The knowledge and the enlightened treatment of the diseases of domestic animals have, in this country, been elevated to the rank of a science only within the last fifty years. Previously to that time, the art of Farriery consisted in the traditional lore of the worker in iron, falsor ferarius, or smith; and in later times, in the professional skill of a few medical practitioners, who were not, however, sufficiently careful to ascertain the many striking differences which exist between the economy of man, and that of the lower animals. The modern term veterinary, derives its origin from the Latin veterinarius, an adjective denoting relating to beasts of burden. The same word, used as a substantive, signifies a person who has the care of such beasts. The etymology is, however, involved in considerable obscurity. The first veterinary school was founded at Lyons in the year 1761, and another was founded at Allfort, near Paris, in 1766. In the year 1792 the Veterinary College of London was established, and it is to this date that the origin of the science in this country may be correctly assigned. More recently a school of veterinary medicine has been founded The science of veterinary medicine must evidently be based upon a minute and accurate knowledge of the structure and functions of all those animals which may require aid, as also of the disorders and accidents to which these are exposed, and the various resources, whether natural or artificial, available for their cure. This opens a wide field, and shows the value of the light which may be thrown from collateral sciences. From the paramount importance which man attaches to every thing which concerns himself, human anatomy, and the sciences of medicine and surgery, have from time immemorial been prosecuted with the keenest assiduity. Natural history has long led its numerous and enthusiastic votaries, and hence so much knowledge on the subjects of comparative anatomy and physiology. If there be analogies of structure between man and "the humbler partners of his mortal pilgrimage," then both are in health and strength, sure we are these are not fewer or less striking; when they are labouring under the same ills to which they alike are heirs. From these various sciences much valuable information has undoubtedly been gleaned in aid of that which is now to engage our attention; and we cannot too strongly impress upon the veterinary student, that before he is competent to learn the art of healing, he must have an accurate knowledge of the anatomical structure, and the physiology, of the domestic animals. For the acquisition of this primary branch of the science, we must refer him to the several articles concerning them in our previous volumes, and to the approved elementary treatises, of which a list is supplied at the close of this article; confining ourselves to such general allusions concerning these matters, as may be unavoidable in the course of the following observations. Our space being very limited, we must endeavour to instruct, more by useful classification and nomenclature, and the exposition of correct principles, than by entering into matters of detail.

We commence with a few general remarks on Inflammation. When a part, like the white of the eye, becomes red, hot, painful, and swollen, it is said to be in a state of inflammation, and the symptoms are chiefly ascribed to a morbid state of the blood-vessels, there being an increased determination of blood to the part. This disease may be excited in any part of the surface, by a wound or other irritation; and there is no internal organ which is not liable to attack, and often without any very apparent cause. Hence inflammation, in one form or other, is the most common disorder which is encountered, and within the most fatal. It is most apt to occur where there is a plethora, or general fulness from over-feeding and insufficient exercise; and is excited by over-exertion, by sudden changes of temperature, and by checked perspiration. It has several modes of termination, of which resolution, or the gradual subsidence of the disease, is the Veterinary Science. Or watery portion of the blood, where temporary swellings and dropsies are occasioned; or of coagulable lymph, by which morbid adhesions and growths are produced; another termination is suppuration, or the formation of matter, and finally, there is gangrene or mortification. It is sometimes very rapid in its progress, or acute, at others it is slower, and is then styled chronic. When the inflammation is local, limited in extent, and somewhat external, warm fomentations, or poultices, which are a kind of fomentations, or cold applications, may each be applied with advantage according to circumstances. Fomentations open the pores of the skin, promote perspiration, and so lessen swelling and tension, and assuage pain and inflammation; while cold applications promote evaporation, subdue inordinate action, and so assist in restoring health. When the symptoms are acute, and the disease spreads, as it is prone to do, the whole frame more or less participates, and symptomatic fever is the result.

Concerning the occurrence, in the domestic animals, of Fever. Symptomatic Fever, produced by accident and disease, as sympto-injury of the foot, or inflammation of the eye, there can be batic, no doubt whatever. This complaint corresponds in every respect, except its exciting cause, with the Simple Inflamatory Fever, a disease whose existence has been infamously denied by some, but on very insufficient grounds. "In so far, explain a point of practice as this," says Mr Percivall, "we might as well attempt to deny the existence of inflammation in horses as of fever." Its first symptoms, which may not be always easily detected, are dulness and heaviness, hanging down the head, and disinclination to move. This will probably be followed by chilliness, marked by a staring coat, coldness of the surface and extremities, and sometimes an actual rigor or shivering fit: to this succeeds a warm skin, a hot and dry mouth, redness of the eyes and lining membrane of the nose, a quick, full, and hard pulse, rapid respiration, with apparent labour rather than pain; there is also loss of appetite, costiveness, high-coloured and diminished flow of urine, and increased sensibility. The causes most frequently apparent are over-exertion, sudden increase of temperature, and plethora; they are often obscure. The disease appears sometimes as an epidemic, as stated by Mr Gibson: "I have frequently had several cases of this fever at the same time, and in different places, where no visible cause could be assigned for it." The indications of cure are the same as in symptomatic fever, venesection usually not requiring to be carried far, or often repeated. Returning to symptomatic fever, we remark, that the treatment consists in the vigorous employment of what is called the Antiphilistic Regimen. Of this the most important item is blood-letting, general and local, the former being infinitely the most important. With this must be combined purging, or rather the administration of laxatives, with the object of removing irritation, and diminish-

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1 Anatomy, and Comparative Anatomy, in vol. ii. and iii.; Physiology, vol. xvii.; Horse, vol. xi. 2 Clean water is the best fomentation. It should be as hot as the hand can bear it, yet not hot enough to pain the animal. In fomenting the horse, the groom rarely has enough of water, and he does not continue the bathing long enough to do any good. If the leg is to be fomented, get a pailful of water as hot as the hand can bear it; put the horse's foot into it, and with a large sponge lave the water well above the affected part, and keep it constantly running down the whole limb. Foment for about half an hour, and keep the water hot by adding more. 3 Poultices should be formed of those materials which best maintain heat and moisture, and they should be applied as warm as possible, and can be safely borne. They are usually made of bran mash, turnips, or oatmeal porridge. Linsseed meal alone makes the best of poultices, and some of it should always be added to the other ingredients. Wet bandages act as poultices. 4 Of cooling lotions cold water is the menstrum. It may be made colder by the introduction of a little salt or ice; sal ammoniac and vinegar may be added for the same purpose. The object is to reduce heat, and promote evaporation. The addition of a little spirits is made with this object. 5 Of the horse, the natural pulse is from 35 to 45 beats in the minute; under fever it rises to 80, 90, and 100. The most convenient spot to examine it is at the edge of the lower jaw, a little before the angle, where the maxillary comes from the neck, to be distributed over the face. The pulse is one of the most important indications in all serious disorders. 6 Bleeding. In the horse, and cattle, sheep, and dog, bleeding, from its greater facility and rapidity, is best performed in the jugular or neck vein, though it may also be satisfactorily performed in the plate and saphena veins, the former coming from the inside of the arm, Veterinary Science.

Large warm injections should at once be resorted to, and they are often of signal benefit; the food must be regulated and restricted, and the temperature attended to. Diaphoretics may often be employed with advantage, and associated with them smart friction over the whole body, by wiping and hand-rubbing. When the inflammation is local, counter-irritation should be employed; in acute cases most effectually by blisters.

As there are no good grounds for denying the existence of Simple Fever, so we are persuaded there are as few for denying the occasional visitation of low fever, however much it may be generally overlooked. It has been confounded with other grave complaints, but was very generally the essential disease in those murrains which were so common in former days, and which acquired other and most unsatisfactory appellations. It is well observed by

and running up directly in front of it to the jugular; the latter, or thigh vein, running across the inside of that limb. Either the fleam or lancet may be used. When blood is to be drawn, the animal is blindfolded on the side to be operated upon, and the head held to the other side; the hair is smoothed along the course of the vein by the moistened finger, the point selected being about two inches below the angle of the jaw. The progress of the lancet towards the heart is to be obstructed, and the vein thus made sufficiently permanent and tense. A large-bladed fleam, and a good-sized lancet, are preferable; the benefit of the operation is much increased by the rapidity with which the blood is drawn. From 8 to 12 pints is moderate bleeding for the horse and ox; regulated in some degree by the size. From 12 to 16 or even 20 pints is a large one; and sometimes, in skilful hands, it is expedient to bleed till fainting is induced, and the animal drops down under the operation. The vessel in which the blood is received should be such that the quantity can readily be ascertained. When this is sufficient, the edges of the wound are to be brought accurately together, and kept so, by a small sharp pin being passed through them, and retained by a little tow. It is of importance, in closing the wound, to see it is clean and dry, and that no hairs or other foreign bodies interfere. For a time the head should be tied up, and care taken that the horse does not injure the part.

Local bleeding may be performed in the palatine vein, in a line backwards between the mouth of the central cutting tooth and the second, and a little more than an inch within the teeth. The division is made by means of the bistouri, and the artery as well as the vein is sometimes wounded; hemorrhage, however, may here be readily commanded. In the foot it may be performed at the union of the crust and sole, by cutting down with a searcher or fine drawing knife. For stopping it, a pledget of tow may be applied, and the shoe tacked over it.

Physic, which in stable language is the term used for purging, is employed for improving the condition of the animal's health, and as a remedy for disease. The medicines chiefly used are, for Horses, Barbadoes aloes, dose from 3 to 9 drachms, croton bens, from a scruple to half a drachm, or cake, from half a drachm to a drachm, to which may be occasionally added, calomel, from one drachm to a drachm and a half; for Cattle, aloes, in a dose somewhat larger than for the horse. Epsom salts (very uncertain in horses) or common salt, dose from a pound to a pound and a half, with some stimulus, as ginger, anise, or caraway seed; also Linseed oil, dose 1 pint; powdered croton oil, 15 to 20 drops, or the bean and cake, the same as in the horse. For Dogs aloes prove uncertain, and jalap, dose 1 drachm, is far safer, and better when combined with calomel, 2 grains; croton oil, dose 2 drops, also valuable, and the bean 5 grains, and syrup of buckthorn, dose an ounce. These, it will be observed, are average doses for full-grown animals; in the young and small, they should be less, in the large they may require to be greater; but much injury has often been done by too large doses, too frequently repeated. To the Horse, physic is usually administered in the form of a bolus, or ball, to Cattle by drinking or drenching, though for both either way may be employed. A bull is conveniently made of linseed meal, molasses, and the active ingredient, whether purgative, diuretic, or cordial; it should be softish, and about the size of a man's egg. In administering it, the operator stands before the horse, which is generally unbound, and turned with its head out of the stall, with a halter on it. An assistant stands on the left side, to steady the horse's head, and keep it from rising too high; sometimes he holds the tail back. Cows generally need such aid. The operator seizes the horse's tongue in his left hand, draws it a little out, and to one side, and places his little finger fast upon the under jaw; with his right hand he carries the ball smartly along the roof of the mouth, and leaves it at the root of the tongue; the mouth is closed, and the head held, till the ball is seen descending the gullet on the left side. When loath to swallow, a little water may be offered, and it will carry the ball before it. A hot, troublesome horse should be sent at once to a veterinary surgeon. Instinctively, if possible it should be avoided; and adding croton farina to the mash often answers perfectly well. Drenches, on the whole, operate more speedily than balls, and are sometimes necessary. As many horses and cattle have been killed by the practice, (some of the fluid being forced into the lungs,) though heedlessly regarded in stables, and even in books, we advise that becoming caution should be employed, that no unnecessary force be used, that they never be given by the nostrils, and especially that if the slightest irritation is occasioned in the windpipe, the animal shall immediately be set at liberty, that by coughing he may free himself of the offending matter. Physic is given to a dog by pouring it over his throat with a spoon, or he may be made to bolt it in a thin slice of meat; the syrup of buckthorn he will often lick spontaneously.

The horse must undergo preparation for physic, which is done by gently relaxing the bowels. During the day previous, his food should be restricted to bran mashes, a quarter of a peck being sufficient for a feed, and this, with his drink, should be given warm; corn should be withheld, and hay restricted. He may have walking or trotting exercise morning and evening. The physic is given on an empty stomach, early in the morning; immediately afterwards a bran-mash is given; that over, the horse goes to exercise, for perhaps an hour, and is watered when he returns. The water should be as warm as he will take it, and he should have as much as he pleases throughout the day; bran mash should be given as often as corn usually is, and better warm than cold; if both are refused, bran may be tried, but no corn, and but little hay. Sometimes gentle exercise may be given in the afternoon, and also next day. The physic usually begins to operate next morning, though it rarely takes effect in twelve hours, frequently not for thirty. When the physic begins to operate, the horse should stand in the stable till it settle, which may be in twelve hours.

Injections, though easily administered by means of the old ox bladder and pipe, are still more conveniently given with a syringe. For laxative clysters for the Horse or Cow, from a gallon to 12 pints of warm water, or gruel, at the temperature of 90°, with a couple of handfuls of salt, or two ounces of soft soap, prove most useful. Stronger ones may be obtained, by adding a few ounces of aloes to the mixture. In cases of diarrhoea, or over-purging, the injection should consist of a few pints of warm gruel, to which is added an ounce of cathartic electuary, or from half a drachm to a drachm of powdered opium. The only art in administering a clyster, where, however, there is often bungling, and even injury, by wounding the rectum, is to avoid frightening the animal, anointing the pipe well, and gently insinuating it, before the fluid is forced up.

In general, bran mashes, carrots, green meat, and hay, form the sick horse's diet, gruel and tepid water his drink.

Diaphoretics are those medicines which have a tendency to produce perspiration and sweating. Some of these are of a hot and stimulating quality, and these must be avoided in febrile disorders. The others are neither very numerous nor powerful. Emetic tartar, dose from one drachm to two drachms, and fox-glove in powder, dose one drachm, are the most powerful. Nitre, in doses of 3 or 4 drachms, is often combined with these. Sulphur, in doses of 4 or 5 ounces, is sometimes useful.

When two men are employed on each side, the effect and benefit are often surprising.

Blistering plasters are never applied to horses. An ointment is always used, of which rather more than half is well rubbed into the part to be blistered, while the remainder is thinly and equally spread over the part that has been rubbed. When there is any danger of the ointment running, and acting upon places that should not be blistered, they may be covered with a stiff ointment made of hog's lard and bees wax, or kept wet with a little water. The bedding must be removed when the leg is blistered, and to prevent the horse slipping, the stones may be covered with a little short litter or saw-dust. The horse's head must be secured in such a way that he cannot reach the blister with his teeth. Put him into a narrow stall, and tie his head firmly to the rack. When the blister has become quite dry, the head may be freed, and the horse let down. Sometimes it remains itchy, and the horse rubs it; in that case, he must be tied up again. If he get very tired, and threaten to go down on his haunches, put the beads on his neck, let go the head, and give a good bed. When the blister is quite dry, put some sweet oil upon it, and repeat it every second day. Give time, and no work, otherwise the horse may be blistered by the process. result of long-continued irritation and inflammation of the Veterinary parts implicated.

