ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE.

rance, before the revolution, contained twenty-three universities, of which the most important have already been described. The others were those of Aix, Angers, Avignon, Besançon, Bourges, Bordeaux, Caen, Cahors, Dijon, Domal, Nîmes, Orange, Pau, Perpignan, Poitiers, Pont-à-Mousson, Reims, Strasbourg, and Valence. These venerable institutions disappeared during the revolution, and the public education of the country was for some time left without any legislative protection. After several unsuccessful attempts to establish a national system, an Imperial University was instituted in 1808, which, with some modifications, has survived the various changes of government which the country has since undergone. The Royal University of France embraces the whole system of national education, and includes all the institutions for imparting instruction which are spread over the whole kingdom, from the lowest schools up to the royal colleges. The term may thus be considered as synonymous with the French national system of education. The university is placed under the direction of a council of six members, called the "royal council of public instruction," of which the minister of public instruction is the official president. Each counsellor has the special charge of one or more divisions of public instruction. Subordinate to this council are the inspectors-general of the university, who are required to examine once a year the institutions of every description, each within a certain district assigned to him, and to transmit a report to the council. The university is composed of twenty-six academies, each of which comprehends two, three, or more of the departments into which the kingdom is divided, and contains one or more royal colleges. The presiding officer of each academy is the rector, who is appointed by the minister of public instruction, and is assisted by two inspectors and a council. The governing body of each academy has the superintendence of all the communal colleges, institutions, pension (boarding schools), normal schools, or schools for the education of teachers, and primary schools, within the district which the seminary comprehends. Besides the superintending body, the academy includes the teaching corps, or faculties; namely, the faculties of letters, science, medicine, law, and theology, all of which however do not actually exist in every academy; in some, indeed, there is no organization of faculties. The faculties consist of a variable number of professors, one of whom is dean, and a committee of whom examine candidates for degrees. There are however some institutions which are not subject to the jurisdiction of the university; as the College of France, the Museum of Natural History, the École des Chartes, School of Oriental Languages, the French Institute, and societies of all kinds for the advancement of knowledge.

The royal colleges are supported chiefly by the government, and the salaries of the professors, which are generally from L400 to L500, are paid from the budget of the minister of public instruction. The students are divided into two classes, the internes and externes, or boarders and day-students. The communal colleges are supported principally by the communes in which they are situated; some of them have endowments, but the majority depend entirely for their support on the fees paid by the students. The professors or teachers receive but small salaries, varying from L40 to L600. In 1833 a law was passed, ordaining that every commune by itself, or by uniting with others, should have one school of elementary instruction; that every commune the population of which exceeds 2,000, should also have a school for superior instruction; and that every department should have a normal school, either by itself, or in conjunction with some other department. In the schools of elementary instruction, reading, writing, arithmetic, and the established system of weights and measures, are taught; and the schools for superior instruction, in addition to the elements of the lower schools, embrace the elements of geometry, and its application to the arts; the elements of chemistry and natural history, as applied to the ordinary habits and pursuits of life; the elements of history and geography, and more especially the history and geography of France. Since the passing of this law, the cause of education has advanced rapidly; the number of schools has greatly increased, and the proportion of children at school, though less than in some of the neighboring countries, is about one third greater than before 1833. The following is a tabular view of the institutions comprised in the University of France in 1836.

| Academies | Departments | Royal Colleges | Professors | Internes | Externes | Communal Colleges | Normal Schools | Primary Schools | |-----------|------------|---------------|-----------|----------|----------|------------------|--------------|---------------| | Aix | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Amiens | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Angers | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Besançon | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Bordeaux | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Caen | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Cahors | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Carcassonne| 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Céret | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Châlons | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Dijon | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Douai | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Grenoble | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Limoges | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Lyon | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Marseille | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Montpellier| 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Nancy | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Nice | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Orleans | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Paris | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Poitiers | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Rennes | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Rouen | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Strasbourg| 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Toulouse | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |

