes, fusils, locks, and bedsteads being the chief articles, which are sent to the interior. Cast iron utensils are prohibited from being imported into Spain; but this regulation does not seem to be attended with any great advantage, for there is only one smelting manufactory at Bilboa. Several other iron manufactories have been established throughout the country, the principal being at Pederoza and Martilla in Andalusia; but it does not appear that they have met with any degree of success. Iron ore is prohibited from being exported, but considerable quantities are nevertheless sent to France. Manufactures are much checked in Spain by the system of monopoly, several of the largest manufactories being in the hands of the government, and consequently ill conducted.
The commerce consists chiefly in the exporting of wines, wool, brandy, fruits, silk raw and manufactured, lead, iron, mercury, barilla, and a few other articles, amounting in all, according to a government return in 1826, to the value of Ll,584,000. Iron, in bars, is exported in considerable quantities from Bilboa, Cumaná, and Vittoria, chiefly to Bayonne and Bordeaux. Malaga and Alicante wines are also important branches of commerce; and the coarse wines of Murviedro are extensively exported. The export of dried fruits gives activity to the ports of Alicante, Malaga, Seville, and Valencia; and the latter town is famous for its dyes. The imports of Spain consist of sugar, salt fish, spices, wood, rice, butter, cheese, hides, wool, and cotton, and almost every manufactured article. The transport of salt from Cadiz and Torrevieja, for the fisheries of Galicia, is an important branch of commerce, and, along with the fisheries themselves, employs a great number of hands, producing the best sailors, and giving activity to the towns and villages on the coast, which is seldom seen in the interior. The net produce of commerce and manufactures was estimated by Mihano in 1826 at Ll,460,000. It is difficult to arrive at any correct estimate of the value of the exports and imports of Spain, from the want of official documents; and even when these are obtained, little reliance can be placed on them. The following is from an official document published in 1826.
### Value of the Imports and Exports in 1826, distinguishing Statistics by Countries
| Country | Exports | Imports | |------------------|---------|---------| | Africa | L340 | L11,090 | | Asia | | 214,660 | | United States | 45,925 | 68,940 | | England | 637,800 | 957,395 | | France | 450,350 | 726,170 | | Germany | 26,670 | 150,510 | | Holland | 56,185 | 133,525 | | Prussia | 5 | 2,060 | | Russia | 4,085 | 135,800 | | Denmark | 11,585 | 30,070 | | Sweden | 6,210 | 87,080 | | Turkey | 55 | 31,255 | | Switzerland | | 8,930 | | Sardinia | 2 | 110,895 | | Italy | 83,740 | 146,300 | | Portugal | 146,160 | 204,090 | | Spanish American Colonies | 330,373 | 754,690 |
Total: 1,799,485
Amount of importations from the different states of Europe, the United States, Asia, and Africa L3,018,785
Importations from Spanish Colonies: 754,690
Total: L3,773,475
Amount of exportations to states in Europe, America, Asia, and Africa: L1,469,112
Exportations to Spanish Colonies: 330,373
Total: L1,199,485
This table shows a balance of L1,973,990 against Spain, of the imports over the exports; and the important article of tobacco is entirely omitted; neither is there any account of the imports and exports to and from the free provinces of the north.
Banking is almost unknown in Spain, the principal merchants doing the business of bankers. There are no substitutes for cash in ordinary transactions, bills of exchange being principally used; but these do not pass from hand to hand as cash, except by special arrangement. The difficulty of transmitting specie is the cause of these bills being much used; merchants preferring rather to pay a premium than run the risk of losing the specie altogether. The rate of exchange of course varies with the supply of bills in the market, and also with the character of the houses offering the paper. Most of the bills are at short dates, generally within one month. Some are as short as two days; and these are allowed eight days' grace, unless the word fixed is written on them. Interest generally varies from three to four and a half per cent. on discounting bills, but this mode of negociation is not much practised. Interest on mercantile transactions is understood to be fixed at six per cent., and three per cent. on mortgages; but the law is easily evaded, there being no penalty inflicted on those who charge more than the legal interest. There are no bankers with whom money can be lodged; and it is customary for people rather to horde up their money than to run the risk of its being lost in the hands of merchants.