Fractures are not uncommon among domestic animals; although, from the frequent attendant violence, many of them are beyond the reach of art. Thus it is generally with fracture of the skull. Sometimes the ridge of the orbit, at its outer and upper part, is fractured by falls, and more frequently by blows: the detached portion may be replaced, and retained by stitching the skin, and bandages. The spinal processes of the vertebre are sometimes fractured, and caries of these parts occurs from injuries of the saddle. The ribs, too, are subject to fracture, and the sacrum, from falling backwards, when paralysis of the tail occurs. The extremities, however, are most liable to this accident, including the femur and tibia, the scapula, humerus, elbow, fore-arm, cannons, pasterns, and coffin. Fracture of the leg occurs on the road or street, the rider or driver not knowing whether the accident has occurred in the fall, after it, or in trying to avoid it. It may be that the fracture is produced by a blow from the opposite foot. When the end of the bone protrudes through the integuments, the fracture is called compound, and the prospect of a successful issue is then greatly diminished. It is a great error to suppose that a horse's bone, once broken, cannot unite; it does so as readily as in man. When the attempt is not made, it is on account of the cost and trouble. When an animal is highly valued, the cure may be wisely undertaken, and successfully accomplished, by the application of splints and bandages, the sufferer not being slung. In sheep, fractures heal with great facility; and also in the dog.

On the Myology, or muscular system of the lower animals, we shall say but little. It consists chiefly of two systems,—of what constitutes generally the body or belly of the muscles, popularly called flesh; and of shining tendons, into which these muscular fibres are inserted, forming strong elastic cords, which are fixed into the bones, and other parts which are to be moved or compressed. These tendons generally lie over and round the joints, thereby strengthening them. To these must be added the aponeuroses, which are tendinous wrappers or binders, of various thickness, which cover various sets of muscles, and occasionally connect them to each other, and to the bones beneath. These constituent parts of the muscular system, and especially the last, are generally esteemed the seat of rheumatism; a disease from which the lower animals are not altogether exempt. It is generally produced by sudden exposure to cold and rain, damp and drought, after being overheated. Sometimes it is more general, accompanied with pain, lameness, and fever: in other cases it is local. One form of the chill of Mr White, resembles Rheumatic fever in man. A few hours after violent exercise, especially if the horse has been plunged into a river, or washed freely with cold water, and then placed in a current of air, it may be found almost incapable of moving, and can scarcely be led out for examination without difficulty, and this by metastasis, may change into acute founder. With this there is quick pulse and rapid breathing. The pain may be generally diffused, or local. Sometimes it is confined to the muscles of the chest, when it forms the chest-founder of Gibson, and many farriers. The term anticor is sometimes applied to this disease affecting the breast, but it is also applied to any uneasiness or swelling of the part. The disease often falls upon the loins in oxen, constituting the chine-felon of older writers, and arising from the same causes as those mentioned above. Sometimes it shows itself at one or more of the joints, forming the joint-felon. We have witnessed acute rheumatism in the elbow and stifle, though rarely; but frequently in the fetlocks, after catarrhal affections. The treatment in all these com- Veterinary plasters consist in bleeding, moderate purging, with fomentations and embrocations to the swellings. The disorder called the founder in dogs, is this disease, usually produced by the same class of causes, and requiring the same kind of remedies. In addition to bleeding and purging, hot baths, and a dry and comfortable kennel, with small doses of colchicum and antimony, are the most successful remedies, followed by regular exercise.

Besides the tendons already mentioned, and the accurate fitting of the bones into one another, having their extremities covered with cartilage, a substance in firmness and elasticity approximating to caoutchouc, the joints are greatly strengthened by what are properly called ligaments, and which consist of strong tendinous cords, passing from bone to bone, and most firmly binding them together. Internal to the cartilages, and lining the cavity of the joint, is a fine vascular membrane, designated the synovial, whose office is to secrete the joint-oil; and to finish these details, we have only to add one other fact, namely, that wherever friction occurs, as of a tendon upon a bone, there is found what is called a bursa, which is nothing else than a fine bag, which secretes a lubricating fluid, so facilitating the motion. All these parts, it will be understood, enter directly into the formation of the joints; and when these exquisite structures are considered, and their extreme liability to accidents, it will at once be perceived how complicated and important these injuries and diseases must necessarily be. We now return to the diseases of the bones already named, to which we shall add those of the other parts just mentioned.

After the exposition already given of the pathology of exostosis, the somewhat complicated examples of it, to which we now proceed, will not occupy us long; and the description of one will nearly serve for the others. Bone spavin occurs in the lower part of the hock. It is usually observed as a small hard tumor, at the top of the shank bone, and of the inner splint bone, near the lower wedge bones. It seems to be produced from stress or over-work, occurring especially in young horses, and at first is commonly attended with pain, occasioning considerable lameness. The ligaments and cartilages have probably been injured; the periosteum and bone inflame, swell, and throw out osseous matter, and, unless care be taken, the disease spreads to the wedge bones, and to the astragulus, thereby involving the hinge-joint of the hock, a result most anxiously to be avoided. The treatment, which should commence early, is mainly counter-irritation, by repeated smart blistering, firing, setons, punching, and long rest and ease. Under the treatment specified, many complete cures have been effected, and with no return of the disease. From the want, however, of sufficiently active treatment, and of due patience, only partial relief is very often obtained. The horse is rendered unfit for quick and hard work, and remains spavined for life. The circumstance of the lameness diminishing in the chronic state, under exercise, is explained by the principal seat of motion, between the astragulus and tibia, being free, and the stiffness and pain being felt chiefly in some less important parts of the articulation.

The splint. The Splint or splent now requires little more for its elucidation than being defined. It acquires its name from its seat, occurring always on one of the splint bones of the leg. A tumor, which feels hard, appears between the knee and fetlock, and generally upon the inside of the leg. Its nature, causes, symptoms, and cure, entirely correspond with those of the last-named disease. The deformity often appears in a chronic state, gives no great trouble, and finally may disappear. Ringbone has acquired its name from its form, usually shewing itself just above the coronet, where it is an ossification of the lateral cartilages, from compression and irritation. Though generally commencing at this point, it is apt to spread, producing ankylosis between the large and small pastern bones. It occurs more frequently on the hind than the fore feet. If sufficient time be not allowed for the active use of means, the whole joint may be involved, and become useless.

Anscross, the result of inflammation, more or less acute, is a circumscribed swelling, containing matter in the surrounding cellular membrane, which forms a cyst for containing it, the matter or pus being a product of the inflammation. This pus generally must procure vent for itself, and, as a general principle, in that direction where the resistance is the least. Thus it usually comes to the surface. Often, however, it does not; the abscess bursting in another direction, the matter escapes, and a sinus, fistula, or pipe, so designated by farriers, occurs. These sinuses burrow especially among the fasciae, tendons, joints, and other parts lately alluded to. Abscess may occur in any part of the body; and the object of art ever is, to expedite its formation, and to afford a free and speedy evacuation, especially when from its locality, there is risk of sinus. When sinuses form, they must be freely opened; sometimes by counter-opening to that extent, that the matter shall have the most direct and safest exit. In this connection two complaints require mention. Poll-evil is a name derived from its proximity to the head. The cranium is sustained on the neck by the help of ligamentum nuchae, or pack-wax, a broad and strong ligament, altogether of a peculiar nature. It not unfrequently happens that, from a horse's raising his head violently against the manger, or bruising it with the halter, or from cruel blows of brutal stablemen or carters, an injury is inflicted. To a certain extent it may be superficial; but in addition from the contusion of the inner surface of the ligament or the bones, inflammation is often excited in the soft parts beneath. Hence the secretion of pus, which could never work its way through the pack-wax; and hence it burrows deep, and in different directions, till serious injury is done far and near, not sparing, sometimes, the bone processes. So soon as the disease is discovered, the treatment is plain, and if judicious, effectual. The probe must instruct, and openings and counter-openings may be made freely, but with discretion; and the sinuses, wholly or partially freed, may speedily, by means of stimulants, be induced to assume a healthy action. Fistula of the withers from the pressure and irritation of the saddle, forms another instance in which these sinuses are apt to run deep, and produce much mischief. Hence all injury from this cause requires watching. By pressure we may ascertain the earliest formation of pus; and the abscess should be opened. After sinuses are formed, the principle of treatment is the same as just specified. Tents, or dossils of lint, put within the lips of the wound, may sometimes be required.

To the Bursa, so generally spread over the body, we have already made allusion; and in turning to their diseased condition we may affirm that this arises almost solely from an increased effusion into their cavity, produced by a strain of the tendon passing over them, or from increased friction in over-exertion, whereby they become enlarged, tense, painful in themselves, and still more by the irritation they produce in the neighbourhood parts. Sometimes the swelling is enormous, and it matter of surprise there is comparatively so little local or constitutional disturbance. These swellings are popularly called Windgalls—Ganglions in man. Small windgalls may long exist without apparent injury, but they always unseemly; and when fresh we should endeavour to remove them. Cold evaporating lotions are sometimes tried; but we believe smart counter-irritation, by strong and repeated blisters, is much more likely to be useful. In obstinate cases firing is much practised; and though we believe that, in this and other complaints, this painful reme-

AFFECTIONS OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES, so serious in their nature, are almost always the consequence of external injury. When the joints are laid open, especially the larger ones, the danger is great from the inflammatory fever, and the result is often fatal. The opening is sometimes witnessed in the stifle, hock, elbow, and fetlock, but most frequently in the fore knee. In the former of these joints it is generally the result of puncture, either accidentally or through brutal usage; the swelling is rapid and extensive, and the attending inflammation most hazardous. The opening into the knee joint is the result of coming down, with severe broken knee. Under this term is included broken the slightest division of the skin, as well as the most formidable; and here no injury is trifling. The wound should at once be ascertained by accurate examination. If slight and superficial, the wound may be bathed twice or thrice a day with Goulard's lotion; swelling and inflammation require repeated poultices; any tendency to proud flesh must be repressed with burnt alum, or blue stone. The appearance of synovia at once demonstrates the nature of the accident; and the limb must then be moved as little as possible, as the rubbing of the ends of the bones on each other is most injurious. The great object here, as in the case of the other joints, is to endeavour to close the orifice, and if possible to anticipate inflammation and fever; and unless this can be effected the animal must be destroyed. By the careful application of plaster, sometimes stitching, applying paste or flour, by skilful bandaging, and complete rest, the puncture has been, and may be healed at once. For the same object white vitriol is applied, and the cautery is often useful. The synovial membrane itself is not to be cauterised, but the superficial parts. If the first application has not been successful in the course of a few days, a second may be tried; and five or six applications have at last rewarded the practitioner's skill.

A SPRAIN, or strain, is violence inflicted, with extension, often rupture and displacement, upon the soft parts of a joint, including cellular membrane, tendons, ligaments, and all other parts forming the articulation. The dislocation or disruption may be complete, or it may be a mere bruise or stress; and innumerable are the shades of difference between these extremes. Effusion of the fluids is an attending consequence. Parts of vital importance, as in the neck or back, may be implicated, and the accident be immediately fatal or wholly irrecoverable; on the contrary, they

As it is necessary to explain how this may be safely accomplished, we shall say a few words on the proper mode of securing animals. CASTING. A twist is an instrument composed of a noose of cord, attached to the end of a stick; and twisting consists in fixing the noose on the upper lip of the horse, and twisting it tightly rather. From the great pain it can be made to produce it exercises great control over the animal, and makes it stand quiet. The matter is very simple, and, when required, can be applied in the field as well as in stable. CASTING is the term used for throwing down a horse or bullock, and so keeping it. In the former animal this is done by means of hobbles, strong straps and cords particularly arranged, which are first attached to the feet and then suddenly drawn together, so that the animal must fall, the fall being regulated by one man at the head and another at the haunch. Even when most skilfully performed, the act of falling and the struggles after it, many accidents have occurred to man and horse. In the case of the ox you take a long rope, double it, and tie a knot in the middle about a yard from the end, so as to leave a noose of sufficient size to go round the bullock's neck; which being put on, the two ends are to be brought between the fore legs, and round the hind pasterns, then back again and through the noose. By standing in front of the animal, and drawing up the ropes quickly, so that the hind legs are drawn towards the chest, it is thrown down; while in this situation the ropes are to be secured, and any operation may be safely performed. The veterinary surgeon also employs the side-lines, barnacles, and trevis, so much used on the continent; for the particulars concerning which we must refer to the works named at the end of the article.

In Prazo, or applying the cautery, casting is a frequent preliminary. The part should previously have been shaven or the hair clipped as far as possible. The operation consists in drawing lines, which had best be parallel, about half an inch asunder, on the affected part with a red hot iron, with a small smooth rounded edge. No part is in a fit state to be fired when the skin is hot or inflamed, and the skin should never be deeply penetrated by the iron. According to the heat of the point, so should be the velocity and lightness of touch, and over marking from the singeing is all that is required. After the firing the horse must be laid up for several four days to prevent the setting of the wound. If the irritation produced is less than was intended, it may be augmented by means of blistering ointment. When it is desired to moderate it or heal it, the treatment is the same as after burning. Counter-irritation is also effected by means of the seton and rowel. The SETON consists of a piece of tape or soft cloth passed under a portion of the skin by the seton needle; the ends may be tied together, the cord may be moved every other day from side to side, being previously lubricated with oil of turpentine or blister plaster. Thus the amount of blistering may be regulated; and the practice is often resorted to for relieving deep-seated and painful affections.

The ROWEL is only a seton under another form. In applying it an incision is made in the skin to the extent of about an inch, by pinching it up and cutting it with a bistoury or rowel scissors. The cellular membrane round the wound is then separated to the extent of an inch, so as to admit a dose of rowel, which is better than leather, smeared with digestive ointment. A discharge is soon produced, which has a tendency to relieve any deep-seated neighbouring morbid action. Veterinary may be to that extent only, that with time and care, restoration may be accomplished. They constitute a very serious class of cases. The marked symptoms are pain in the injured parts, and inability of motion, sometimes complete. The treatment is at first rest, a regulation of the local action and constitutional disturbance, according to circumstance, by venesection, general and local, the antiphlogistic regimen, fomentation, bandages, and other soothing remedies; and, when the sprain is of an older date, counter-irritation, friction, and gentle exercise.

A sprain of the Neck is commonly the result of a violent fall upon the head, as in hunting, or in a steeple-chase. The spinal cord may be severely injured, and, according to the precise situation, there may be instant death, or hopeless paralysis. In other cases, without serious injury of the cord, there is displacement of some of the bones, with a slight twist of the neck and head. In such a case there may be recovery, with permanent distortion. A sprain of the Back may occur in the field or upon ice. The hind feet slip backward, as in leaping a ditch, and the violent effort the horse makes to recover his footing appears to be the cause of the injury. The bones of the spine may thus be partially separated, or the stress may be so slight as to attract no attention till the horse cools. In aggravated cases art can do nothing; the milder ones must be treated according to the principles already laid down. Sprain of the Shoulder assuredly occurs, though shoulder-lameness is often imputed when the disease is totally different; hence the importance of discrimination. It is more frequently produced by a slip or side fall, than by fair and violent exertion. On examination there may be neither heat nor swelling in the part; but there will be unwillingness to move the joint; the animal will extend it and raise the leg as little as possible; there will also be soreness in the articulation on pressure, and a peculiar drawing up of the leg. If there be difficulty in coming to a decision from the symptoms, we must take the limb in hand, and observe if the movements of the shoulder-joint give pain. A mild blister often effects a cure; and the constitution is seldom disturbed. Rest must be secured. Regarding the sprains of the Hip-Joint, usually called whirl-bone, or round bone, our remarks would so much correspond to those just delivered, that we shall not repeat them. The Stifle-Joint, and the Hocks are occasionally sprained, and such accidents are marked by swelling of the part, and dragging of the leg. The Patella is sometimes dislocated, and the ligaments torn, when the leg is dragged and powerless. The knee-pan should be reduced by drawing the leg forcibly forwards, pressing the patella into its place. The Fetlocks and Pasterns are also subject to sprain, and to be involved in the injury of the perforating flexor of the foot and the suspensory ligament, which are primarily concerned in Breaking-down. Two injuries are described under this name. One is merely a sprain of the back-tendons, usually in the fore-leg; it may be so slight as to escape notice till the horse cool, or it may be such as to produce marked lameness from the first. The other, or true breaking-down, is said to consist in a rupture of the tendons and ligaments: it occurs suddenly, and generally when the horse is at full speed; it rarely happens in both the fore-legs at once. The horse stops instantly, or he falls; on rising he is seen to rest on his fetlocks, the toe turned up, the sole looking forward. Some able writers have denied the possibility of the fracture of the ligament; but the true pathology here regards not one ligament or tendon, but all the parts which form the back parts of the joint. Sometimes they are partially torn. When the fetlock does not wholly come to the ground, the foot, skilfully treated, may become as useful as ever; when both fetlocks come down the horse can seldom be recovered. This accident sometimes leads to a contraction or drawing up of the leg, which ultimately knuckles over at the fetlock. For the relief of this, the tendons must be cut; an operation proposed twenty years ago, and now coming into general use.

