The art of stenography, or short writing, was known and practised by most of the ancient civilized nations. The Egyptians, who at an early period were distinguished for learning, at first expressed their words by a delineation of figures called hieroglyphics. A more concise mode of writing seems to have been afterwards introduced, in which only a part of the symbol or picture was drawn. This answered the purpose of short-hand in some degree. After them the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans, adopted different methods of abbreviating their words and sentences, suited to their respective languages. The initials, the finals, or radicals, often served for whole words; and various combinations of these sometimes formed a sentence. Arbitrary marks were likewise employed to determine the meaning, and to assist legibility; and it seems probable that every writer and every author of antiquity had some peculiar method of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate the expression of his own sentiments, and intelligible only to himself. It is also probable that some might by these means take down the heads of a discourse or oration; but few, very few, it is presumed, could have followed a speaker through all the meanders of rhetoric, and, in a manner legible even to themselves, could have noted with precision every syllable as it dropt from his mouth. To arrive at such consummate perfection in the art was reserved for more modern times, and is still an acquisition by no means general.
In every language of Europe, till about the close of the sixteenth century, the Roman plan of abbreviating (viz., substituting the initials or radicals, with the help of arbitraries, for words) appears to have been employed. Till then no regular alphabet had been invented expressly for stenography, when an English gentleman of the name of Willis invented and published one. His plan was soon improved, or at least altered. One alteration succeeded another; and at intervals, for a series of years past, some men of ingenuity and application have composed and published systems of stenography, and doubtless have themselves reaped all the advantages that attend it. But among the various methods which have been proposed, and the different plans which have been adopted by individuals, none has yet appeared fortunate enough to gain general approbation, or proved sufficiently simple, clear, and concise, to be universally studied and practised. Some systems are replete with unmeaning symbols, perplexing arbitraries, and ill-judged contractions; which render them so difficult to be attained by a common capacity, or ordinary application, that it is not to be wondered at if they have sunk into neglect, and are now no longer known. Other systems, by being too prolix, by containing a multiplicity of characters, and those characters not simple or easily remembered, become ineffectual to the purpose of expedition, and are only superior in obscurity to a common hand. Some, again, not only reject all arbitraries and contractions, but even prepositions and terminations; which last, if not too lavishly employed and badly devised, highly contribute to promote both expedition and legibility; and though they reduce their characters to fewer than can possibly express the various modifications of sound, yet they make nearly one half of them complex. In the disposition of the vowels there is the greatest perplexity in most systems. A dot is sometimes substituted for all the vowels indiscriminately, and the judgment is left to determine which letter out of six any dot is intended to express; or a minute space is allotted them, so that unless they be arranged with mathematical precision, they cannot be distinguished from one another; but such a minute attention is inconsistent with the nature of shorthand, which should teach us to write down in a short time, as well as in small bounds, what we wish to preserve of what we hear. Nor is the plan of lifting the pen and putting the next consonant in the vowel's place, in the middle of words, less liable to objections; or that of representing all the vowels by distinct characters, being obviously ill-calculated for facility and despatch, and consequently inadmissible into any useful system.
It is to be confessed, that the person who first proposed the omission of vowels in the middle of words, which it is obvious are not wanted, and invented letters which could be connected as in a running hand without lifting the pen in the middle of the word, made a real improvement on the works of his predecessors. But, in fine, most systems, either in their plan or execution, labour under some capital defect, attended with circumstances highly discouraging to the learner, and which in a great measure defeat the end of their invention, by being too complicated to be learned with ease and remembered with accuracy, or to be practised with the expedition which is requisite; and so difficult to be deciphered, that a man can scarcely read what he has just written. To obviate these defects, to provide against prolixity and conciseness, which might occasion obscurity, to exhibit a system founded on the simplest principles, which might be easily learned and read, and yet be capable of the utmost expedition, were the motives that gave rise to the present attempt.