There are six faculties of Catholic theology, at Aix, Bordeaux, Lyon, Paris, Rouen, and Toulouse; and two of Protestant theology, one of the Lutheran or Augsburg Confession, at Strasbourg, and another, of the Calvinist or Helvetic Confession, at Montauban, under the administration of Toulouse. The faculties of law are nine, at Aix, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasbourg, and Toulouse. There are three faculties of medicine, at Grenoble, Paris, and Montpellier; with sixteen secondary schools of medicine. The faculties of science are nine in number, at Paris, Bordeaux, Strasbourg, Caen, Toulouse, Montpellier, Dijon, Lyon, and Grenoble; those of letters or literature, seven, at Paris, Strasbourg, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Caen, Dijon, and Besançon. In order to become a student in the faculty of law or theology, a person must have taken the degree of bachelor of letters; and a course of three years in either faculty is requisite to obtain the degree of bachelor; for the degree of doctor, four years; and to obtain the degree of doctor in divinity, the candidate must defend a final and general thesis. Candidates for the degree of doctor in medicine must have taken the degree of bachelor of letters, and also of sciences, and must complete a course of four years. The faculties of law and medicine at Paris are greatly distinguished. The former has sixteen professors, and had in 1836 upwards of 3000 students; the latter twenty-seven professors, and, in 1836, about 1500.

At the end of 1837, the total number of schools, public and private, throughout France, was 53,920; 39,504 for boys, and 14,416 for girls. The number of pupils at the same period was 2,631,492; 1,552,847 boys, and 1,098,645 girls. The masters of the elementary schools have a residence, and receive a yearly salary of 200 francs, or little more than L8; the masters of the superior schools have a residence and a salary of 400 francs, or somewhat more than L16. The whole charge to the state of the department of public instruction, according to the budget of 1838, was 12,000,673 francs, or nearly L300,000, which was distributed as follows:

- Central administration.............................................. 696,623 - General services..................................................... 238,000 - Departmental and academic administration.......................... 919,900 - Superior instruction—faculties.................................... 1,972,059 - Secondary instruction.............................................. 1,655,600 - Elementary instruction, general fund............................... 1,600,000 - — additional.......................................................... 3,500,000 - Primary normal school.............................................. 200,000 - Literary and scientific establishments............................... 7,675,500 - Subscriptions to literary works, &c.................................. 557,000

Total........................................................................... 19,095,673 **COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES**

To render our account of the seminaries for higher education as complete as possible, we have added, from the "American Almanac for 1841," a list of the colleges in the United States, which are sometimes dignified with the name of Universities; but it must be borne in mind that a large proportion of these furnish instruction only to a limited extent; and none of them, we believe, will bear a comparison with the great majority of the European seminaries. We have subjoined, from the same source, lists of the medical, theological, and law schools.

| No. | Name | Place | Founded | Students | |-----|-----------------------|----------------------------|---------|----------| | | Bowdoin | Brunswick, Maine | | | | | Dartmouth | Hanover, New Hampshire | | | | | University of Vermont | Burlington, Vermont | | | | | Middlebury | Middletown | | | | | Norwich University | Norwich | | | | | Harvard University | Cambridge, Massachusetts | | | | | Williams | Williamstown | | | | | Amherst | Amherst | | | | | Brown University | Providence Island | | | | | Yale | New Haven, Connecticut | | | | | Washington | Hartford | | | | | Wesleyan University | Middletown | | | | | Colgate | New York, New York | | | | | Union | Schenectady | | | | | Hamilton | Clinton | | | | | Hamilton Lit. and Theo.| Hamilton | | | | | Geneva | Geneva | | | | | University of New York| New York | | | | | College of New Jersey | Princeton, New Jersey | | | | | Rutgers | New Brunswick | | | | | University of Pennsylv.| Philadelphia | | | | | Dickinson | Carlisle | | | | | Jefferson | Canonsburg | | | | | Washington | Washington | | | | | Albright | Pittsburgh | | | | | Western University | Pittsburgh | | | | | Pennsylvania | Gettysburg | | | | | Lafayette | Mercersburg | | | | | Marshall | Newark, Delaware | | | | | Newark | Newark, Delaware | | | | | St. John's | Baltimore | | | | | St. Mary's | Mount St. Mary | | | | | Georgetown | Georgetown | | | | | Columbian | Washington | | | | | Williams and Mary | Washington | | | | | Hampden-Sydney | Washington | | | | | Washington | Washington | | | | | University of Virginia| Charlottesville | | | | | Baldwin | Richmond | | | | | Emory and Henry | Glade Spring, Ga. | | | | | Rector College | Chapel Hill, N. Carolina | | | | | Davidson | Mecklenberg Co., N. Carolina| | | | | Duke | Duke Field | | | | | Charleston | Charleston, S. Carolina | | | | | South Carolina College| Columbia, South Carolina | | | | | University of Georgia | Athens, Georgia | | | | | Oglethorpe | Midway | | |

**THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS**

| Name | Place | Denomination | |-----------------------|----------------------------|--------------| | Bangor Theol. Seminary| Bangor | Me. Cong. | | Trinity Theol. Seminary| Princeton | Episc. | | Gilman Theol. Seminary| Baltimore | Presbyt. | | Theological Seminary | Andover | Cong. | | Divinity School | Cambridge | Cong. | | Theological Institution| New Haven | Cong. | | Theol. Dep., Yale Coll.| New Haven | Cong. | | Theol. Inst. of Cong. | New York | Cong. | | Theol. Sem., Church | New York Theol. Sem. | Cong. | | Theol. Sem., Semi. of Anb.| New York | Cong. | | Theol. Sem., As. Ref. Ch.| New York | Cong. | | Theol. Sem., Pr. Ch. U.S.| New York | Cong. | | German Reformed | Lutheran | Cong. | | West Theol. Seminary | Princeton | Presbyt. | | Theological School | Gettysburg | Presbyt. | | Eps. Theol. School of Va.| Gettysburg | Presbyt. | | Southern Theol. Seminary| Lexington | Presbyt. | | Theological Seminary | Lexington | Presbyt. | | Presbyterian Theol. Sem.| Lexington | Presbyt. | | Lit. and Theol. Seminary| Lexington | Presbyt. | | South-West Theol. Sem.| Lexington | Presbyt. | | Theol. Dep., Ken. College| Lexington | Presbyt. | | Head, Dep., Wes. Res. Co.| Lexington | Presbyt. | | Theol. Dep., Granville Theol. Dep.| Lexington | Presbyt. | | Theol. Dep., Marion Col.| Lexington | Presbyt. |

**LAW-SCHOOLS**

| Place | Name | Prof. | Students | |----------------------------|-----------------------|-------|----------| | Cambridge, Massachusetts | Harvard University | 2 | 129 | | New Haven, Connecticut | Yale College | 2 | 45 | | New York City | Fordham Univ. | 1 | 33 | | Carlisle, Pennsylvania | Dickinson College | 1 | 23 | | Williamsburg | William and Mary Coll.| 1 | 26 | | Charlotteville, Virginia | Davidson College | 1 | 72 | | Lexington, Kentucky | Transylvania Univ. | 3 | 71 | | Cincinnati, Ohio | Cincinnati College | 3 | 25 |

Schools for the study of law are much less frequented than schools for the study of the other professions. The first institution of this nature, of much note, that was established in the United States, was the law school at Litchfield, in Connecticut, which had, from 1798 to 1827, 150 students; but it is now discontinued. PART II.—SCHOOLS.

The length to which the first part of this article has extended leaves us room merely to mention what was intended to form the subject of the second. In thus extending the first part, to the exclusion of the second, we have been induced by a wish to furnish accurate and satisfactory information on a subject which is important and interesting, why to the general reader it is by no means easily accessible. The subject of schools does not yield to the other, either in importance or interest; but it is one of which something is more generally known, and on which extended information can be more readily obtained.

The duty of providing schools for the education of the people has been generally acknowledged and acted upon by the governments of modern Europe; and accordingly we find established in those countries a national system of instruction more or less extensive, according to the circumstances and capabilities of each. This system, which is almost universal, England forms a remarkable exception. Here a system of public instruction has been established by the authority of the legislature; and the education of the people has been left to individual beneficence, and to the exertions of public societies. Nearly all the grammar-schools in England owe their origin to the former; while in all the principal towns there are endowed schools, which are now, however, principally intended for the upper and middle classes; and of these, Eton, Westminster, and Winchester, are attended solely by the sons of the nobility and higher gentry. It was not till comparatively recent period that any vigorous effort was made to supply the lower classes with education, or to bring this essential instrument of civilization within the reach of the children of the poor. Much however has been done during the present century, and many schools have been founded for this laudable purpose. These consist chiefly of what are called Sunday Schools, National Schools, and British and Foreign Schools. The Sunday Schools owe their origin to the benevolent efforts of Mr Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, from whom they were established in that town in 1781. Being organized by pious and philanthropic individuals, the plan extended rapidly, and has been productive of incalculable benefit to the poor. The meetings are held in the afternoon of Sunday; and the pupils consist of adults as well as children. Through instruction in these schools reading and writing are also taught. According to the official returns, there were in England and Wales, in 1839, no fewer than 16,828 Sunday schools, attended by 1,616,200 children and adults. Of these, 6,247 schools, attended by 508,197 children and adults, belonged to dissenters. The National Schools are under the control of the "National Society for promoting the Education of the Poor," established in 1811, and are conducted on the system recommended by the late Dr Bell of Madras. This society is supported solely by members of the established church, and the church catechism is used in its schools. According to the report for 1839, the schools and scholars were—4291 places, with 43,882 Sunday and daily, and 21,977 Sunday schools, containing 189,767 boys and 146,752 girls as Sunday and daily scholars, and 122,034 boys and 130,928 girls as Sunday scholars only; making, with the Infant Schools, in all 6778 schools, with 357,911 scholars. The Schools in the British and Foreign School Society are connected with any religious sect, but are open to all pupils, of whatever creed. This society maintains a considerable number of schools in all parts of the country, and has contributed extensively towards the diffusion of elementary education among the working classes. The system adopted is that of Joseph Lancaster, through whose exertions the society was formed in 1810. According to the education returns in 1839, the number receiving instruction in daily schools was 1,276,947. At an average of England and Wales, perhaps from one-tenth to one-eleventh, part of the population may be attending schools and seminaries of various kinds. We believe however that, speaking generally, the education communicated is of an inferior description, and that, in point of quality, it is decidedly below the standard of Holland, Prussia, Scotland, and some other countries.