The human hand has been the subject of much deserved admiration, and the horse's foot is scarcely less an object of wonder. It is also a highly vital and complicated organ, essential to the well-being of the animal, and pre-eminently exposed to injuries. On a minute knowledge of its structure, and the uses of its various parts depends the successful treatment of its multitudinous and important diseases, which, early and accurately discriminated, may often be speedily remedied, while, mistaken and neglected, they proceed from bad to worse, till the animal is good for nothing.

We here say nothing of Weakness of the Foot, which is rather an original infirmity, than a distinct disease though it leads to many. Animals so formed should never be put to severe and heavy work, for which they are wholly unfit. Neither shall we say much regarding Shoeing; most important art, on the enlightened and careful practice of which, much of the horse's welfare depends. The great principle is to afford a good and level bearing, while the nails, in giving sufficient attachment, do not injure it quick. The bearing is to be supplied only to the crust; and the toe especially must be kept short. When there is a tendency in the hoof to contract, the nails in the inner quarter, which is the weaker, should be placed well forward so as to confine the play of the back part of the foot, as little as possible. Sometimes the extremities of the heel are turned up, which is called calking; and additional pieces are put to the toe, for the purpose of giving purchase draught; but these additions are unnecessary for the protection of the foot, and only increase the liability to injury and disease. It occasionally happens in shoeing, that nail may injure the tender parts beneath; an accident which goes under the name of Pricking, and which is also caused by wounds inflicted on the sole, by broken glass, shavings, &c. As soon as the tenderness is perceived, the cause should be most carefully investigated. Hard pressure near the injury may show that the nail is the cause; when the shoe must be removed, and the part freely pared. What is to be apprehended is inflammation and suppuration, proceeding to sinuses. Where irritation is considerable, rest, and cold lotions, and a laxative may be prescribed; when at all threatening, the foot should be enveloped in warm poultices. The disease somewhat advanced, form a whitlow, which is called Pipes or Guttor, in which find that the sinuses have run deep. It may be in several directions, mounting up to the coronary ligament, causing severe and protracted lameness. The cure may be both painful and tedious, but the principle is clear: free vent must be procured for the matter, all pressure and irritation must be removed, the parts must be soothed by poultices, and the sinuses must be gently stimulated to healthy action, by solutions of white or blue vitriol, or corrosive sublimate. It is sometimes recommended to plug up the sinuses with strong caustics, to urge them to assume a healthy state of a diseased action. The plan may occasionally succeed, but the action is violent, and will often aggravate the disorder it is intended to remove. Mild dressings and rubs will complete the cure. Conus are usually the consequence of the irregular pressure of the shoe on peculiarly formed hoofs. Judging from analogy, these annoyances would be supposed to consist of hard cuticular excrescences pressed on the tender parts beneath; instead of which, they are mere bruises, generally produced by the heel of the shoe, which, from the extravasated blood, assume a reddish dark colour. These bruises affecting the sensitive parts beneath, do not act otherwise than injuries from other causes. They usually occur only in the fore-feet; their site is almost invariably in the inner quarter between the bar and

If they advance to mischief, it is probably such as has been described under the head of quittor, and must be treated in a similar way.

These injuries, it will be observed, produce inflammation of the internal parts of the foot, which somewhat approximates, but yet is different from, that acute inflammatory affection of the parts, which is known under the name of acute founder, and whose primary seat seems to be the laminae of the coffin-bone, (hence called laminitis,) and the other sensitive parts within the hoof. This disease comes on after great stress and over-exertion, and especially when the feet have been battered, and the animal overheated and exhausted, it is exposed to cold and damp. This however is not the only cause. We have already seen, when treating of rheumatism, that by something like astasis, the morbid action moderating in the chest, assists the parts now under review. Still more curious is the fact, that when an animal has gorged himself with dry meat, example at the corn-bin, if he escape a disease of the stomach, of which more anon, this same acute founder is an occasional consequence. Hence, then, though the disease may be caused by local injury, yet the constitutional agency must not be overlooked. The symptoms are such as this new suggests. They appear more frequently in the fore than the hind feet; they may attack the fore-feet only, or the four. First, there is pain manifested, by a general inclination to move, fidgetiness, and an unwillingness to bear the weight on the inflamed feet. The mischief is very readily and unequivocally detected, by pushing the animal backwards; if he winces under this, and is still unwilling to move, it is an unerring indication of the existence of the disease, whether in its mere local or constitutional manifestation. In violent cases, however, the complaint speaks for itself. The foot on examination is perceived to be hot, pain is produced by a slight blow, the neighbouring arteries pulsate violently, the animal cannot stand without difficulty, and will ere long drop down from the violence of the agony, sometimes resting his muzzle on the affected member. With this there is symptomatic fever in its acute form. The results of the local inflammation need not be detailed, the effusion of serum, and formation of pus being substituted for the healthy secretions. The whole crust may be separated from the sensitive foot, leaving the stump bare and exposed; or, if checked, the separation may be partial, or wholly absent, and there may be no greater mischief, than by and by, the appearance of a slight depression, rising upon the crust. The treatment will be anticipatory; it is the antiphlogistic, with an energy commensurate with the violence of the symptoms. The bleeding may be local, though to this we should not attach peculiar importance, further than thereby effecting an opening in the sole, giving vent to matter, and saving the coronet. The toes should be removed. In slight cases, the free application of cold should, with the constitutional treatment, ameliorate the symptoms. If the crust has separated, more or less, by suppuration, its bearing edge must be removed as soon as possible, and the weight thrown on the sole to prevent pumiced feet; and after this, the hoofs may be reduced in a perfect state.

PUMICED FOOT is one of those cases which result from acute founder. In it the sole becomes flat, or even convex, thereby allowing the central and sensitive parts to press on the ground, to their speedy detriment. The complaint appears to arise from a morbid secretion of the laminae, and also of the sole, whereby the coffin-bone has no adequate support. This is most apt to occur, if the animal is put to work too soon after the inflammatory attack, and when the sensitive laminae have not sufficiently recovered their healthy condition, the crust, moreover, being apt to curve towards the toe. Sometimes the previous inflammatory action is so obscure, as not to be detected, and the defect in the horny defence is the only evidence of its previous existence. This disease is most apt to appear in horses with wide feet, much exposed to hard roads and pavement; its progress is usually steady, though slow, and many horses are rendered perfectly useless by it. We should ascribe this in some degree to insufficient remedies being employed for its cure. What is desired is time, perfect rest, and improvement of the secretory organs, by stimulating the coronet to a healthy secretion of crust, and chiefly by supporting the sole.

CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT. NAVICULAR DISEASE. Navicular GROGGINESS. Great has been the pains taken by able veterinarians to elucidate the disease known under the above names, concerning the vast importance of which in this country, there is but one opinion. By high authority it has been called "the curse upon all good horse flesh," (though, in passing, we remark it is rather the infliction of man, than of any higher power;) and, coinciding with this, is the statement, that the public have sustained greater loss of valuable horse flesh from the havoc of this disease alone, than from all the catalogue of diseases to which the limbs are liable. Unfortunately, however, there is not more uniformity of sentiment concerning the importance, prevalence, general history, and result of this disease, than there is diversity of opinion concerning its pathology; or rather we should say more accurately, its proximate cause. It is universally agreed that the hoof in its healthy and normal state is roundish, and largely endowed with the property of elasticity. When we attach to it an iron shoe, this natural play is impeded; and that this result of domesticity has much to do with the disease, some way or other, is universally allowed; the complaint being unknown among horses in their natural state, and nearly so in other countries where they are as much esteemed and used as in our own. How then, and to what extent does this shoeing operate? Some contend that the contraction of the crust, thus produced, is the true origin of the evil; that this fetters the sensitive parts within; that the sole becomes externally concave, internally convex; that the soft elastic parts are absorbed; that the frog becomes the rock of danger; the capsular membrane of the navicular joint is injured; in a word, that "the navicular-joint disease is the general seat of the chronic lameness of the foot." Many years ago, the present writer took a part in this controversy, and endeavoured to demonstrate that the primary and permanent disease is established in the synovial capsule, between the tendon and navicular bone, and arises generally from strain and over-extension of the tendon, where it passes under the navicular bone. More recent and able writers have since contended that "the inflammation of the little plates covering the coffin bone, is the most usual cause;" and that a degree of inflammation, inferior to that causing acute founder, produces all the sad results. It would be tedious to mention all the discordant opinions which, with much ingenuity, have been promulgated upon the point; but we still believe that the injury of the synovial capsule of the navicular joint is most generally the primary and proximate cause, though we do not contend it is the only cause. Mr Turner, again, thinks that the hardened frog is the rock on which most valuable horses strike; but he allows it is not the sole one; and so it is with other speculations. Why then appear to differ, when substantially we agree? Not that we are here arguing for concession which will compromise the truth; but we hold, that the united persevering ingenuity of scientific men has fully illustrated the nature of this disease; that it has predisposing causes, such as want of paring, shoeing, and still more, bad shoeing, hereditary tendency of particular breeds, and high condition; for it is a disease not of the agricultural, but of the high-bred horse. In like manner, it has manifest exciting causes, such as strain of the tendon, and over-exertion, pressure on the sole, as from travelling with a Veterinary stone in the foot; and there is the tight shoe exciting irritation of the foot, which, hot and uneasy in the stable, is aggravated by occasional and violent exercise, until the capsular membrane, tendon, laminae, cartilage, and bone, one after another, and together, are involved in a degree of subacute and inveterate disorder, which has given too much occasion to all the hard things which have been said against it. The symptoms of the early, and, in a practical point of view, the most important stage of the disease, are a peculiar shifting of the feet, and shortness of the step; whilst a degree of heat is found in the foot, more especially about the heel and coronet. There is a continued pointing, or holding the foot in a relaxed position; dryness of the hoof, throbbing of the pastern arteries, and pain on pressure, in the hollow of the pastern. The other parts of the limb are clean and fine; there is general tenderness of the foot on pressure, with tripping and stumbling; finally, the foot is contracted. In the treatment, all possible attention must be paid to the shoeing; the sole should be thinned, the bars pretty freely removed, and the toe made short. The other predisposing causes must, as far as possible, be removed; and the exciting, especially the over-tasking, often so inconsiderately and cruelly, the generous nature of our noble steeds, whose dashing, rapid, and firm action, is so frequent a cause of all the mischief. Finally, the proximate cause must be combated, not by clips on the heels, or screws, or jointed shoes, but according to the principles laid down for the relieving of irritation and inflammation; cooling diet, laxatives, blistering, supplying due moisture to the hoof, and turning out. Time, and skill, and care, may thus do much.

The foot and leg of the horse are liable to various external injuries, some of which are inflicted by the one limb wounding the other. Cutting, Brushing, Interfering, are said to take place, when the one foot strikes and wounds the opposite fetlock; and they usually occur in young and timid horses with ill-formed legs. The habit requires either a particular form of shoe, with which the shoeing-smith is familiar, or so putting on the shoe that the crust will project beyond it. A boot is sometimes required. The Speedy-cut is an injury of the same kind, where the leg is struck higher up, and when the horse is going fast. In these cases the leg must be covered with a boot. In the Overreach the wound or bruise is produced on the heel of the fore-foot by the hind one in travelling. The Tread is the same kind of injury upon the coronet of the hind foot, either by the tread of another horse, as often happens in cavalry regiments, or by a false step of the other limb. The Overreach is the consequence only of fast paces. A semicircular wound is made; the skin being raised like a flap, which folds backwards and downwards. The injury is done not by the toe, but by the edge of the inner rim of the shoe. Sometimes a part of the skin is quite scooped out. These injuries should not be disregarded, for if neglected they produce Quittor. All that is usually required is to wash the wound well, put into it a pledgit of tow dipped in Friar's balsam, and bind it up with a bandage. If the cure is not at once effected, and a slough forms, the disease is called a Core, and requires for its cure only a continuation of the same remedies, with poultices.

One of the functions of the coronary ligament is to secrete the matter answering to the nail in man, which goes to form the crust or external wall of the hoof in animals. When a part of this band has been wounded or injured by disease, it can no longer perform its functions aright, and hence the disease called False-Quarter. It appears in very different degrees, sometimes forming quite a cleft or fissure, and sometimes exhibiting in the diseased part only a somewhat modified and inferior kind of horn. The secretion is, in short, to different extents deficient and irregular, which exposes to further injury, is accompanied with more or less tenderness, making the part incapable of bearing the pressure of the shoe, and often causing lameness. The primary attention in the treatment must be given to the diseased coronary band, removing as far as possible the cause, by careful paring, protecting and cherishing it, sometimes with digestives, sometimes by blistering. The fissure should generally be filled with some mild ointment, or with tar, as dressing, bound on by a coarse tape, and covered with a coating of pitch or tar. When the animal is kept at work, the shoe should be so applied that the pressure be not imposed on the diseased part. A Sand-Crack is also a fissure of the crust, and differs principally in this, that it does not necessarily proceed from a previous injury or known disease of the coronary band. It may happen in an instant, from a false step; and hence a horse, though he may spring a sand-crack within an hour after purchase, cannot be returned on that account to the seller. Into this crack, or perpendicular division of the hoof, the sand or dirt enters. It occurs in both fore and hind feet, and in the former usually in the inner quarter, in the latter, in front; the principal stress being there; it arises from dryness and brittleness of the crust; sometimes it does not penetrate through the crust, and then it causes no lameness. It must not, however, on that account be neglected. It should be carefully rasped out, and treated as advised under the last-named disease, the shoe being so modelled as not to press upon the crust under the crack. Firing may be occasionally necessary. When it penetrates to the quick, pain and lameness ensue, and fungous growth may appear, which must be removed by opening out the fissure, and by stimulants or excharatics, after the inflammation has subsided. The sole should be kept sufficiently moist, the hoof occasionally pared, and the horse turned to grass. The crack will, with time, recede from the coronet, till at length it totally disappear.

The Thrush or Fractis primarily attacks the frog, and appears to arise from the continued application of moisture, dirt, and other irritating matters, though it is sometimes supposed to owe its origin to a wound of the frog, or a contraction of the hoof, whence it proceeds to the external parts. Horses of all ages, and even the unshod colt, in all situations, are subject to the disease, and it appears more frequently in the hind feet than the fore. Among its first symptoms is a discharge of offensive matter proceeding from the cleft, and gradually pervading the whole frog. If neglected, the entire foot may become involved. The sooner, therefore, that the primary disease is cured the better; and cleanliness and astringents are the appropriate remedies. After being thoroughly cleaned out, the excavation may be filled with calomel, which generally cures; or with pledgits of tow dipped in warm tar, or some eucharistic wash, every night, and retained sometimes during the day. The general health should be attended to, and exercise not neglected. The term Speedy-Toe has been applied to a chronic form of softening and local irritation, which, beginning between the crust and sole, gradually spreads round the foot. It seems to be aggravated, if it be not sometimes occasioned by mire and gravel insinuating itself into the altered texture of the edge of the sole; sometimes inflammation of the sensitive parts beneath is assigned as the cause. The treatment is the same as that of the complaints with which it is associated.