In internal communication, Spain lies under great disadvantages, both from the mountainous nature of the country, and the obstructed navigation of the rivers. In the hands of an enterprising people, these difficulties might soon be overcome. The roads and canals are not numerous, and, if we except the principal highways, are but imperfectly kept. The two roads which run from Madrid to Burgos, the one through Valladolid, and the other through Aranda de Douro, are kept in good condition; but the great eastern roads are... Statistics represented as in a wretched state. The road to France by way of Vittoria and Irun is kept in excellent condition, considering the mountainous nature of the country through which it runs. The road to Corunna and Ferrol, through Galicia, is in many places impassable for carriages or carts. That over the Sierra Morena to Seville is well kept. The roads of Catalonia are said to be in better condition than most in Spain. These roads are kept up partly by tolls, and partly by local taxes; but the amount collected is not sufficient for maintaining proper communications. It appears that L.92,400 were expended in repairing and making roads and building bridges in the year 1826, and L.89,240 for the same purpose in 1827. The ordinary mode of conveying goods is by means of mules, asses, or small carts drawn by oxen. Stage-coaches are becoming more common; but these can only be used on the great roads, the ordinary cross roads being generally too bad for such conveyance. In Biscay and Navarre the roads are under the superintendence of the provincial administration, and are more numerous, better constructed, and more carefully managed, than any others in the country.
The canals are stated to be in a much more deplorable condition than the roads, and although many have been projected by government, none of any importance has been completed. The most important is that which was intended to unite the Mediterranean Sea with the Bay of Biscay; but of this mighty undertaking only two portions exist, the canal of Aragon, running parallel to the Ebro, from Saragossa, and that of Old Castille, along the Pisuerga and Carrion, by Placentia. Neither of these portions, however, approaches the sea, and their benefit is therefore limited. The other canals are, that of Castille, which connects the port of Santander with the Duero; the canal of Segovia, which connects that town with the river of the same name; and the canal of San Carlo, which is constructed to give a port to Fortoza.
The population of Spain presents fluctuations which can only be accounted for by the fact of the internal wars which have so frequently convulsed her, or on the supposition that the returns which have been published are incorrect. It has been gradually increasing for the last two centuries, and latterly at a more rapid progression. It appears that in 1700 the population was estimated at 8,000,000. The following table, extracted from McGregor's Statistics of Nations, gives the population in 1803 as exhibited by the official tables, and in 1827 as given by Moreau de Jonnes in his Statistics, which latter, however, must have exceeded the real numbers, as the population was ascertained in 1837 to amount only to 12,168,572.