In Scotland, in addition to the schools on the parochial system, of which a short account will be found in the article SCOTLAND, much has of late years been done for the more general diffusion of education among the great mass of the people. The "Society for propagating Christian Knowledge" maintains 150 schools in different parts of the kingdom, which are attended by 12,619 scholars; and the "Committee of the General Assembly," whose exertions are directed chiefly to the Highlands and Islands, have under their care 126 schools, which are attended by 12,000 scholars. Nor have the various missionary bodies been backward in contributing towards the same benevolent object. The schools supported by them in the large towns amount to a considerable number. The state of primary education in Scotland will be best exhibited by the following abstract from the Parliamentary Report (Session 1837), prepared from returns by the parochial clergy:

| Counties | No. of Parochial Schools | No. of Instructors | No. of Schools Non-parochial | No. of Instructors | |----------|-------------------------|-------------------|-----------------------------|------------------| | Aberdeenshire | 94 | 96 | 347 | 319 | | Angus | 75 | 78 | 203 | 202 | | Argyll | 46 | 62 | 225 | 241 | | Banffshire | 32 | 39 | 123 | 111 | | Berwickshire | 34 | 40 | 97 | 63 | | Bute | 10 | 10 | 30 | 34 | | Caithness | 10 | 11 | 89 | 86 | | Clackmannan | 5 | 6 | 25 | 29 | | Dumfriesshire | 13 | 15 | 54 | 55 | | Dumbartonshire | 62 | 69 | 129 | 143 | | East Lothian | 21 | 27 | 79 | 88 | | Fife | 33 | 60 | 223 | 252 | | Forfarshire | 20 | 37 | 51 | 55 | | Haddingtonshire | 34 | 34 | 122 | 127 | | Inverness-shire | 5 | 7 | 13 | 15 | | Kinross-shire | 47 | 55 | 66 | 60 | | Kirkcaldy-shire | 12 | 30 | 327 | 375 | | Linlithgowshire | 13 | 13 | 48 | 55 | | Nairnshire | 4 | 14 | 15 | 15 | | Orkney and Shetland | 28 | 30 | 113 | 119 | | Peeblesshire | 10 | 17 | 14 | 17 | | Perthshire | 19 | 22 | 75 | 95 | | Ross and Cromarty | 33 | 33 | 124 | 129 | | Roxburghshire | 44 | 50 | 68 | 80 | | Selkirkshire | 8 | 8 | 32 | 34 | | Stirlingshire | 33 | 39 | 121 | 128 | | Sutherlandshire | 13 | 13 | 43 | 45 | | Wigtonshire | 18 | 24 | 81 | 82 |

It appears that, taking the largest amount of attendance, a ninth of the whole population of Scotland is, on an average, receiving education in public schools, either parochial or non-parochial. This is exclusive of private boarding schools, both for males and females, and of those who are educated under domestic tutors.

The schools under the superintendence of the "Board of Education" in Ireland, of the origin of which an account will be found in the article IRELAND, continue to extend over every part of the island, notwithstanding the violent opposition which the system has had to encounter. The number of schools in December 1839 was 1,681, which were attended by about 205,000 scholars. In August 1840, 290 schools had been added to this number; and at that date there were before the board 399 applications for aid, about 200 of which were from presbyterians.