Canker is usually a mere extension and aggravation of the form of the preceding diseases, from want of care and attention, though sometimes it follows other injuries. The

Long rough grasses should be cut down in their pastures. Regarding the treatment, suffice it to say, that the principal points to be attended to, are paring away the detached hoof; and dressing the surface with some caustic, of which butter of antimony is the best.

LEG EVIL, or BLACK LEG, is a term much, but not very Leg evil, definitely used among shepherds, for various disorders of the limb, some of which are sufficiently formidable. One of them begins at the hoof or knee, and soon makes the animal quite lame. The part is covered with small blisters filled with a dark-colored fluid, and the skin now breaks out in sores. The complaint is said to be highly contagious, and separation accordingly is enjoined between the sound and unsound. The wool is to be removed from the diseased part, the sores, after being well washed, are to be dusted with burnt alum, and the whole limb to be wrapped in a cloth spread with Turner's or a more stimulating cerate. Another disease, which also goes under this name, is a chronic rheumatic affection, now in one limb and now in another. The joints become stiff and somewhat swelled, and the lameness is obstinate; but the disease, although tedious, is not fatal. A third disease corresponds to quarter-ill in cattle.

Leaving the all-important instruments of movement, we proceed to the internal parts, and commence with the Digestive System. We begin with the Teeth. The history of the dental apparatus furnishes the most specific evidence regarding the age of the individual, especially in early life; and hence the importance of minute acquaintance with the following particulars respecting the horse. The foal at birth has no teeth; but in a few days, two above and two below: the central, make their appearance, and soon after four others, on the sides of these; in three or four months more, other four, the corner teeth, as they are called, appear. These twelve in front of the mouth continue without alteration until the colt is about two and a half years old, when he begins to shed his teeth. The two central teeth above and below are the first that fall out, and the new teeth, called also horses' teeth, are much larger and stronger than the former. Between the third and fourth year, the next incisors above and below, fall out, and are replaced in like manner; and between the fourth and fifth year the corner teeth are changed. When the animal is about a year old, four molars appear in each side of each jaw, and when about eighteen months, a fifth. At the age of two and a half, the first temporary molar drops out, and a permanent one takes its place; at three and a half the second, and at four and a half the third. About this time the sixth and last molar appears, and is a permanent tooth. During the fourth year the tusks or tushes appear. The change which takes place between the fifth and sixth year, is the gradual wearing down of the outer edge to a level with the inner. At seven the outer incisors have become a little longer, and the black mark smaller; at eight the mark is generally lost. After this period, a judgment is to be formed by the cavities in the upper teeth. About ten, the central teeth have lost their marks, the two next have but little left; though they are still readily seen in the upper corner ones; by the twelfth year they too have also disappeared. The tushes, like the incisors, gradually change their form. At first they are small, sharp, and shell-like, with a concavity on their inner surface; the teeth become gradually larger, and the concavities less, and at about the age of eight they are nearly lost. About twelve, the inside of the tusk becomes somewhat rounded in form, and ere long is quite round, blunt at top, and of a yellow colour. This colour, with advancing years, pervades all the teeth. The age of the ox and sheep, in their earlier years, is ascertained by a similar acquaintance with the changes of their dental apparatus; in later years

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 852. Veterinary Science.

Diseases of the Teeth.

The Diseases of the Teeth attracting attention are but few. The edges of the grinders, at all ages, are apt to get rough, wounding the inside of the cheek, and so interfering with mastication. These asperities must be filed down with the rasp. Not unfrequently the growth, especially of the grinders, is irregular; a process of one of them often projects, injures the opposite jaw, and interferes with the proper discharge of their functions. The cure is to reduce this tooth to the level of the others by means of the rasp, forceps, or chisel, or, if loose, to remove it.

Then mouth.

Proceeding to the Mouth, we remark, that its lining membrane, including the tongue, is apt to be affected with Aphthous Thrush, a crop of small vesicles or pustules, which may go on to ulceration. This would appear to be a disease of the mucous follicles, and requires the greater attention, as it is sometimes associated with strangles. These symptoms are seen in the horse, and also frequently in cattle and sheep, commencing with small blisters, and the peeling off of the cuticle of the tongue and mouth, whereby much difficulty is experienced in taking food; and fever is sometimes present. In these cases, laxatives, antacids, such as chalk and diaphoretics, should be prescribed, and an astringent wash to the parts, as of borax and alum. Lampas is often described as a painful swelling of the lower bars of the palate, projecting above the surface of the front teeth, and interfering with feeding, as a disease of young horses, connected with the shedding of their teeth, and occasioning fever. It is not, however, so much a disease, as a natural and salutary process, which, in general, is best let alone, and in which cruel remedies, such as firing, should never for a moment be thought of.

Tongue.

The Tongue is liable to various injuries. Frequent trouble is given in all the domestic animals, from the lodgement of sharp irritating substances about the tongue, throat, and teeth. The offending body may be a needle, thorn, or sharp bone; and in consequence, the animal declines his food, appears sick, and may froth at the mouth; so that in the dog we have known this accident mistaken for rabies. In cases of this sort, the parts should be carefully examined, and on the removal of the offending body, the cure is readily accomplished. Inflammation of the tongue occurs spontaneously in the lower animals, as sometimes in man; but is more frequently seen as the result of accident. Awkwardness and violence in administering balls and drenches are frequent causes; and the horse, in sleep, sometimes severely bites his tongue. From the violence used in administering physic, we have seen the inflammation run so high, as to terminate in gangrene. The disease is characterised by great swelling and prolongation of the organ, thereby impeding breathing. Free bleeding from the part, by scarification by a sharp knife, and general bleeding, are the most efficient remedies, and sometimes a part of the organ must be cut off. If only a couple of inches are removed, no alteration is produced in feeding; but if double or more be removed, the animal cannot drink till it gets its nose under water, when it can produce a vacuum, and employ suction. From the same kind of rough handling, the frenum is often torn, so occasioning ulceration and soreness; but with mild dressing, the sore soon heals. Sometimes we have seen the injury so extensive, that amputation of a part of the member became necessary. The hemorrhage from excision is seldom troublesome. The Blain, as originally described in cattle, consisted, we believe, in an obstruction of the ducts of the sublingual glands, whereby the saliva was confined, occasioning a tumour at the root of the tongue, which produced protrusion of that member, and threatened suffocation. This disease is likewise known in man. All that is required is to make a free opening with the lancet. By an extension of the term, the name is applied to the occurrence of vesicles, or small blisters in this locality, which pervade the frenum and the gum. They occur in the horse as well as in cattle, going on to troublesome and protracted inflammation, sometimes threatening mortification. Scarification may be used, and strong solutions of alum and borax, with tincture of myrrh, and Friars' balsam.

The Parotid is the most important of the salivary glands, largely secreting this important fluid, and pouring it through its duct, into the mouth. With the situation of the gland, and the course and termination of the duct, every veterinarian must be familiar, that he may avoid injuring them, and be able to heal them; no easy task, when they have been divided. The principle of cure is sufficiently evident. In the case of the duct, it is to bring the divided ends as closely together as possible, and to keep them there, at the same time preventing the escape of any saliva from the wound. This may be tried by the skilful application of a fine pin, scarifying the edges, if fistulous, and keeping the integuments closely approximated. To rouse these parts to the adhesive inflammation, the cautery is sometimes used; but we have found a strong solution of corrosive sublimate, (ten grains to the ounce,) more efficacious. If we fail in this method of cure, an artificial opening or canal, as much as possible in the natural course, must be made between the divided part and the mouth; and when this is thoroughly established, we must connect with it the part of the duct coming from the gland, healing up the superficial parts. Concretions sometimes occur in the duct. We have seen them occasionally as large as marbles, rattling in the cheek like dice. If troublesome, and requiring to be removed, this must be effected from the inside of the cheek, or if from the outside, the wound must be dressed very carefully with a pin, as in bleeding. In certain cases of cold and sore throat, the gland may inflame and swell, becoming conspicuous, when it forms Mumps; as do also the other salivary glands, especially the submaxillary, constituting what the farriers call Vivres. For these complaints cruel modes of treatment used to be adopted, which happily are abandoned. Reduced feeding, possibly bleeding, blistering, and time, are all that are required. Sometimes these glands become involved with others, in strangles, when they will again come under notice.

Concerning the Oesophagus, to which we next proceed, the only complaint to which we shall allude is that of Obstruction. This may arise from tumours and schirrus, to which we may subsequently advert; now we shall insist only on what is called Choking, or obstruction of the passage by a large morsel of food, witnessed more in cattle than in horses, and most frequently when they are feeding upon turnips, potatoes, carrots, and such like. The obstruction usually occurs at the bottom of the pharynx and commencement of the gullet, not far from the lower part of the larynx, which we have seen mistaken for the foreign body. The accident is much more serious in ruminating animals than in others, as it immediately induces a suspension of that necessary process, and of digestion, followed by a fermentation of the food, the evolution of gases, and all those frightful symptoms, which will be noticed under the disease Hoven. The difficulty in breathing, and the general uneasiness of the animal, usually direct at once to the nature of the accident, which examination brings under the cognizance of the eye and hand. No time must be lost in endeavouring to afford relief; and the first thing to be tried is, by gentle friction, and pressure of the hands upwards or downwards, to see and rid the animal of the morsel. Failing in this, we mention first, the great virtue we have frequently found in the use of mild lubricating fluids, such as warm water and oil, well boiled gruel, &c. The gruel is grateful to the animal, which freely tries to gulp it, and

Whether this is owing to the lubrication of the parts, or to the natural action superinduced, it is unnecessary to inquire; but the fact we know, that a few pints of warm gruel have often proved successful in removing the obstruction. If this remedy should be ineffectual, the foreign body may perhaps be within the reach of the small hand which a kind dairymaid may skilfully lend for the purpose. If this good service cannot be procured, the common probang must be used, the cup-end being employed. Other and more complicated instruments have been invented, acting upon various principles, some, for example, on that of bruising the obstructing body, and the use of these requires considerable skill. Disappointed in all, we must finally have recourse to the knife. We have cut into the oesophagus in the horse, merely twitching, without casting him, and extracted the foreign body with facility. Great care may afterwards be requisite, as the gutlet does not always very readily unite, and death sometimes follows. The best treatment, we are persuaded, consists in applying a stitch or two of the interrupted nature, of fine catgut, so closing the divided parietes of the gutlet, and healing the external wound at once by the first attention; the cure is promoted by the application of a carefully graduated pad and bandage. The food must be spare and soft.

In passing to the Abdominal Viscera, we shall premise a short account of crib-biting and wind-sucking; practices which are said to increase the tendency to indigestion and colic, and to lower condition, rendering those animals which practise them unsound. A Crib-biter derives his name from seizing the manger, or some other fixture with his teeth, arching his neck, and sucking in a quantity of air, with a peculiar noise. After a time the abdomen is evidently enlarged. The habit is most common in young horses, but is infectious, and unless the offender is secluded, spreads widely. The best remedy is a muzzle made for the purpose. It consists of an iron rack, so wide as to allow the horse to seize his food, and yet so narrow as not to permit the passage of the teeth; and this should be applied so long as the practice is persisted in. The strap round the throat is in common use. Windsucking consists in swallowing air, without fixing the mouth. The horse presses his lip against some hard body, arching his neck, and gathering together his feet. It may be prevented by applying the strap, which when studded with one or more sharp points or pricks, opposite the lower part of the jaw, will effectually prevent the animal's assuming the position in which he sucks in air.

Costiveness, a complaint to which, from the great changes in their feeding, all the domestic animals are peculiarly liable, is interesting not only on its own account, but also as leading to other and more dangerous disorders. Calves are very subject to it, when first put on dry meat; and it is highly necessary they should speedily be relieved, as colic and enteritis are the frequent consequences. In the horse it is very apt to occur from eating old luxuriant grass; and it is then occasioned by the felting together of the woody fibre, whose length interferes with its division, so that it accumulates in great masses. This is most apt to occur in the rectum, and to an extent not to be overcome by the most strenuous efforts of unassisted nature. The same state is also seen in dogs. Hence the manual assistance which from time immemorial has been rendered by the farrier, under the name of Raking and Back-raking, introducing the hand or finger into the rectum, and emptying its contents. In some cases this is imperiously required; but in many we conceive the practice might well give place to the use of injections with the help of the syringe. In proceeding to afford relief by physic, some preparatory care is necessary, concerning which we refer to a former page. The bowels once cleared, the tendency should be met, and counteracted, by appropriate food.—In Veterinary Science this connection we may mention, that several cases have occurred to us where the bad health of horses seemed owing to Acidity in the Stomach. In these, the appearance was lost and vitiated, so that old lime and dirt were preferred to wholesome food. The animal was dull, the coat staring, with a tendency to perspiration, the pulse being natural. Loss of the cud in cattle and sheep sometimes arises from the same cause. Having noticed the craving for lime, we prescribed magnesia, and found great and immediate benefit, so that the practice, we conceive, merits more extensive trial.

That there are cases of pure Spasm or Cramp of the Stomach and Intestines, can admit of no reasonable doubt, although they may often be overlooked and misunderstood. In the horse, it is said to occur most frequently in the ilium. It comes on suddenly, and the pain in the part is intense. The animal shifts his posture, looks at his flank, paws violently, strikes his belly with his feet, lies down and rolls about. In a few minutes the pain ceases, and the horse shakes himself, and begins to feed; but, on a sudden, the spasm returns, with the painful symptoms; ere long there may be another remission, to be followed by another paroxysm, till it terminate in permanent relief or violent inflammation of the parts. Among the most common causes of this complaint, are the drinking of cold water when the animal is heated, sudden exposure, under such circumstances, to cold and damp, mechanical obstruction, especially from foreign bodies, and over-feeding upon green meat. The distinguishing symptoms between colic and inflammation, into which it is so prone to run, are, that in the former there is no previous cold fit, the pulse is comparatively little affected, there are intervals of relief; and pressure on the abdomen does not aggravate the suffering, but relieve it. The treatment must be prompt, and it consists in the immediate administration of anti-spasmodics, of which laudanum and turpentine are among the most powerful. An ounce or two of laudanum, and three ounces of turpentine, in a pint of linseed oil, often afford instant relief. If we are disappointed in this result, venesection should be immediately practised, as bleeding is the most powerful of all antispasmodics; fomentations, or smart counter-irritation should be applied to the abdomen; large warm injections prescribed, and laxative medicine; soft meat alone should be permitted; the horse should be kept comfortably warm, and have gentle exercise for a day or two.

The food, after being subjected to the process of mastication, passes into the stomach, where it should undergo the still more important one of Digestion. This is chiefly effected by the agency of a peculiar secretion of the organ called the gastric juice, which possesses a solvent power superior to that of any other in nature with which we are acquainted. Even if meat be tainted, it corrects that taint, and when the ingesta have a strong tendency to acidity or fermentation, it arrests or suspends that tendency. This occurs in man, and in the lower animals; though many accidents are apt to interfere with its healthy exercise, these varying with their varying structure and habits. The stomach of the horse is small, and incapable of containing much at a time, so that it soon passes off. The stomach of the ox and other ruminants is complicated, the food passing from pouch to pouch, until the process of digestion is completed. Whatever interferes with the healthy discharge of this function, will naturally lead to Indigestion, which, in the lower animals, unlike to what occurs in man, leads directly to disease of the most rapid and fatal character. Of the predisposing causes—to turn first to the horse—one of the most influential is any thing which interferes with mastication. Hence the prejudicial effect of eating too fast, whereby there is a deficiency of the com- Veterinary minutiae process, and a paucity of saliva, and hence the Science evil of the dental apparatus being impeded in its play.