| General Description | Provinces | Superficies | Population | Capitals | Geographical Positions of Chief Towns | Population 1827 | |---------------------|-----------|-------------|------------|----------|----------------------------------------|----------------| | | | English Miles | French Leagues | 1803 (a) | 1827 (b) | N. Lat. | E. Lon. | | New Castille | Madrid | 1,330 | 110 | 228,520 | 267,812 | 224 | Madrid | 40 25 | 3 33 | 201,000 | | | Toledo | 8,663 | 734 | 370,641 | 405,203 | 54 | Toledo | 39 52 | 4 11 | 15,600 | | | Guadalaxara| 1,970 | 163 | 121,115 | 157,836 | 79 | Guadalaxara | 40 33 | 3 22 | 7,000 | | | Cuenca | 11,410 | 945 | 294,290 | 362,577 | 83 | Cuenca | 40 6 | 2 16 | 7,000 | | | La Mancha | 7,620 | 631 | 205,448 | 267,740 | 33 | Ciudad Real | 39 0 | 4 3 | 10,000 | | | Burgos | 7,752 | 642 | 470,585 | 617,762 | 73 | Burgos | 42 25 | 3 55 | 12,000 | | | Soria | 4,118 | 341 | 133,107 | 267,437 | 65 | Soria | 41 42 | 2 30 | 5,000 | | | Segovia | 3,562 | 299 | 164,607 | 221,379 | 63 | Segovia | 41 6 | 4 10 | 12,000 | | | Avila | 2,060 | 175 | 116,061 | 153,479 | 59 | Avila | 40 45 | 4 45 | 4,000 | | | Leon | 3,474 | 293 | 229,812 | 311,755 | 52 | Leon | 42 45 | 5 27 | 5,000 | | | Palencia | 1,751 | 146 | 118,064 | 153,482 | 87 | Palencia | 42 6 | 4 35 | 10,000 | | | Toro | 1,692 | 163 | 97,370 | 126,531 | 63 | Toro | 41 45 | 5 37 | 9,000 | | | Valladolid| 3,272 | 271 | 157,390 | 243,097 | 74 | Valladolid | 41 45 | 4 35 | 32,000 | | | Zamora | 1,606 | 133 | 71,401 | 92,321 | 57 | Zamora | 41 35 | 5 45 | 7,000 | | | Salamanca | 5,123 | 471 | 209,988 | 272,982 | 53 | Salamanca | 41 21 | 5 40 | 14,000 | | Asturias | Asturias | 3,723 | 308 | 364,233 | 464,565 | 124 | Oviedo | 43 24 | 5 55 | 10,000 | | Galicia | Galicia | 16,059 | 1,330 | 1,142,639 | 1,555,419 | 99 | Santiago | 43 24 | 8 29 | 23,000 | | Extremadura | Extremadura| 14,478 | 1199 | 428,493 | 556,789 | 38 | Badajos | 38 49 | 6 47 | 12,000 | | | Seville | 9,090 | 752 | 746,221 | 970,067 | 106 | Seville | 37 24 | 5 29 | 91,000 | | Andalusia | Cordoba | 4,292 | 348 | 252,028 | 327,256 | 77 | Cordoba | 37 52 | 4 46 | 46,000 | | | Jaen | 3,236 | 266 | 206,207 | 276,305 | 85 | Jaen | 37 43 | 3 51 | 18,000 | | | Granada | 9,729 | 805 | 692,924 | 1,097,093 | 112 | Granada | 37 16 | 3 46 | 69,000 | | | Sierra Morena| 1,304 | 106 | 6,196 | | | Carolina | 38 39 | 3 5 | 5,000 | | Murcia | Murcia | 7,957 | 659 | 383,226 | 493,192 | 61 | Murcia | 37 52 | 1 15 | 25,000 | | Aragon | Aragon | 14,882 | 1232 | 657,376 | 856,210 | 57 | Zaragoza | 41 35 | 1 15 | 55,000 | | Valencia | Valencia | 7,784 | 643 | 825,059 | 1,255,055 | 161 | Valencia | 39 29 | 9 23 | 85,000 | | Catalonia | Catalonia | 12,111 | 1097 | 858,519 | 1,116,461 | 92 | Barcelona | 41 22 | 2 10 | 120,000 | | Navarre | Navarre | 2,475 | 205 | 221,728 | 288,244 | 116 | Pamplona | 42 46 | 1 42 | 15,000 | | Biscay | Biscay | 1,280 | 106 | 111,436 | 144,875 | 113 | Bilbao | 43 14 | 2 42 | 15,000 | | | Guipuscon | 628 | 52 | 104,491 | 153,838 | 216 | St Sebastian | 43 10 | 1 53 | 9,000 | | | Alava | 1,093 | 90 | 67,523 | 92,507 | 84 | Vittoria | 42 55 | 2 55 | 7,000 | | | Majorca and Cabrora | 1,352 | 112 | 140,699 | | | Palma | 39 30 | 2 25 | 30,000 | | | Minorca | 242 | 20 | 30,990 | 242,693 | 136 | Ciudadella | 40 5 | 3 15 | 15,000 | | | Ibiza and Formentera | 161 | 15 | 15,290 | | | Ibiza | 38 53 | 1 29 | 1,000 |
(a) Official census. (b) As given by M. Moreau de Jonnes, in his Statistics for 1834. It is generally believed that the census of 1803 is much below the actual number of inhabitants; and according to the returns of 1723 it would appear that in 103 years the population had increased from 7,925,000 to nearly 14,000,000. It also appears, from the observation of most persons, that the actual population of Spain had increased more slowly than that of any other country, particularly before losing her South American empire. M. Moreau de Jonnes estimates the population in 1834 at 14,000,000. According, however, to a return of the number of senators and deputies to the Cortes from all Spain, corresponding to the population of the provinces, which appeared in the royal decree of 3 August 1837, the exact population of the kingdom was 12,168,572. THE OFFICIAL RETURNS OF THE POPULATION FOR 1826.