This method will be found different from any yet published, and superior to all in the disposition of the vowels and the facility of arranging them; the confusion in placing which seems to detract from the merit of the best performances on the subject; and it may without ostentation be affirmed, that characters simpler in their form, and more perfect in their union, have not been applied to the art of stenography. As well as it could be determined, the simplest characters are appropriated to the letters most usually employed; indeed, as far as possible, those which are complex have been rejected; but as it was an object always kept in view that the writing should be on a line, a few are admitted into the alphabet for that reason. The characters for the double and triple consonants are the easiest that could be invented, consistent with perspicuity; for care has been taken to provide against all obscurity which might arise by adopting letters too similar in their formation; and with respect to the prepositions and terminations, those which occur most frequently are expressed by the simplest characters, which will be found perfectly easy in their application. The arbitraries are few in number, and the arbitrary abbreviations, as they are entirely from the letters of the alphabet, and chosen from some thousands of words in common use, will well repay the learner for an hour's trouble in committing them to memory.
The last section lays down a scheme of abbreviation, comprised in a few rules, perfectly easy to be understood and practised by proficient in this art; and we hope it will answer the expectation of the writer, and will be found free from the perplexity complained of in many systems.
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1 The value of stenography is not unknown to the learned; and the care and success with which it has been lately cultivated in these kingdoms will, in all probability, soon render it an object of general attention. No one, however, appears to us to have simplified and improved the art so much as Dr. Mavor, author of Universal Stenography.
2 Mr. Locke says, a regular method of short writing seems to be known and practised only in Britain. This is not now the case; and indeed there is no reason to doubt whether characters may not be invented to express the various sounds or letters employed in any language, either ancient or modern.
3 Mr. Byron rejected vowels entirely in the middle of words, as others before him had only done partially. Without critically examining the executive part of his performance, which is very defective, it must be owned that it is above the reach of human ingenuity to exceed his general plan, which for ever must be the basis of every future rational system. where abbreviation is admitted. The principal rules are new, are so easy, so extensive in their use, and so consistent with expedition and legibility, if applied with judgment, that they alone might suffice. The learner is however advised by no means to adopt any of them till experience has convinced him that they may be used without error, or injury to legibility. All abbreviating rules are suited to those only who have made some progress in the stenographic art; for although they certainly promote expedition in a wonderful manner, and afford the greatest ease to a proficient, yet a learner, as expedition is not his first, though his ultimate view, should admit of nothing that in the least renders the reading difficult.
II. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters; six of which are vowels, a, e, i, o, u, and y; and the other twenty consonants, b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and z. This alphabet, as is observed by the best grammarians that have written on the language, is both defective and redundant in expressing the various modifications of sound! Custom or prejudice has assigned some letters a place, when others would with much more propriety express the same sound; and to this may be added, that several letters, sometimes in one word, seem to be admitted for no other reason than to perplex a young beginner or a foreigner, as an obstruction to true pronunciation, and to add to the apparent length of the word, when they are entirely quiescent and useless. That this is the genius of the orthography of our language, must be perceived by the most superficial observer; but no modern tongue is absolutely free from the same exceptions. In particular, the French has a great number of dormant letters, which, it is obvious, render the pronunciation more difficult and perplexing to learners. In this respect, the Latin and Greek claim a just superiority over the modern tongues. In them no confusion or doubt can arise from the manner of spelling; and the reader can scarcely be wrong, unless in quantity, in sounding all the letters that he sees.
But as it is neither our business nor our intention to propose a mode of spelling different from that in common use, when applied to printing or long-hand writing (since several innovators in orthography have fallen into contempt, and their plans have been only preserved as beacons to warn others of the folly of endeavouring to subvert established principles), we shall only observe, that in stenography, where the most expeditious and concise method is the best, if consistent with perspicuity, the following simple rules are studiously to be regarded and practised.
1. All quiescent consonants in words are to be dropped, and the orthography to be directed only by the pronunciation; which being known to all, will render this art attainable by those who cannot spell with precision in long-hand.