Another, and if taken singly, perhaps the most important cause, is a surfeit, overloading the stomach with more than it can manage, especially after a long and fatiguing fast, exhausting the vital powers. White mentions three cases he had known where a horse had got to the corn chest during the night, and was dead before morning. Other causes, however, are to be added, one of which is over-drinking. If the horse drinks largely at the time when he feeds, it washes the food from the stomach ere it has undergone the salutary changes above alluded to, and thus is prone to fermentation. Sudden change of food is another cause, as from soft to dry; and some articles more than others, turnips, carrots, potatoes and grass, more than hay or oats, and peas more than barley. Another cause is being put to hard work on a full stomach. When from such causes as these the stomach is oppressed, indigestion arises, and under one of two forms; the food either undergoing no change, forming a dangerous load, or running rapidly to frightful fermentation. The former is less alarming, and treatment will do much; purgative drenches and injections are to be administered. It is in this state of matters that acute foot founder is apt to arise, as noted above, where its appropriate treatment is mentioned. In the latter alternative, where fermentation occurs, one of the most fatal and fearful diseases of our domestic animals is produced. The horse may be seized on the road, and if pushed to a fast pace, it is often certain death. He slackens his pace, wishes to stop, and attempts to lie down. Sometimes he falls down as if shot; the moment he is stopped; at slow work he sometimes quickens his pace, and is unwilling to stand. In the stable he paws the ground with his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, sometimes quite over, or lies on his back. When the distension is not great, he may lie tolerably quiet for several minutes, but when considerable, he neither stands nor lies a minute, and is no sooner down than he rises again; he generally starts all at once, and again throws himself down with great violence. He strikes the belly with his hind-feet, and often looks anxiously to his flanks, sits up as a dog, and sometimes attempts to vomit. As the disease proceeds, the pain becomes more and more intense, the horse darting himself about with terrible violence; every fall threatens to be his last; perspiration runs off in streams, and his agony appears extreme. The belly is always swollen, and the girth may be torn. On dissection, the stomach is frequently burst, the belly full of its contents, and of gas, and the diaphragm ruptured. When death is delayed, the bowels are found inflamed, often twisted, and sometimes burst.

The treatment consists in arresting the fermentation, and re-establishing the process of healthy digestion, which is to be effected by the most powerful stimulants and carminatives. Several formulae we supply below. These must be administered as a drench; the abdomen should be rubbed; the animal should be walked slowly about, and supplied with a good bed, and room to roll about. If there be no relief in half an hour, a second dose may be given, and ere long, if still required, a third. The probang too may sometimes be introduced, and the relief it affords, is sometimes considerable. In the majority of cases, this treatment will succeed, if the bowels have not been previously inflamed or burst. This form of the disease is nearly confined to heavy draught horses, which are long in the yoke, have keen appetites, and devour greedily, and with them it is very common. The complaint has received various names in different places, such as Gripes, Colic, Flatulent Colic, Spasmodic Colic, Frett, Batts, Enteritis, or Inflamed Bowels, and Acute Indigestion, &c. This superabundant, not to say confused nomenclature, is annoying not only to the ignorant, but even to the well-informed, and should be rectified. The disease corresponds to Typhonitis in man, and the old name Hoven is perhaps the best.

Hoven. Blown. Fog-Sickness. The name Hoven universally expresses the occurrence of the above disease in cattle and sheep, the structure of whose digestive organs renders them peculiarly liable to the complaint; while the sudden changes to which they are exposed in feeding, prove exciting causes. Thus it is often witnessed in animals removed from confinement and winter feeding, to the luxuriance of the clover field; and in house-fed cattle, from the exhibition of rich food, such as pease meal and beans, often supplied to enrich their milk. We have already mentioned that it sometimes proceeds from obstructed gullet. The symptoms bear so close a resemblance, both in their progress, and termination in rupture and death, to those so fully described above, that we shall not repeat them. The treatment mostly corresponds, and it must be equally prompt. The mixture of the oils of linseed and turpentine is nearly a specific. In addition, the probang is often used with advantage; but so violent and rapid are the symptoms, that recourse must sometimes be instantly had to the operation of Paunching, which, though apparently a desperate remedy, is generally attended with success. The place for puncturing the paunch is on the left side, in the central point between the lateral processes of the lumbar vertebrae, the spine of the ilium, and the last rib. Here the trochar may be introduced without fear. If air escape rapidly, all is well. The canula may remain in for a day or two, and on withdrawal, little or no inconvenience will usually manifest itself. If no gas escapes, we must enlarge the opening freely, till the hand can be introduced into the paunch, and its contents removed, as we have sometimes seen in prodigious quantities. This done, we should close the wound in the divided paunch with two or three stitches of fine catgut, and carefully approximate and retain the sides of the external wound, and with rest, wait for a cure, which is often as complete as it is speedy.

The Braxy, so fatal in sheep, comes to be considered here. It has been divided into several varieties, as bowel sickness, dry braxy, &c. The disease particularly attacks sheep when in good condition; and when they are suddenly deprived of their wholesome food, and forced to feed upon coarse grass and heather, &c. Constipation appears the exciting cause; violent inflammation succeeds, with much agony to the sufferer; great tendency to swelling, so that the viscera and the abdominal cavity sometimes burst; and withal, a tendency to mortification and sinking, so that after speedy death, the touch of the viscera, and even the carcass, is intolerable. The disease is often stated to be hopeless; but if met early, and treated on the principles already laid down, this gloomy view should not be taken.

Associated somewhat with the last disease as to cause, yet differing materially as to symptoms, is the Stomach Staggers, whose immediate cause is usually stated to be in the stomach, while some of its most conspicuous symptoms affect the brain, which we are persuaded is decidedly implicated; hence its compound name. Mr White con-

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1 Linseed oil raw, one pound; oil of turpentine, from two to three ounces; laudanum from one ounce to two ounces—the whole administered as a dose. Or hartshorn, from half-an-ounce to an ounce; or chlorate of lime, half-an-ounce given in two pints of tepid water. The following tincture may sometimes be kept in readiness—Take good spirits, whisky or brandy, two pounds; ginger, three ounces; cloves, three ounces; digest for eight days, and add sweet spirits of nitre, four ounces. Half a pint of this tincture is a dose, in a quart of warm water. In cases of pressing urgency, from one ounce to two ounces of tar may be added to half a pint of spirits, and given diluted, with great prospect of advantage, especially to cattle.

In cases that the complaint is caused by enormous dis- tension of the stomach; in a marked case, sixty pounds of swelled and imperfectly-masticated food having been found in the viscus, the coats being stretched and attenuated; and an approximation to this state being seen in many others. The horses most liable to the disorder are such as have been exhausted by hard work, unwholesome food, and old age. The disease often makes its appearance first after a long fast, and over-work; but frequently also when the horse is at grass. Hence it has been supposed that the quality of the food acts as a cause, especially rank grasses, and noxious weeds, such as the common rag-weed. It has often been classed as infectious, but perhaps is only endemic. It ap- pears most commonly among agricultural and cart horses, which sometimes have fallen victims in scores. In a few cases, it seems to proceed to regular Hoven. The most prominent symptoms are the horse's hanging his head, or ringing it in the manger; appearing drowsy, and refusing to eat; the mouth and eyes being tinged of a yellowish co- lor; there is twitching of the muscles of the chest, and fore-legs appear suddenly to give way, though the ani- mal seldom falls; the pulse at first is not affected, but in two or five days inflammation of the bowels or lungs su- pervenes; the belly is costive, and the dung hard and dry. Lockjaw frequently occurs before death. The best treatment is to endeavour first to empty the stomach of its contents, and then to excite the process of digestion. For the former of these intentions, the stomach-pump should be employed, though it is not so applicable in animals as in man; or tepid water should be administered in large quan- tities, which, passing speedily from the stomach, is supposed to remove much of the load. Searching and stimulating remedies are also indicated; most of all croton; also such as aloes and calomel, with ginger or carbonate of ammonia. These means should be added enemata, and, by and bye, a slight cordial. If the head symptoms are prominent, the temporal artery or jugular vein may be opened, and blood drawn with advantage. Finally, there must be steady exercise, and frequent and careful feeding, under which treatment many cures are effected. The Fardlebound cattle and sheep is, we believe, nothing more than a mod- ification of this disease. In this variety it has been ascer- tained that the maniplies are most involved, its secretions are suspended, and its contents become dry, hard, and caked, in solid mass. Though the constipation is great, yet it is sometimes the appearance of a slight purging, which may deceive the practitioner.

INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH is not a common complaint in any domestic animal, and is induced chiefly by over-doses of purgatives, and mineral poisons, espe- cially arsenic and corrosive sublimate. In these cases the pain is rapid, sharp, and small, the extremities cold, the respiration quick; there is also the appearance of dulness and dejection, with great debility. After the bowels are freely evacuated, oily and mucilaginous liquids should be prescribed, with a little opium; and the food should be very soft and spare. Arsenic was formerly given very fre- quently to horses; and corrosive sublimate is still administered in a variety of complaints. In the case of an over-dose of this latter poison, white of eggs is an effectual antidote, if given in time. Without this albumen, inflammation is soon induced. For arsenic no antidote has yet been discovered. For the horse it cannot be vomited, which aggravates all the symptoms. The pain of the abdomen is made very manifest by the profuse perspiration, thready pulse, great weak- ness, violent straining and purging, terminating in convul- sions and death. The stomach-pump should be used as speedily as possible; after this we must boldly use the antiphlogistic regimen, latterly somewhat supporting the strength, by bland food and anodynes.

The Peritoneum, as is well known, is a membrane which lines the walls of the abdomen, and invests all its viscera, forming the external covering of the stomach, intestines, liver, &c. Hence it bears a principal share in the acute inflammation of all these organs, which inflammation is very ready to spread from one to another, till all the infec- tions of the continuous membrane are involved. ACUTE

Its comparative frequency in some localities is ascribed to the calcareous character of the district, or of the water drunk. It often acquires a great size, without pain or trouble. At other times, however, stealing gradually, it undermines the health, and destroys life. In an advanced stage, no doubt can remain as to the nature of the disorder. The countenance is haggard, the eye distanced, the back up, the belly distended, the respiration becomes hurried, bowels habitually costive, and sometimes the horse will sit like a dog, upon its haunches. Relief may frequently be afforded. Strong purgatives and large injections must be given, and under their continued action the offending body is sometimes removed.

Various worms, some truly, others erroneously reputed so, infect the alimentary canal in the domestic animals, and frequently occasion more alarm than is at all necessary. Of the former kind are the round worm, teres; the thread worm, ascaris; and the tape worm, tenia. Of the latter various species of the extraordinary bot, the larva of the louse, or gad-fly. In the horse, the tenia is very rare; in the dog, exceedingly common. When the horse is undisturbed, his bowels are full of the teres and ascaris; and the appearance of his staring coat, want of flesh, and voracious appetite, betoken it. The teres is somewhat larger than in man, the ascaris darker. They occasion gripes and diarrhoea, but the mischief they produce is not great. The principal habitat of the ascaris is the cecum, although they are sometimes found in countless multitudes in the colon and rectum. Turpentine is a deadly poison for all these worms; but this medicine, so harmless in man, acts most disagreeably in the lower animals. Hence it must not be given to them pure or in large quantities, especially to the dog, but used, in small proportion with other oils, as linseed, or in oil, or enclosed in a piece of gut, and with these precautions, it may be found at once safe and efficacious. In dogs, the teres is the most common, especially in puppies; tenia the most prejudicial. The ascaris likewise torments them. If left undisturbed, the two former often occasion fits, followed by emaciation and death. Iron filings, two drams to a dose, are highly reputed as an anthelmintic for dogs; but we believe turpentine, or small doses of tartar emetic, to be more efficacious.

The Oestrus, comprehending the Gad or breeze flies, is not numerous in Britain, though the genus Gasterophilus containing several British species, has been distinguished from the Oestrus by Dr Leach. It is the larva of the former which invade the horse, while those of the latter attack the ox and the sheep. Two species molest the horse, invading the stomach and intestines their habitation; whilst the cattle, and the sheep, species of the other genus attack generally, the skin, and the cavity of the nose. Mr Blaine informs us that the dog is infested with one of these parasites, which he is disposed to consider a bot, but its history has hitherto been investigated, and we suspect that it is merely a species of tenia, which we have often noticed.

The great-spotted horse-fly, G. Equi, which is by far the most common, also makes the ass its occasional victim. Having selected the individual to which her future progeny may be intrusted, she hovers about till she is prepared to deposit her egg. She then makes a sudden descent on her victim, and glues it to his coat, repeating the operation till five or five hundred are sometimes fixed on a single horse, inside of the knee and shoulders being the selected localities; for the horse, in relieving irritation with his tongue, and teeth, is made the unconscious instrument of confining them into his stomach, where alone they can come to maturity. No sooner is this transfer made, than the larvae disclosed, and immediately fix themselves upon the inner coat of the viscus, where they hang in dense clusters, attached by their head, which is provided with sharp hooks, and their only food seems to be the juices of the membranous parts. The bots, thus taking up their quarters about the end of summer, pass the whole winter and spring without undergoing any change, except that of gradually enlarging. When arrived at maturity, they cease to retain their hold on the stomach, and before this, all efforts to force them are vain, commingle with its contents, pass into the intestinal canal, and to the horror of stablemen, are ejected in multitudes from the anus. As soon as they find a convenient retreat, they change into a chrysalis, and in a few weeks more, into a fly, which takes wing; finds its mate, and thus is prepared for repeating the extraordinary process. The Red-tailed horse-bot, G. hemorhoidalis, is scarcely half the size of the former. This fly deposits its eggs on the lips of the horse, to the exceeding annoyance of the poor animal, which is no sooner aware of the presence of its enemy, than he tosses his head, and gallops off to a different part of the field. The larvae taken into the stomach fix themselves exactly like the G. Equi, and differ in their future history only in this, that after leaving the stomach, and passing into the intestines, they are in no haste to make their final exit, but continue for a considerable time at the extremity of the rectum, there creating great uneasiness. Back-raking, under the circumstance, affords relief. The Ox-Bot, Oestrus bovis, is about the size of the G. Equi. Ox-bot. Though appropriated to the ox, this species sometimes attacks the horse. It is a cuticular insect, the eggs being deposited externally in the skin of cattle, and the larvae inhabiting a tumor, or abscess formed round them. These tumors are usually found in the back or loins, and are often larger than a pigeon's egg. When the fly is depositing its ova, the cattle are in the extreme agitation and dismay, and sometimes become quite furious, running off, bellowing, at their full speed. The larva in its cyst gradually enlarges, while the pus that is secreted by the irritation serves for its nourishment. The tumors which are produced are called warbles, wormals, or wormils. The skin and hide are permanently injured by being subjected to this process. The Sheep-bot, O. ovis, is thought to de-Sheep-bot posit its eggs on the nostrils of the sheep, though, from the agitation of the animal at the time, it is not easy to ascertain the fact. The larvae soon find their way to the frontal, maxillary, and other sinuses of the face; here they adhere for a time, producing considerable inflammation. When mature, the larva wriggles from its warm abode, falls into the soil, there becomes a chrysalis, and continues dormant for about two months. We refer for more ample details to the writings of Mr Bracy Clark, who has acquired such merited celebrity for his elucidation of this and other abstruse departments of the science.