Householders having the Qualification of Electors. Nobility, including men, women, and children...1,440,000 Citizens and farmers, &c...........................1,560,000
Heads of Families, viz: Magistrates and advocates..........................5,883 Notaries..............................................9,683 Attorneys and clerks of law-courts..................13,274 Medical men.........................................17,990 Public functionaries and clerks.....................27,243 Merchants............................................6,824 Agricultural proprietors............................364,514
Heads of families..................................445,411 Women and children...............................1,128,275
1,573,686
Agricultural Population. Agricultural proprietors............................364,514 Farmers..............................................527,423 Labourers...........................................805,235 Proprietors of flocks and herds.....................25,530 Shepherds...........................................113,628 Heads of families and others.......................1,836,330 Women and children...............................6,777,140
Total agricultural population......................8,613,470
Merchants and Manufacturers. Merchants............................................6,824 Retail dealers.......................................18,851 Manufacturers and labourers.........................489,493
Heads of families..................................515,168 Women and children...............................1,803,088
Total manufacturing population....................2,318,256
Other Classes. Domestics (one in thirty-seven inhabitants)........276,000 Vagabonds (one in seventy)........................140,000 Smugglers (one in a hundred).......................100,000 Custom-house officers...............................40,000 Officers of the Inquisition........................22,000 Wandering beggars..................................36,000 Convicts.............................................2,000
All other classes, or one in thirteen inhabitants...700,000
Extent and Population of the Colonies of Spain in 1827.
| Square Miles | Inhabitants | |--------------|-------------| | Philippine Islands | ... | 2,525,000 | | Canary Islands | 7,451 | 210,000 | | Cuba | 46,700 | 704,487 | | Porto Rico | 284,957 | | Presidencies of Africa | 36 | 4,000 |
Total inhabitants................................3,528,444
The population of Spain, according to the royal decree of August 1837, being 12,168,572, if we add the 3,528,444 of the colonies, the entire population of Spain and its dependencies will be 15,697,016.
The Roman Catholic religion exclusively prevails in Spain, and here in all ages it has assumed its most bigoted and intolerant form. The church establishment includes Statistics, eight archbishops and seventy-two bishops, 2393 canons, and 1869 prebendaries, together with an immense multitude of other ecclesiastics, under various denominations. In the year 1835 there still remained 1940 cloisters, containing 30,906 monks. Of these the Franciscans alone possessed 651 cloisters, with 11,232 monks and lay-brothers. But by a royal decree of the above year, all the religious houses which did not contain more than twelve monks were abolished. The number of monasteries thus condemned amounted to 900. Their revenues were applied to the extinction of the national debt. The whole income of the church is valued at L12,500,000 sterling, and the portion of the income which is consumed by the spirituality exceeds the collective income of the state by about L2,000,000.
Education.