2. When the absence of consonants, not entirely dormant, can be easily known, they may often be omitted without the least obscurity.
3. Two or sometimes more consonants may, to promote greater expedition, be exchanged for a single one of nearly similar sound; and no ambiguity as to the meaning ensue.
4. When two consonants of the same kind or same sound come together, without any vowel between them, only one is to be expressed; but if a vowel or vowels intervene, both are to be written: only observe, if they are perpendicular, horizontal, or oblique lines, they must only be drawn a size longer than usual; and characters with loops must have the size of their heads doubled.
Might is to be written mith, fight fit, machine mashin, enough, enuf, laugh lof, prophet profet, physics fisiks,
1 Lowth's Grammar. Priestley's Grammar. Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution. 2 By this rule likewise q and w in the middle of words, but never in the beginning, may be exchanged for s and r, when they admit of an easier connecting with the following character, or will make the writing appear neater.
First rule exemplified.
Strength strength, length length, friendship frenship, commandment commandment, conjunct conjunct, number numer, exemplary exemplary, &c.
Rocks rot, acts oks or ar, facts faks or fak, districts distriks or distrix, affects afeks or afex, afflicts affiks or affix, exemplify conquer konkr, &c.
Letter letter, little little, command command, error error, terror terror, &c. But in remember, moment, sister, and such exempli-like words, where two consonants of the same name have died, an intervening vowel, both of them must be written.
These four rules, with their examples, being carefully considered by the learner, will leave him in no doubt concerning the disposition and management of the consonants in this scheme of short writing; we shall therefore proceed to lay down rules for the application of the vowels with ease and expedition.
1. Vowels, being only simple articulate sounds, though Rules for they are the connectives of consonants, and employed in the vowels, every word and every syllable, are not necessary to be inserted in the middle of words; because the consonants, if fully pronounced, with the assistance of connection, will always discover the meaning of a word, and make the writing perfectly legible.
2. If a vowel is not strongly accented in the incipient syllable of a word, or if it is mute in the final, it is likewise to be omitted; because the sound of the incipient vowel is often implied in that of the first consonant, which will consequently supply its place.
3. But if the vowel constitutes the first or last syllable of a word, or is strongly accented at its beginning or end, that vowel is continually to be written.
4. If a word begins or ends with two or more vowels though separated, or when there is a coalition of vowels, as in diphthongs and triphthongs, only one of them is to be expressed, which must be that which agrees best with the pronunciation.
5. In monosyllables, if they begin or end with a vowel, it is always to be inserted, unless the vowel be mute at the end of a word.
Such are the general principles of this art; in vindication and support of which it will be needless to offer any arguments, when it is considered that brevity and expedition are the chief objects, if consistent with legibility; and the subsequent specimens in the orthography recommended will, we hope, be sufficient to show that there is no real deficiency in the last-mentioned particular.
He who nd us mst be etrol, grt, nd nmptnt. It is or Specimen dty, as rsl hngs, to srr, lv, nd oby hm.—A mn tht wd avd of the mode blm, shd be sknskpl in al hs axws, nd ndvr wth hl hs mt to spllng prs evry bdy.—I wd nt frm any knxns wth a mn who hd nd rgrd fr hmslf; ntrw wd I blv a mn who hd ons td me a ll.