A variety of diseases are usually enumerated as occurring Liver, in the Liver, more especially in the well-fed dry horses of London, and in stall-fed cattle. Acute Inflammation Inflammation is one, in which the pain of the affected part is very obscure, and the natural language of the sufferer not very expressive; nor is the symptomatic fever marked. Here a striking analogy is noted, however, between the lower animals and man, inasmuch as there generally is a sympathetic pain in the right shoulder, so strongly marked as often to be mistaken for the principal disorder, and treated accordingly. Yellowness of the eye, and mucous membranes, and of the urine, are also present. Bleeding, and purging with aloes and calomel, are the appropriate remedies. Besides accete, there is also Chronic Inflammation of this Chronic viscus, marked by enlargement and softening, and not unfrequently ulceration. The characteristic symptoms are, a languid eye, unwillingness to move, indifference as to feeding, yellowness about the mouth, unthrifty coat, high-coloured brownish-yellow urine, constipated bowels, with feces not of the natural appearance, but either of a light Veterinary colour, from want of bile, or of a dark hue, from excess of it. Along with this, there is pain, often with lameness of the right shoulder. Under a course of laxatives with aloes and calomel, we frequently find these symptoms disappear, and health restored. If inveterate, it sometimes happens, as subsequently proved by dissection, that the viscus is quite disorganized, and frequently ruptured, when of course there is great sinking, and sudden death. Jaundice, commonly called the Yellows, is another disease which occurs, and more frequently in the dog and sheep than in any other of the domestic animals. Enough has already been said to elucidate its symptoms and treatment.

The true pathology of the Rot in sheep was long ago pointed out by the late professor of agriculture at Edinburgh, to be "a direful ruin of the general health and constitution, which supervenes from deficient or depraved aliment." In Scotland it is agreed that it never occurs where there is an adequate supply of good pasture, and rank grasses are held universally to occasion it. Dr Coventry moreover stated, that if not rendered desperate by fatal complications, every flock and every sufferer may be recovered by simple means, seasonably used. When all the powers of the constitution are once prostrated, other and hopeless diseases undoubtedly appear, of which character are pulmonary consumption, and the disorganized liver, which have attracted so much attention. With this disorganization are conjoined hosts of what are called fluke-worms, from their resemblance to flounders and other flat fish, and whose history is yet involved in obscurity. Whether with the rank grasses of marshy lands, which the sheep under the circumstances are compelled to eat, the ova of the future parasite gets admission into the frame, is a point which remains to be investigated. The cause, however, being recognized, the disease may generally be avoided, and when it exhibits itself, the remedy is alike plain and simple,—to remove from the noxious feeding, to relieve the bowels, and supply plenty of wholesome nourishment.

The diseases which have been principally signalized in the Spleen, are enlargement, usually chronic, often united with tubercles, sometimes with softening and rupture, and of course speedy death. These diseases are not very common, and are certainly obscure, being apt to be confounded with the anomalous tumors already noticed. They may be marked by rigors, loss of flesh and appetite, but the symptoms are rarely conspicuous. After sudden death from rupture, occurring in a poney at work the day before, we found this organ to weigh not less than seventy-two pounds.

Before leaving the abdomen, we must mention, that in taking leaps, horses are sometimes wounded in the belly, or Staking. The wound may, or may not penetrate the cavity, which is easily ascertained by the finger. In the latter alternative, it is comparatively of little consequence, and the treatment is the same as in other skin wounds. In the former, it is much more serious. A portion of the bowel is almost sure to protrude, and the quantity is augmented by every step that is taken. Examination should instantly be made to ascertain if the bowel itself is wounded. If so, the lips of the wound must be nicely united with catgut ligatures, before the intestine is returned. If this cannot be done at the moment, a bandage and pad will prevent its farther escape, till proper assistance is procured. If the bowels are uninjured, by a little gentle manipulation they may be replaced, the edges of the external wound drawn together, and secured by pins and tow, and a bandage bound round the body, sustaining a compress over the aperture. Our dread, after this, is that enteritis may be produced. Hence the antiphlogistic regimen must be pursued, and in all its vigour. Venesection must be freely, and if there be tenderness, repeatedly used; the diet must be very spare, and of the softest kind, and with great care, a cure may be effected. Another variety of the accident remains to be noted: it is where the muscles, or other parts of the parietes of the abdomen, are torn, while the skin remains entire; a sac being formed, into which some of the abdominal contents may protrude. In this case bandages and pressure must be carefully applied, and laxatives and spare diet prescribed.

In commencing our review of the diseases of the Urinary and Generative Organs, we remark that in the horse considerable advantage is derived from the size of the parts, which allows the ready introduction of the sound hand into the rectum, so that the viscera, including even the kidneys and ureters, may be carefully examined. Nephritis is not a very common disease. It may be acute or chronic; sometimes it is idiopathic, sometimes caused by the exhibition of particular drugs and food. When acute, the pain is violent, there is symptomatic fever, and a peculiar straining of the body; the animal frequently lies down, and points with his nose, in his attempts to reach the seat of the disease; the urine is high coloured and scanty, and there are frequent ineffectual efforts to pass some. The treatment consists in the vigorous employment of the antiphlogistic regimen, in the free use of decoctions of linseed, in fermentations and mustard poultices, blisters and turpentine being carefully avoided. In the cow, pus is often passed with the urine which ought, and may easily be distinguished from Leucorrhea. Hematuria, bloody urine, generally arises from a diseased state of the kidneys, though it is sometimes produced by diseased states and fungus of other parts of the passage, and sometimes by violent strains and internal ruptures. Genuine Diabetes, which is a protracted increase of the quantity of urine, with a change in its chemical composition, is not a very rare complaint in horses. Great thirst is usually a prominent symptom, and feverishness. The pathology of the disease is obscure, but seems to be connected with derangement of the digestive organs. Purging, especially with aloes or croton, or with salts, together with astringent medicines, such as carbonate of soda, chalk and lime, also catechu, should be used, and a change in the food, which should be of the best quality. Carrots are regarded serviceable, as also the mixture of a little pipe-clay or pease-meal with the water drunk. We have found iodine a never-failing remedy, very useful in correcting the thirst, and checking the flow of urine. Calculi are often found in the kidneys of all the domestic animals, including the pig; but they do not readily pass down into the bladder, on account of the horizontal position of the ureter. They occasionally produce immense enlargements of the ureters, and considerable irregularity in the functions of the part.

Inflammation sometimes occurs in the bladder, more especially about the neck: the symptoms are pain in the viscus, and constant micturition, with others as stated under nephritis, and the treatment generally resembles what has been advised for that complaint. The injection of a little warm oil into the bladder, often affords singular relief. Calculus is occasionally witnessed in this viscus and the symptoms are well marked in the constant irritation and the dribbling of urine; manual examination speedily confirms suspicion. It is sometimes seen in valuable young colts and stots, and an attempt must be made to afford relief. This may be effected by cutting merely, or partly by dilatation. Lithotomy in the horse is not so perilous, or difficult an operation as in man, the space being much more ample. The following is the mode in which it may most easily be accomplished. A sound is to be passed up the urethra, till it is felt in the perineum; an incision is then made into the canal, and a direct introduction from this point into the bladder; with the probe-pointed bistoury the incision is to be enlarged on the left side of the raphe; the right hand is now introduced...

Inflammation of the Udder, Garget, occurs in the cow as well as in cattle, as a consequence of parturition; though it is only in the latter that it is produced from the barbarous practice of hefting, delaying milking, that the quantity may appear the greater. In bad cases, when the milk cannot be elicited in the common way, a fine hollow pipe (made for the purpose) may be introduced into the teat; through this the milk flows, and the udder resumes its healthy tone. In severe cases the inflammation runs so high that mortification is the consequence, and the udder drops off. When this threatens, blood should be drawn freely from the milk veins, purgatives should be administered, the weight of the part supported, and poultices applied. Suppuration will thus frequently be induced; and a puncture being made, will relieve. Inflammation of the udder, more general or partial, and sometimes confined to one teat, is frequently so severe in the ewe, that she refuses all sustenance to her lambs, so that they actually die of starvation. The treatment for the dam is, in principle, the same as that just mentioned. In the bitch the disease often becomes chronic, and excision is necessary.

The Respiratory System includes the cavity of the nose, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, and chest, with their several component structures. Each distinct part is able to assume morbid action, whilst, at the same time, several of the tissues are continuous, and common to two or more of the above named parts, so that any disease attacking one, is apt to spread to others.

As regards the Nose, the phenomena produced by its cavities being infected with the Bot, have already been mentioned. Fungous excrencences not unfrequently proceed from the turbinated bones and septum, and appear as polyps, so interrupting the respiration. In their more aggravated form they secrete pus, and produce a considerable discharge, so that the animal may be supposed to labour under glanders. The remedy here is to remove the polypus with the forceps, subsequently washing the parts with a styptic lotion. Nasal Gleet from inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, has sometimes been described as an independent local complaint. Any observations which we have to make upon it, will find a place, while considering those disorders of which it frequently constitutes a conspicuous part.

When treating of the gullet, we had occasion to mention one cause of Choking, connected with foreign bodies lodging in the narrowest part of the tube. We have now to add, that draught horses, during a dead pull up hill, sometimes choke from the pressure of the collar on the windpipe. They may stagger a little before falling, or fall without warning. The wheels should, under the circumstances, be set across the road, and the collar thrown off. The accident is most apt to occur when the animal is put to draw with a bite in his mouth, as often happens on canal banks. When the morsel goes down the gullet, it is intercepted by the collar, and the two pressing on the windpipe, compress it; and so many horses have been lost. A knowledge of the fact should lead to the necessary precaution. Inflammation of the Larynx Laryngitis frequently takes place, the disease at the same time spreading from the delicate lining membrane to the nearest parts. In this way lymph is effused, and the play of the parts impeded. Sometimes the smaller cartilages themselves are altered, being thickened and contorted, and small tumors are apt to be produced, both within the tube and without it. The marked symptoms are local pain, difficulty in breathing and swallowing, and general fever; the treatment required is venesection, and the other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen. Tumors occurring in this locality in cattle, constitute the disease called Clysters, which, though it may not for a time interfere with fattening, yet speedily injures health.

Connected with the larynx and trachea chiefly, but sometimes also with the lungs, are various distressing affections of the breathing, which, from the character of the inspiration, have procured for the animals labouring under them such names as these, Piper, Trumpeter, wheezer, whistler, blower, grunter, roarer, to the causes of which infirmities we shall now allude. The rima glottidis and larynx are supposed to be peculiarly affected, when there is that sharp and hasty sound which is expressed by the first two of these terms. The Whistler utters a somewhat shrill sound, when in somewhat continued exercise, and this is supposed referable to some cause producing contraction in the trachea. The sound of the Wheezer is somewhat like that of an asthmatic person, and is supposed to proceed from an over-copious secretion in the bronchiae; it is heard even when the horse is at rest. Roaring is confined to the increased sonorosity of breathing, on any considerable exertion. A Highbrowner is an animal which puffs and blows loudly, dilating his nostrils, while the flanks are comparatively quiet; and in the Grunter it is supposed there is some altered structure in the lungs, which interferes with all considerable exertion. A horse labouring under this infirmity, when suddenly touched with the whip or spur, will at all times utter this grunting sound.

In further illustration of these material infirmities, we shall dilate a little on Roaring and Broken-Wind. Mr White Roaring mentions, that he had once and again examined animals which were perfectly useless from Roaring, and had found every part healthy except the larynx, which was ulcerous. Many roarers, however, have subsequently been examined, in which the larynx was quite sound, while the lining membrane of the trachea was thickened. Tight reining has been ascertained to be a cause, the windpipe being found flattened, and bent from the bearing of the bridle. Obstruction of the nose, hepatization of the lungs, and even enlargement of the liver have been suspected. In several instances, we have noticed tumors in the passage, and a wasting of the muscles on one side of the larynx. Thick-wind is distinguished from Broken-wind. In the former the breathing is rapid and laborious, but the inspiration and expiration are equally so. In broken-wind again, the inspiration is performed at one effort, and the expiration requires a kind of double effort. The cause of broken-wind seems to be the rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs, whereby air-vesicles are produced on the surface, and the expulsion of the air is rendered less direct and easy. It is usually produced by animals being urged to over-exertion when in bad condition, though a horse may become broken-winded in a straw-yard. Although the cure of this affection is not to be expected, yet it can often be very much Veterinary mitigated, and that mainly by attending to the diet, con- Science. densing nutriment into the smallest compass, keeping the bowels open, and giving little water before work.

**Tracheotomy** is the operation by which the trachea is opened, the name *Bronchotomy* being often inaccurately applied to it. It is performed chiefly in cases of sudden obstruction, which cannot be removed on the instant, but which it is anticipated will soon be overcome. It is frequently practised on the horse. The operation is simple, the incision being made in the mesial line, separating the muscles, and then slitting through a couple of rings, the canula being left in. While the opening was left, we have known the roaring horse to be free from his complaint for many months; but from this operation no one would expect anything like permanent relief.

The account usually given of **Strangles** is not so simple as it might be. It is a disease of the horse, and few escape it. It attacks them when young, colts not excepted. Generally, however, it exhibits itself at the age of four or five years, during the prevalence of pulmonary complaints. It may be defined a catarrhal affection, accompanied by a specific phlegmous affection of the cellular membrane of the throat, tending to abscess, with slight fever. The whole cellular membrane, between the branches of the lower jaw, becomes distended with serous and lymphy effusion, acquiring a firm and solid feel, and is tender and hot; it advances to suppuration, and terminates in abscess generally of the throat, but sometimes also in other parts of the body. This alone is Strangles, all other symptoms being only concomitant or accidental. Such are the soreness of the throat, the redness and discharge from the nose, the cough, and tumefaction of the salivary glands. Inflammation of the trachea and lungs, and some say glanders, may supervene upon this complaint. The only treatment required in an ordinary case, is the application of a blister, to urge nature to terminate the process. The abscess should be opened as soon as ripe, and suppuration promoted by slight digestives. Hundreds of cases have been witnessed without one fatal termination.

**Common Cold** is familiarly known in the lower animals; and three stages are observable. At first, there is a discharge, chiefly watery, from the nose, with irritation of the nasal and neighbouring membranes; secondly, in two or three days there is a copious discharge of thick yellow mucus, and the membranes become slightly inflamed; there is irritation of the larynx and trachea, with fulness and a tendency to swelling, feverishness, and sonorous cough. Soreness of the throat is often present, and the lungs frequently become involved. In the third stage, usually most marked where the treatment has been neglected, the animal apparently regains health and spirits, but the cough, though milder, continues; an evil which should anxiously be guarded against. The nasal discharge also continues, and sometimes terminates in *glanders*. The complaint, as it regards the horse, requires nothing more than a few days' confinement in a stable of mean temperature, from 50° to 60° Fahr., warm clothing, bran-mashes, instead of corn, with a little laxative and diuretic medicine. If the parts about the throat are much involved, an epispastic should be applied. If the constitutional symptoms run high, venesection should be employed, and the sooner the better. In combating the third stage, a rowel or seton may be made under the jaw; the bowels should be kept free, exercise steady, and by and by tonics, as sulphate of iron.