The institutions for public instruction in Spain are the universities of Valencia, established in 1411 Students in 1827......1569 Valladolid...........................................1247 Saragossa...........................................1175 Santiago.............................................1054 Seville...............................................807 Granada.............................................812 Cervera..............................................573 Huesca..............................................537 Oviedo..............................................420 Salamanca..........................................418 Alcala..............................................364 Onate...............................................270 Toledo..............................................257 Palma...............................................177 Orihuela...........................................124
There are two artillery schools, and a hundred and sixty-three colleges and seminaries of a higher order, containing 3310 pupils. The common schools throughout the country have been estimated at about 20,000.
There are numerous public libraries in the more important towns, some of them of considerable extent. One at Madrid contains about 130,000 volumes, numerous manuscripts, and a rich collection of medals. The prohibition, however, of many standard works greatly limits their value.
Finances.
According to the budget of 11th February 1837, the expenditure amounted to..................1,929,300,795 reals. The income to........................................800,000,000 ditto.
With regard to the national debt of Spain it is impossible to obtain anything like a correct estimate. For the last eight or nine years it has continued to accumulate with fearful rapidity, and loan after loan has been negotiated. It seems almost impossible that so large an amount as from two millions to two millions and a half sterling, can be annually collected to pay the interest of the national debt in a country already grievously oppressed with taxes, and where trade is in some measure stagnant. The balance of her trade, ever since the loss of her colonies, has been in the ratio of two to one against Spain, while the whole value of her exportable produce, even in the most prosperous periods, has not exceeded three millions and a half; and this is now supposed to be greatly reduced, since the exports to England, which is the greatest consumer of her fruits, wine, and wool, have barely averaged for the last four or five years one million sterling. In 1833, the public debts amounted to L165,000,000, and as the expenditure exceeded the income, and various loans have since been negotiated, it has now materially increased. Taxation in Spain is very heavy, and is levied with little regard to the well- being or comfort of the population. It is grossly unequal and arbitrary, no one ever being able to tell what he may be required to pay; and the greatest abuses exist in its collection. Scarcely one half of the tax laid on the inhabitants ever reaches the government, the rest being absorbed by the various officers employed. No fewer than 16,000 persons are employed in collecting the custom duties; and being ill paid, they are open to bribery, and even levy contributions for their own pockets. The same duties are not imposed in the different towns, one merchant being called upon sometimes to pay L40 of a tax, while another in a different place may have only to pay L20. The alcabala is a tax which is levied upon every article of use, and presses with great severity upon the poor. It was formerly an impost on the transfer of commodities from one hand to another, but is now paid by gate-duties. In towns which are not walled or have no gates, this tax is levied by a calculation of the amount paid by another town of the same size. Tithes are, next to the alcabala, the most oppressive of the taxes; but the clergy do not receive perhaps one half of the amount collected. There is also a tax of six per cent. on the produce of all rented lands; and on the accession of the heir to an entailed estate, the first half year's rental falls to the government. A tax of L100,000 is levied yearly upon the merchants: the finance minister fixes the amount which each intendency has to pay, and the intendant the proportion which each town must pay; and another magistrate assesses the individuals. The revenue from tobacco and salt is considerable, they being monopolies in the hands of government. The amount of salt which each town ought to consume is fixed; and landowners and farmers pay in proportion to the number of their dependents, and the cattle and sheep which they possess. The clergy pay an annual subsidy, in addition to some other contributions.
The state of crime shows Spain to be in a very imperfect state of civilization. The administration of justice is extremely slow and uncertain, and indeed all the legislation upon criminal affairs is as bad as possible. The crimes most complained of are those of assassination and robbery; and although these do not prevail now to the extent they once did, the returns show that murder is still a very common crime. The returns for the year 1827 give the number of murders as 1223, and attempts at murder as 1773; and this report is very inaccurate, as no returns were sent from either Aragon or Valencia. A person robbed or assaulted is bound over to prosecute; and should he fail to prove the guilt of the criminal, he has to pay all expenses of the suit. Witnesses are liable to imprisonment in case of the prisoner being acquitted; and this preposterous law has a strong and obvious tendency to interrupt the course of justice.