—Onrs is of al things the mst dlkt to prsv ntrnshd; nd whn ons mpchd, lk the chsity of a wmn, nvr slns wth its wntl lstr.—Wth gd mmrs, kmplsns, nd an esy plt adrs, mny mk a fgr in the wrl, whs mmbl ablt ws slksly hv rsl thm aby the rsk of a ftnn.—Idlns is the prnt of a thnd mtnfs, whch ar nwrl ft by the ndstrs; it is a pn nd a prshmnt of itself, and brings wnt nd bgry in its trn.—Vrtu is the frst thing tht shld be rgrd; it is a rwd of itslf; mks a man rskpbl hr, nd wl nk hm etrnly lpv hfrts.—Prd is a mst prssn pn, whc yt ws plntd by lvn in ur ntr, to rs ur emln. to imt grt nd wrthy krkrs or axns, to xt in us a sl fr wht is rt nd gzt, and a lbdl ndgsm gnst oprrs nd wrks of ny knf of nkyty; in slrt, to mks us st prpr vl u pn urslvs nd dps a wrthls fl, hu evr xltld. Ths fr prd is a vrtu, nd my gtsly be kld a gnms of sl. Bt prd, lk othr psns, gnry fxs upn rgg objks, or is apd in rgg prpsns. Hu knm is it to se a rch whm evry vs hs rmdrd mrtbl, nd evry fl yntml, vng hmslf on hs hi brth, nd bstsng ths lsts nsts, of whm he nhrts nthng bt th nm or tl nsts who, if ty nu hm, wd dsn tr dsndt wth knmt. But al prd of ths srt is fl, nd evr to be avd.
III. As the whole of this art depends upon a regular method and a simple alphabet, we have not only endeavoured to establish the former on satisfactory principles, but have been careful to appropriate, according to the comparative frequency of their occurrence, such characters for the letters as, after repeated trials and alterations, were conceived to be the best adapted for de-patch.
The stenographic alphabet consists of eighteen distinct characters (viz. two for the vowels and the rest for the consonants), taken from lines and semicircular curves; the formation and application of which we shall now explain, beginning with the vowels.
For the three first vowels, a, e, and i, a comma is appropriated in different positions; and for the other three, o, u, and y, a point. The comma and point, when applied to a, and o, are to be placed at the top of the next character; when for e and u, opposite to the middle; and when for i and y, at the bottom.
This arrangement of the vowels is the most simple and distinct that can easily be imagined. Places at the top, the middle, and the bottom of characters, which make three different positions, are as easily distinguished from one another as any three separate characters could be; and a comma is made with the same facility as a point.
Simple lines may be drawn four different ways: perpendicular, horizontal, and with an angle of about forty-five degrees to the right and left. An ascending oblique line to the right, which will be perfectly distinct from the rest when joined to any other character, may likewise be admitted. These characters being the simplest in nature, are assigned to those five consonants which most frequently occur, viz. l, r, t, c hard or k, and c soft or s.
Every circle may be divided with a perpendicular and horizontal line, so as to form likewise four distinct characters. These being the next to lines in the simplicity of their formation, we have appropriated them for b, d, n, and m.
The characters expressing nine of the consonants are all perfectly distinct from one another; eight only remain which are needful, viz. f, g or j, h, p, q, v, w, and z; to find characters for which we must have recourse to mixed curves and lines. The characters which we have adopted are the simplest in nature after those already applied, admit of the easiest joining, and tend to preserve lineality and beauty in the writing.
It must be observed, that we have no character for e when it has a hard sound, as in castle; or soft, as in city; for it naturally takes the sound of k or s, which in all cases will be sufficient to supply its place.
R likewise is represented by the same character as l; only with this difference, r is written with an ascending stroke,1 and l with a descending; which is always to be known from the manner of its union with the following character; but in a few monosyllables where r is the only consonant in the word, and consequently stands alone, it is to be made as is shown in the alphabet, for distinction's sake.
Z, as it is a letter seldom employed in the English language, and only a coarser and harder expression of s, must be supplied by s whenever it occurs; as for Zedekiah write Sedekiah, &c.
IV. The prepositions and terminations in this scheme are so simple, that the greatest benefit may be reaped from them, and very little trouble required to attain them; as the incipient letter or the incipient consonant of all the prepositions and of several of the terminations is used to express the whole. But in order to give every assistance, we have subjoined the following directions.
1. The preposition is always to be written without joining, yet so near as plainly to show what word it belongs to; and the best way is to observe the same order as if the whole was to be connected.