**Epidemic Catarrh, Influenza, the Distemper of Horses and Dogs.** This very prevalent disorder is, we conceive, not infectious, but epidemic; and different epidemics exhibit characters as diverse as it is possible to conceive. Consisting essentially of the train of symptoms so well known as catarrh, with the addition of fever, more like the product of an atmospheric poison than any thing else, the symptoms are sometimes those of high inflammatory diathesis, sometimes those of the most complete depression and exhaustion. Hence, the most accurate description of one epidemic is quite inapplicable to another, and even the individual cases differ, though partaking of the general type. This being true of the symptoms, there is a corresponding variety in the treatment and probable result. We shall now make a few remarks on cases at the opposite limits of the scale, and the reader will readily understand the intervening varieties. Influenza, with inflammatory diathesis, comes on like a severe attack of common catarrh, the lining membrane of the nose being highly irritable, with a distillation of watery fluid; the irritation rapidly spreads to the frontal sinuses, the eye and throat, with oppression, and failure of appetite. A thick discharge of the watery fluid soon takes place, the parts about the throat and windpipe become highly irritable, swallowing difficult, and the food is quiddled, and even water swallowed with difficulty; the cough is very troublesome; the pulse rapid, and the fever high. These symptoms would run rapidly to a fatal termination, and blood-letting is clearly the best remedy. The blood is very sity, the venesection may require to be repeated, and the other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen must be employed. But at other times the attending fever is of the very opposite character, amounting almost to putrid fever, when the visitation goes under the name of *malignant* epidemic. Debility, and tendency to sinking, here form the type of the attack. From the very commencement, the poor animal staggers in his gait, and can scarcely stand; he refuses food, and is deprived of all energy; the pulse is rapid, small, and weak, while the catarrhal symptoms are still conspicuous. Even at the commencement, there is scarcely room for venesection, and yet the tendency to inflammation is manifest, and not only in the respiratory organs, but also in other parts. Here the practice must be the reverse of that above alluded to: refrigerants, anodynes, tonics, saltpetre, sweet spirits of nitre, camphor, laudanum; and wine must be had recourse to, with hand-rubbing, wisping, judicious ventilation, clothing, and placing in a loose box. These are descriptions of extreme cases, and the vast majority met with in practice lie between them. Sometimes an early and moderate bleeding is all that is required. The tendency to sinking appears to be thus diminished; and sometimes no venesection is required. The complaint is apt to be tedious, and also to relapse; so that the considerations which would recommend care after common catarrh, are doubly cogent in reference to influenza. We have stated that this is the distemper of the horse: it is also the distemper of Dogs, in which it is apt to be severe, accompanied with a staggering gait, and delirium from affection of the brain. In milder cases, it forms the sniffers of various animals.

Under the general term **Inflammation of the Lungs**, several very distinct affections are included. The bronchies are lined with mucous membrane to the minutest cells; the entire organs—all the lobes—are included in the lining membrane, the pleura, which also covers the whole internal cavity of the chest; and there is finally the parenchymatous substance. Hence bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia, though all in a general way, inflammation of the lungs, and having many things common, yet differ widely in symptoms, history, and treatment. They are all in the highest degree dangerous, are marked by symptoms of high inflammatory fever, and require prompt observance of the antiphlogistic regimen. A tendency to Bronchitis, and often more than a tendency, is witnessed in catarrh, and still more in influenza, and it also shows itself as an original idiopathic affection. The irritation and soreness are considerable, the natural secretion is apt to be greatly augmented in quantity and vitiated in quality, becoming viscid and grumous, and suffocation and death may be the consequence of the Pleurisy, again, is apt to attack the serous membrane, from sudden chills and other causes; the inflammation speedily proving a great check to the breathing. Serous effusion is usually the consequence, whereby the play of the lung is impeded, and may be arrested, and lymph effused, whereby dangerous illusions are produced. Pneumonia, again, with somewhat of the same local symptoms, extends to the disorganization of the proper substance of the lungs, loading them with effusion, and hepatising them. These diseases, though distinct in origin and nature, are apt to be combined in progress, and hence the hazard is augmented. Bleeding in large quantities at first, refrigerants, laxatives, sedatives, blistering, and setons, are the appropriate remedies. As bronchitis advances, care must be taken not to allow the strength to sink too much. Chronic cough is sequel of the foregoing inflammatory diseases, and of others of the lungs and wind-pipe, as has been mentioned. It is common, and may often appear innocuous, but should always be regarded with suspicion; the animals suffering under it should be watched, and the bowels kept easy. Boiled turnips, carrots, barley, and bran mashes form useful edging.

Consumption affects cattle, sheep, and swine, more frequently than horses, and the young rather than the old. It arises from neglect, cold, and exposure in damp unprotected situations, and is very insidious in its attack and progress. The animal becomes thin, the coat staring; the hair appearing as if glued to the ribs; obstinate cough supervenes; discharge is frequent from the nose, and granular swelling appears about the neck. On dissection the lungs are studded with tubercles. Ulcers in the lungs, bones, may be numerous, and the mesenteric glands are frequently implicated and enlarged. The mesenteric artery, too, is often enlarged, especially in the ass; and within it are found a number of worms, the Strongylus and larva. It is in the early stage alone of the complaint, at any thing can be done; and the prospect of cure is faint.

Glanders and Farcy are usually regarded as the most important diseases to which the horse is subject; (the mule and ass are also liable) but every account with which we are acquainted is nevertheless unsatisfactory, and more calculated to puzzle and perplex, than to enlighten and satisfy. One author mentions that no fewer than sixty cases of the complaint have been enumerated; whence may safely be concluded that the true one was yet to be found. The full elucidation of the subject would require more space than we can here allow. Professor Dupuy, his celebrated work on the subject, rendered good service when he so ably and irrefragably established that in disease (for all are agreed that the two named above are only modifications) there occurs the development of numerable tubercles;—whether in one particular tissue, the mucous, or in several, has not hitherto been determined. To these minute tubercles we should ascribe the origin of the nasal affection, as well as of the farcy-buds; the absorbents in the former, as well as in the latter affections, being speedily implicated. At first they are very small. Under certain circumstances they may lie dormant; or, on the contrary, they may proceed rapidly to wholesome maturation, when various parts of the frame become crowded and contaminated with them, to the destruction of life. It is a domestic disease, unknown among the borders of wild horses; of a scrofulous character, unheard of in climes where struma is unknown; and starvation and filth, because it seldom or never originates in a well-ordered stable, but is ever found rife where horses are over-worked, ill-fed, and neglected, and worse than all, kept in an Augean pest-house. That such combination of circumstances may induce tuberculous complaints, the history of many familiar diseases too clearly demonstrates. The matured matter of these tubercles is decidedly contagious, and thus may the disorder be inoculated and propagated in a thousand ways; and it may also, as held by high authorities, have still more frequently a spontaneous origin. There is nothing inconceivable in the idea that this, like other tuberculous complaints, may, in its early stage, and under favouring circumstances, lie, or be kept latent and innocuous; whilst if advanced to a certain point, it becomes irresistible, and defies all the powers of art. Hence the distinction into chronic and acute glanders.

The disease usually attracts attention only when the tubercles are advancing to maturity. Farcy-buds, small tumors, are now seen in various situations, as on the legs, or inside of the thigh, under the collar bone, in the head, neck, or in the axilla, produced apparently from over-exertion or exposure. They are touched with the cautery, tonics are prescribed, (sulphate of copper, zinc, or iron); every thing in the stable obnoxious to health, is removed; the animal gets full diet, plenty of air and exercise; the disease is arrested, and a cure may be effected. When the disorder commences, as commonly, in the nasal cavity, the discharge is successively watery, gluey, pustular. When inspected, the surface being studded with small ulcerating tubercles, has a marked and peculiar aspect, not uniform and continuous, but irregular and angry, from the number of minute irritable ulcers, with deep and well-marked margins. Under favouring circumstances, these spread fast; all the nasal cavities are soon involved; the lymphatic glands under the jaw participate; tubercles develop themselves in the lungs, usually the prelude of death; the horse loses flesh; he falls from his meat; cough succeeds; strength fails; the discharge from the nose becomes purulent and most offensive; and the emaciated loathsome animal must at length be relieved from his misery. Whenever the disease appears among a sound stud, the infected animal should instantly be removed, and every part of the stall, stable, and its furniture must undergo a complete purification; but the glandered horse, well fed, lodged, and groomed, will often work for years, and improve upon it. Such animals are sources of danger to other horses, also to their attendants, who may be glandered by them; but isolated, they may be profitable to their owners, and not burdensome to themselves. Simple discharges of matter from the nostrils must not be mistaken for glanders.

Water of the Chest, as stated above, is an occasional consequence of Pleurisy, which, under the circumstances, requires time and great care ere it can be remedied. Often, in more chronic cases, pain and symptoms of inflammation are not detected. Effusion, however, steals on in the cavity, and the lungs become oppressed. The chest when struck, now returns a dead, dull sound, and not the sonorous tone it emits when the healthy lung is in immediate juxtaposition. Diuretics, laxatives with mercury, tonics, and repeated blistering, are the appropriate remedies. It is for such cases that Para-paracentesis is performed, by which the watery effusion is evacuated, and the lung left free. This operation, however, is often little better than a forlorn hope. The operation is very easily performed. An opening is made between the eighth and ninth ribs, near the anterior edge of the ninth, and not far from the sternal extremity. The trochar and canula are here to be introduced, and the stream flows apace. Caution however must be exercised, in arriving at a correct diagnosis; for we have known the animal expire in the hands of the operator, from air rushing in upon the

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1 De l'Affection Tuberculeuse, &c. Paris, 1817. Veterinary healthy lung, instead of water flowing out and relieving the Science, oppressed one, so causing instant destruction.

The Diseases of the Heart and Blood-Vessels have not received that attention in veterinary science which their importance claims. As throwing light upon some of them, and on pathology generally, we shall here introduce a few remarks on Plethora. When the supply of food is greater than the exigencies of the system require, an animal usually becomes fat, but still may be tolerably healthy. When, however, a sudden change is made from poor to rich feeding, not fatness but plethora may be the consequence; more blood is formed than the system can easily dispose of, and it becomes oppressed. This effect is often witnessed in cattle and sheep, which, after indulging for a time in luxuriant pastures, take what is called a snort of Blood. All at once they become very ill; some part of the body swells, becomes puffy, as if containing air, and in two or three hours the animal is dead, from the Quarter-evil, already described. Upon dissection a large quantity of black and decomposed blood is found in the cellular membrane which during life was distended. The horse seldom suffers in this way; but in him plethora creates a strong disposition to inflammation of the eyes, feet, and lungs, and sometimes to an eruption which is called a Surfeit, or the Nettle-rash. The hair falls off in patches, and the skin is raw and pimpled. There is also a tendency to grease, and to what has been designated a weed, or Shot of grease, in the heavy draught breed. One of the legs, generally a hind one, suddenly swells; the animal becomes lame; there is pain in the inside of the thigh, increased upon pressure; and fever supervenes. The disease bears a close resemblance to the Phlegmasia dolens of our species, and the leg often becomes as thick as the thigh. We consider it a disease of the absorbents; these vessels enlarging to the size of a quill, and having their vasa vasorum highly injected. We have seen it occur chiefly during continued rest after hard work and exposure to weather, in animals which were highly fed. The best treatment is large bloodletting, scurfying the limb, fomenting, and applying hay, straw, or flannel bandages, with purgatives and diuretics. The pressure of a bandage will expedite the reduction of the part to its natural dimensions.

Some of the diseases of the sanguiferous system are acute, others chronic. Inflammation may attack the heart, and is always most dangerous; the symptomatic fever runs high, and is generally remarkable for the bounding velocity of the pulse. Venesection must be alike prompt and free, and the other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen in keeping. When pleurisy exists, the pericardium cannot well escape, and the latter membrane may be the origin of the mischief. In either case the Pericarditis is apt to terminate in dropsy of the membrane, in one case of which we found not less than four pounds of serum. Enlargement of one or other of the cavities is by no means uncommon, and the valves are often ossified. Aneurism of the great arteries occurs, but is very rare. These affections are more frequent in cattle than in the horse; and not unfrequently we have witnessed some foreign body, as a needle, work its way into the heart, and destroy life.

The only other complaints belonging to this section we shall mention, are diseases which arise from phlebotomy. The first of these, though it may alarm the inexperienced, is very trifling. It is a globular swelling, Thrombus, sometimes as large as the fist, arising immediately around the newly-made incision. The filtrating of the blood from the vein into the cellular membrane, which is the cause of the disease, is rarely very copious. Gentle pressure may be used at first, and should be maintained with a well-applied sponge and bandage, kept cool with cold lotion. Occasionally there is inflammation of the jugular from bleeding, and more rarely, of the plate and saphena vein. The cause is usually referred to the use of a foul steam or lancet, or from allowing hairs or other foreign bodies to interfere with the accurate adjustment of the edges of the wound. The first appearance indicative of the disease, is a separation of the cut edges of the integments, which become red and somewhat inverted. Supuration soon follows, and the surrounding skin appears tumified, tight, and hard, and the vein itself above the surface, feels like a hard cord. After this the swelling of the neck increases, accompanied with extreme tenderness; and now there is constitutional irritation, with tendency to inflammatory fever. If, under these circumstances, the animal be not relieved, the head becomes swollen on one side, the sensorium disturbed, and death is sometimes, though seldom, the consequence. The mischief is supposed to arise from the inflammation spreading from the surface to the interior coat of the vein; and the disease in the neck does not proceed towards the heart, as in man, but in the opposite direction. In the first stage we must try to relieve by evaporating lotions, or by fomentations. If these fail, and as soon as the disease begins to spread in the vein, the appropriate remedy is to touch the spot with the actual cautery, simply to sear the lips of the wound, and apply a blister over it, which may be repeated. Purgatives in full doses must be administered, and the neck as much as possible, kept steady and upright.

Connected with the circulating system, we should not omit to state, that small parasites, popularly called worms, are sometimes found in the blood-vessels, and other parts. This is true in man, and still more in the lower animals. We allude chiefly to the Strongylus and Filaria, which are found chiefly in the aorta and celiac plexus. Allusion has already been made to them under phthisis; and it is one of the filaria that is found in the aqueous humour of the eye of horses in the East Indies. They are accused of appearing in some of the viscera, and there causing disease; as, for example, in the bronchiae. In these cases turpentine should be administered by inhalation and the mouth. We once, whilst castrating a colt, met with a Strongylus in the spermatic vessels. The subject is too extensive to be prosecuted here.

The Brain and Nerves, as may be well supposed, present an interesting, if not a very numerous group of diseases. We commence with Fits of various kinds; and this the more willingly, as we are not satisfied that their pathology has very satisfactorily been ascertained. Swooning Fits appear in horses and dogs. The horse staggers, swings from side to side, lies on the pole, stops and falls, or falls running. The fit probably arises from accumulation of blood in the head; it is most common in hot weather, going up hill; and some animals are very liable to it. Whenever the horse shows any tendency to giddiness, he should be pulled up, and so may recover in an instant. Before proceeding, see that the windpipe be free and the bearing rein slack. Should the horse fall, remove the harness, assist him to rise, and if water be a hand, give him a few mouthfuls. This attack, in popular language, is a Megrim, an appellation which should give place to that of Vertigo, or Giddiness. There are other and more aggravated forms of the affection, proceeding to what is regarded Epilepsy, or the Falling-sickness. In these cases the horse rears up and falls suddenly, or he reels about and then falls; the muscles of the eye are affected with spasm, so that this organ is greatly distorted; the breathing is often disturbed, and sometimes there is violent motion of the legs. The duration of the fit varies from a few minutes to several hours. "He," says Mr. Youatt, "who values his own safety, or the lives of his family, will cease to use an epileptic horse." The late Dr Gregory had his arm broken from a horse being attacked with this disease. If the horse is plethoric, he

Apoplexy is a disease to which the horse is very subject. Sometimes the stroke is sudden, and the case severe; but more commonly some warning is given. The animal will be seen with his head low, or supported against the manger; he staggers as he stands, and if moved, appears as if he would fall; his sight and hearing are affected. He will continue in this state for several, perhaps five hours. He then falls, grinds his teeth, with eyes dim, protruded, and fixed, the pupil dilated, and twitching about the frame; he is unable to swallow, the drink returned by the nostril or the mouth, and the dung often voided involuntarily; the twitchings increase to convulsions, and death speedily closes the scene. The treatment most copious bleeding, with the other parts of the antiphlogistic treatment.