The poor in Spain are numerous, and begging is considered as no disgrace in many of the provinces. Even students have been known to go on begging excursions during the vacation, labour being in their estimation a greater disgrace than asking alms. There are numerous hospitals in the large towns, chiefly under the management of the clergy. The funds for maintaining them are principally derived from legacies of lands and rents, partly bequeathed by private individuals, and partly by bishops. In the northern provinces the hospitals are supported chiefly by public subscriptions and collections in the churches, the legacies being unimportant. The convents and monasteries support many paupers; the Franciscan, Dominican, and Capuchin orders, although beggars themselves, keeping open table for a certain number of poor. A contribution of L30,000 is annually made from the public funds, being a portion of the revenue collected by the vicar-general of the cruzado. Notwithstanding these institutions, however, the number of beggars is still very great. Only in some of the towns is begging prohibited, and in these the vagrants are employed much in the same way as in our own workhouses.
The character of the Spaniard is grave, adventurous, romantic, honourable, and generous. He is not inclined to adopt foreign manners, and is possessed of great national pride. He is naturally brave, provided his heart be in the cause which he espouses; but he is easily excited to tumultuary violence, and is very unwilling to submit to the restraints of discipline. In prosperity he is apt to give way to supineness and false confidence; but in adversity which might overwhelm others, he will often display great courage and surprising resources. He is very slow in his operations, and often ruins enterprises by temporizing. In all the provinces except those of the north, the inhabitants are extremely indolent, and possess a most invincible hatred of labour. They are fond of amusements, dancing and cards being the favourite recreations. Theatrical exhibitions are not very popular, being generally insipid. They are still attached to the bull-fight, but this cruel amusement is not now so common as formerly. It will however prevail as long as the country remains in its present state of ignorance. Dancing has acquired a national character; and to this day the Spaniard has many an allegorical dance, borrowed from the Moors. The pleasures of society are chiefly sought at evening parties, where only slight refreshments are presented; and indeed, both in eating and drinking, the Spaniards are remarkably temperate. Music also forms one of their principal amusements, the instrument most generally used being the guitar. Castanets are also extremely common, and are employed with great dexterity and address in the national dances. The music of the country is not remarkable, being almost altogether light melodies, with a slight accompaniment from the guitar. Spanish architecture, from its being a mixture of the Moorish and Gothic styles, has somewhat affected the architecture of other countries. The innumerable churches scattered over the country are generally in the Gothic taste, but more light, from its conjunction with the Moorish. Many of them are fine edifices; but the most remarkable architectural monument of Spain is the palace of the Escorial, which is built entirely in the Roman or Vitruvian style. Spain has produced few great painters, which is somewhat remarkable, considering the poetical character of the people. Murillo, Velasquez, and Lope de Vargas have acquired a fame which will endure wherever painting is appreciated. There is at Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture, and architecture, and the royal palace and Escorial have galleries; but it does not appear that these arts are much cultivated in the present day.
The literature of Spain, in the days of her greatness, was almost on a level with that of any other country in Europe; but it has now sunk to a very low condition. The ballad is what the early Spanish writers most excelled in; and this is characterized by romantic fervour, frequently of an oriental character. The language is peculiarly fitted to express the dignified and the pathetic, but its solemn dignity frequently seduces the writer into bombast. No language has such a store of ballads as the Spanish; but they are, particularly the early ones, little more than mere relations of chivalrous deeds. The wars with the Moors form the subject of an endless number of these ballads, which the chivalrous nature of the people of Spain during the middle ages brought to a state of excellence unequaled in any country in Europe. The song was the natural growth of the warlike period of Spain, and served to commemorate warlike exploits; but they were of a very simple character until the period of the conquest of Naples, when they assumed a more lyrical form. The national drama has always been peculiar, consisting chiefly of religious comedies founded on the lives of saints. There are however some noble comedies of an historical nature. The perfection of the intrigue is what the Spanish writers chiefly value; but their plots are co-