2. A preposition, though the same letters that constitute it may be met with in the middle or end of a word, is never to be used, because it would expose to obscurity.
3. Observe that the preposition omom is expressed by the vowel o in its proper position; and for anti, anto, onto, by the vowel a, which the radical part of the word will easily distinguish from being only simple vowels.
The first rule for the prepositions is to be observed for the terminations; and also the second, mutatis mutandis; except that whenever siz, siz, sys, cions, tions, and ers occur, they are to be expressed as directed in the fourth rule for the consonants, whether in the beginning, middle, or end of words.
4. The terminative character for tion, sion, cion, cian, tian, is to be expressed by a small circle joined to the nearest letter, and turned to the right; and the plurals tions, cions, cians, tians, by a dot on the same side.
5. The terminative character for ing is to be expressed likewise by a small circle, but drawn to the left hand; and its plural ingos by a dot.2
6. The plural sign s is to be added to the terminative characters when necessary.
7. The separated terminations are never to be used but in polysyllables, or words of more syllables than one.
These rules duly observed will point out a method as concise and elegant as can be desired, for expressing the most frequent and longest prepositions and terminations in the English language. If it should be thought necessary to increase their number by the addition of others, it will be an easy matter for any one of the least discernment to do so, by proceeding on the principles before laid down.
V. Though a more concise method of writing, or more numerous abbreviations, may not be indispensably necessary, if the foregoing directions be practised for a considerable time, yet contractions will be found extremely useful and convenient to those who have attained a proper knowledge of the subject, and will lead to a greater degree of expedition, at the same time that they diminish the labour of writing. It has been observed in the introduction, that abbreviations are only to be employed by proficients in this art; because expedition is not the first, though the ultimate object in view; and that an easy legibility is of the utmost consequence to the learner; which however cannot be preserved, if he adopts too soon those very rules which in time will afford him the greatest ease when applied with judgment.
The following short and practical rules will be found, we hope, fully adequate to every purpose for which they were intended, and are far superior in the facility of their application to any which we have seen.
1. The usual abbreviations in long-hand are always to be followed; as Mr for Master, M.D. for Doctor of Physic, and Abp. for Archbishop, &c.
2. Substantives, adjectives, verbs, and participles are to be expressed by their initial consonant with distinguishing marks, viz., a substantive must have a dot exactly over its initial consonant; an adjective must have a dot under it; a verb is to be expressed by a comma over its initial consonant; and a participle by a comma under. These, being the four principal parts of speech, will be sufficient; and an adept will never be at a loss to know when he can with safety apply this rule to them.
3. To render the writing more legible, the last letter of the word may be joined to the first, and the proper mark applied.
4. The constituent or radical part of words, especially if they are long, will often serve for the whole or sometimes the first syllable; as we ought to moderate our ex. by our circum.; a man's man, commonly shape his for.
5. All long words without exception may have their prepositions or terminations expressed by the incipient consonant of such preposition or termination.
6. When there is a great dependence between the parts of a sentence, the initial letter will often suffice; as L is the capital of Great B.; the eldest S. of the king of Great B. is styled prince of W. Every one, it is presumed, will allow this to be perfectly legible in long-hand; then why may it not in stenography?
7. The terminations ness and less may be omitted; as faithfulness is only to be written faithful; forewardness, forward; heedless, heed; stubbornness, stubborn, &c.
8. The second and third persons of verbs, ending in eth and est, may be expressed by s; as, he loves, thou teachest; instead of he loveth, thou teachest: or even without s; as, he love, &c.
9. Words may often be entirely omitted, and yet no ambiguity ensue; as, In beginning God created heaven and earth, for In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
10. When there is an immediate repetition of a sentence or word, a line is to be drawn under the sentence or word to be repeated; as, Amen, Amen, is to be written Amen; but if any words intervene before a word or sentence is to be repeated, the line must be drawn as before, and a mark of omission placed where the repetition should begin; as, Is it just the innocent should be condemned A re-