The frightful disease of Mad Staggers is seen in the horse, ox, and sheep. It occurs in plethoric subjects after exertion, exposure to the meridian sun, and high feeding, though the distension of the stomach has not a primary share in its production. The first stage is that of sluggish circulation and oppressed brain. The animal holds his head thrust against some hard body, his eyes closed, and he yawns, doses, and sleeps till he actually falls down, sometimes backwards, in his stall. This settles him, and he rises hastily, but soon relapses. The pulse is slow, breathing sometimes stertorous, the appetite impaired, and the animal will dose with the morsel in his mouth. These lethargic symptoms may continue several days, and may at last end fatally, or they may be succeeded by wild and furious delirium. The pulse now rises, respiration quickens, the countenance becomes animated, conjunctiva flushed. Fits of delirium appear, the animal dashes himself furiously about, throws himself down, is in temporary insensibility, suddenly rises, again becomes convulsed, and again relapses into stupor. Approach such an animal is highly dangerous; for he will rear, wheel round upon his hind legs, and fall back with a violence which threatens instant destruction. These convulsive agonies may continue for hours, before death closes the scene. On dissection the brain is found turgid with blood, and water occasionally in the ventricles. Cattle and sheep, these animals it is the Louping-ill, when attacked, fall down, and subsequently roll and toss about; the ox goes at every thing within its reach. The treatment must be most active. The bleeding should be pushed to faintness, and the more rapid the evacuation the better.

The same energy should be employed in the other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen.

Water in the Brain, Dropsy in the Brain, Sturdy, Ruggles, Turn-sick, Gid, Giddiness. This disease is rare in the horse, not unfrequent in cattle, dogs, and swine, and very common in sheep. The disease is sometimes acute, more frequently chronic, occasionally congenital, when any ounces of fluid are found in the ventricles. Young sheep and hogs are most liable to Sturdy. At first the animal detaches itself from the rest of the flock, and appears dull and stupid; by and by it goes round about; as if giddy, and length appears blind, in which state it may long continue, and yet recover. The disease depends upon the effusion of serum, either on the surface of the brain, or into the ventricles, upon the spontaneous growth of hydatids within the skull. The remedies which have been proposed, are the making a perforation into some part of the cranium, and amongst others, through the nose and cribriform plate into the cavity; and in those cases where the serum or hydatids are reached, no doubt immediate benefit may result. But one case in three has been thus restored. The details may occur in any part, and careful examination on the surface sometimes shews the exact locality, so that the spot may be trepanned. In cases where their effects cannot be detected, it would be folly to proceed farther. Blisters and setons have been proposed, and laxatives should be given; and if these fail, the animal should be killed, as the disease does not injure the mutton. Palsy also occurs Palsy in the domestic animals, and is common in the dog. In the horse it is sometimes idiopathic, but occurs more frequently in the hind legs, from severe injury of the spine. If the disease is slight, epistaxis, with friction, may in time be useful; if aggravated, the case is hopeless. Tumors of the Brain are frequently met with on dissection, and probably produce some of the diseases of the head. Their existence, however, can only be suspected, and art has no control over them.

Our views respecting the highly interesting disease of Hydrophobia, or Canine Madness, are not a little peculiar; but being the result of considerable observation, and leading, as we conceive, to most important and beneficial results, we will neither conceal nor compromise our decided convictions. We hold, then, that rabies is essentially an inflammatory affection, attacking peculiarly the mucous membrane of the nose, and extending thence through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bones, to the anterior part of the brain, so giving rise to derangement of the nervous system, as a necessary consequence: this train of symptoms, we consider, constitutes mainly, if not wholly, the essence of an occasional epidemic, not unlike some forms of influenza or epizootie; and the bite of a rabid animal is not, to another so bitten, the exciting cause of the disease, but merely an accidental concomitant in the prevailing disorder; and the disease, hydrophobia, produced in man, is not the result of any poison introduced into his system, but merely the melancholy, and often fatal result of panic fear, and of the disordered state of the imagination. Those who are acquainted with the effects of sympathy, and imitation, and panic, in the production of nervous disorders, will readily apprehend our meaning; and if our view be correct, the immense importance of disabusing the public mind on the subject is apparent. This is a task which we hope one day to accomplish. But in the mean while, considering the vast responsibility of promulgating these views, without the utmost certainty as to their truth, we shall not press them; nay, we shall, to any greater extent, withhold them at present, and shall now do all the justice our limits allow, to the elucidation of the prevailing, and what is generally considered, the established pathology and history of the complaint.

It is generally alleged, that the complaint arises spontaneously only in the canine and feline species of animals, including the dog, fox, wolf, and the domestic cat, and that from them it is readily communicated to others, as to horses, cows, sheep, and man. It is frequently stated, that these last have not the power of communicating the complaint to others; but Mr Youatt mentions, "that several farriers have lost their lives from being bitten or scratched in the act of administering medicine to the rabid horse;" and Magendie and Breschet have taken the saliva of a man who was labouring under hydrophobia, and have therewith inoculated healthy dogs, which, they assert, became rabid, and bit other dogs, so spreading the contagion. Though the disease has received its name from the horror of water exhibited by man, yet the symptom seems confined to him; rabid dogs lap freely, and sheep affected with the disease are rather greedy of water. It is a great mistake to suppose that every rabid dog must be wild and furious; on the contrary, his faculties are not particularly disturbed; there is no want of his usual sense, but great irritability; for a time he knows his master's voice, and obeys him. The early symptoms in Dogs are usually some peculiarity of manner, and some strange departure from their usual habits. Veterinary many instances the peculiarity consists in a disposition to pick up straws, and other small objects. Others keep licking another dog, or cold iron, or stones; and there is often a strong antipathy to strange dogs. As the disease advances, they bite those dogs with which they are associated, and lastly the persons round them, though this only in a moment of irritation; there is also a peculiar change of the voice. In the Horse the symptoms are such as the following. The animal will go to work apparently well; all at once he will stop, tremble, heave, paw, stagger, and fall. Almost immediately he will rise, draw his load a little farther, again stop, look about him, and again fall. The progress of the disease is rapid. The animal kicks and plunges in the most violent manner, often attempts to seize and bite other horses and the attendants, and will level to the ground everything before him, himself sweating, snorting, and foaming amid the ruins; palsy of the hind legs is apt to supervene; the thirst is excessive, and the act of swallowing apparently difficult. The disease rarely extends beyond the third day. On dissection, there is usually found inflammation at the back part of the mouth and nose, and at the top of the windpipe, the origin of the spinal cord, and frequently in other places. Dogs are much more susceptible of the disease than man; and thus of twelve dogs and four men bitten by the same mad dog, every one of the dogs has died of the disease, while the four men escaped. The interval between the infliction of the wound and the invasion of the symptoms varies considerably; both in man and the horse, the mean average is from three to eight weeks. As to the treatment, we would first of all state frankly, that as to cure after the disease has fairly manifested itself, none is recorded. Hence the importance of prevention, and that mainly by the speedy and complete excision of the wounded parts. At the moment the animal is bitten, no time should be lost in endeavouring to get rid of the poison. Free washing may do something, and after this a firm compress between the wound and the heart, till a veterinarian, or some competent person, be procured, who should excise freely, and apply caustic. Copious venesection has proved the most soothing remedy; and with a hint from the experience of Magendie we must close. This physiologist, knowing the influence of largely substituting water for blood in the circulating system, tried the experiment in a mad dog which was in a furious state, and which instantly became tranquil, and so continued for five hours. Again, he injected one pint of water at 100° Fahr. into the vein of a man's arm; directly the patient, from being highly rabid, became tranquil, and the pulse fell from 150 to 80 in a minute, the convulsive motions ceased, he drank water without difficulty, and continued to improve till the fifth day. In another case, death followed as in this; but at the moment of the experiment, there was a great and sudden change for the better. The patient lived eight days after the injection, and died, possibly from another complaint. In attempting this treatment, the veterinarian requires unusual dexterity, as well as caution.

Tetanus. Lock-jaw is another of the most melancholy diseases which can be witnessed. It is common in the horse, and occurs also in the ox, sheep, and dog. It proceeds from two causes, the most common being the irritation of a punctured wound in some tendinous part, as the foot, (which may give no kind of trouble,) or from docking or nicking, and also spontaneously, especially in climates warmer than our own. The symptoms of the complaint soon discover themselves. The muscles of the jaw, as expressed in the synonym, are early affected, forming trismus; and the other voluntary ones are soon implicated, as those of the neck, spine, and extremities. The animal does not feed as usual, and appears unwell; he drops his food and gulps water. Saliva drops from his mouth, and the jaws are found to be stiff; even his head cannot be turned, the eye squints, and the haw, membra nia nictitans, is drawn into the socket; the back and loin become stiff, the tail erect, and the extremities singularly fixed, "like the legs of a stool;" the pulse at the commencement is not affected, but soon gets quick and irregular; the breathing becomes laborious, the countenance wild, and expressive of great agony; the poor animal may die in one or two days, or it may be nine or ten days before he is exhausted. The rule of practice is to look to the wound which has preceded the disease, and if there is irritation, to relieve it. For the constitutional symptoms large bleeding is the most powerful remedy, and injecting water into the veins, as noticed under rabies, would be worth a trial. This will promote the operation of physic which in the estimation of many is the chief remedy. Drachm of croton seed, and six drachms of aloes, may be administered, and repeated the following day, the horse being torpid. Blisters and opium have been extensively used, with the appearance of success. In the few cases where life is spared, great care is necessary during the protracted convalescence.

Neurotomy is the cutting of a nerve which supplies part labouring under painful disease, for the purpose of easing or removing that pain. High expectations were originally entertained of the value of the operation; although many have been disappointed, yet it frequently proves highly useful. Mr Sewell, its respected proposer, operated upon more than five hundred cases, and in eight out of ten, with marked success. The fore-feet are peculiarly liable to accident and disease, and the operation has been very much confined to them. The structure of the parts greatly favours this success, for the muscles which move the feet are situate high up the leg, and their nerves need not be interfered with, as it is cutting the nerve sensation which affords the benefit. The practice was originally proposed for horses incurably lame, and for cases that would not admit of relief by any other means, and to the alone it should be restricted. It is applicable to any kind of chronic lameness about the feet or coronet, except mice feet, and succeeds best where there is an alteration in the form and texture of the hoof; and in ankylosis often yields great benefit. If inflammation or ulceration present, the operation must at all events be postponed, since it would aggravate these states. The operation is not difficult. The horse being cast and secured, an incision about two inches long is to be made upon the side of the large pastern bone, in the direction of the large pastern nerve; the trunk of the nerve is to be laid bare, avoid the artery which lies anteriorly, and about one inch of it is to be cut out; the excision is to be made on both sides, in both legs, if both are diseased; the wound to be healed by the first intention.

Stringhalt is more a blemish than a disease, though it is very unpleasant to the rider. It is a convulsive kind action in the muscles of the hind-leg, supposed owing to irregularity of nervous influence. Neither its precise nor nature is accurately known, and dissection has failed to throw any light upon it. It is most conspicuous when the animal commences exercise, and in a short time greatly subsides. Any method of cure is yet unknown.

The Diseases of the Eye are highly important, slightest blemish interfering with the usefulness and value of the animal; and, though not numerous, they have been found most untractable, and regarded as reproachful to the science. Criticising the labours of the many authors who have so ably illustrated our art, is what we would solemnly avoid; but, on the present occasion, a sense duty constrains us to warn the student generally against many of the views and statements which have been muligated; nowhere have we seen more loose observation, more erroneous pathology. The organ is most delicate, anatomy most minute; and it is upon an accurate acqua

The front of the ball of the eye, and the inner surface of the eyelids, are covered with a membrane, the conjunctiva, of whose blood-vessels are colourless. This membrane is the seat of common Ophthalmia, in common speech, of the furred eye. Whatever irritates, inflames; and hence we see how the application of any foreign body, a few particles of sand, or a hair, may produce ophthalmia. This is the disease of the eye which has been noted in cattle, and is solely from the cause now mentioned. Sometimes these bodies are actually impacted into the membrane; a straw or hay may be so fixed, that all the efforts of the animal may fail in removing it; the eye becomes red and troublesome, and hence the importance, in all cases, of carefully examining the organ, and satisfying ourselves there is no cause of external irritation present. It is not, however, to be supposed that these foreign bodies are the cause of ophthalmia in the horse. From the state of the constitution, exposure to weather, and often the contamination of a filthy stable, idiopathic ophthalmia arises. The conjunctiva and its offshoots, towards the nasal gland, and elsewhere, are implicated. It is found universally red and inflamed, the eye is very sensitive to light, it waters much, and there is pain. This may excite general fever, or it may not; and this is always an important element. It may continue a long while, and prove troublesome without the deeper parts of the organ being implicated, or they may be involved; and it may be acute, with a tendency to high inflammatory symptoms, or it may be chronic, where there is the very opposite, namely, weakness and debility in the parts, and in the frame; this latter state is apt to be quite as tedious, though not so painful as the former. This distinction should never be forgotten in practice. When called to treat a case of this common ophthalmia, after ascertaining there is no irritation from a foreign body, we are first to examine the state of the stable, at the air is not impure, or too hot. If a horse has previously had inflammation of the eye, this attack may nothing more than a local affection of the vessels, and possibly a wash, or rather an injection, of some simple collyrium once or twice a day, is all that is required. These external applications should not be used too strong. Bran baths should be substituted for corn, and a laxative prescribed; the horse should not be exposed to the inclemency of the weather, and the light in the stable should be moderated. All this may by some be regarded unnecessary and troublesome; but so long as it is a fact that one attack may induce another, and that these in the long-run destroy the sight, it is the greatest folly not to meet, and if possible remove at once, the present ailment, and the future tendency. If the symptoms do not speedily yield to treatment, we must determine whether there is inflammatory diathesis, or chronic debility; the condition of the animal, of the pulse, of the eye, are all to be considered, and these show that mischief threatens, the antiphlogistic remedies in all its parts is to be energetically applied, and the eye is to be protected from the stimulus of light; fomentations and injections are carefully to be applied, and those introduced. These directions are given under the supposition we have to deal with acute ophthalmia. When Veterinary Science it is chronic, this treatment would be detrimental, both to the disease and the constitution. In the chronic form, the local treatment generally consists in stimulating collyria and setons, and the constitutional, instead of being lowering, must be strengthening. A peculiar, and not unfrequent cause of irritation we must not omit, which consists in the inversion of the lower eyelid, whereby the eyelashes constantly play upon the eye-ball, and thereby inflame it, constituting the disease called Trichiasis. This complaint we have often witnessed in dogs and cattle, but seldom or never in the horse. Pulling out the eye-lashes affords but a temporary relief, as they soon grow again in a wrong position. A part of the loose skin of the eye-lid must itself be removed, by pinching up a portion, and removing it with scissors, and healing with stitches; after this, when the parts heal, the cilia are found restored to their proper position. It is in this connection that NERULE and SPECKS in the Nebulae cornea are to be considered; the former being more superficial, the latter dipping more deeply into the substance of the part. Directly in the sphere of vision, these of course impede it, and cause obscurity of vision. Even here, we must proceed gently. These blemishes are the pure consequences of inflammation, and this subdued, their tendency is to disappear. Time and nature will do much; and the duty of the practitioner consists in helping forward the salutary process where necessary, by gently stimulating washes, whilst irritating powders should be avoided, especially in dogs. OPEN ULCERS frequently occur in the cornea, and are always to be viewed with alarm, as they may speedily cut deep. They should be delicately touched with a fine point of lunar caustic, by which the morbid action is usually changed.

As the conjunctiva is liable to acute inflammation, so is it with the internal membranes, the choroid, iris, &c. It oftentimes happens, however, in the lower animals, that an opportunity is afforded of examining these parts under disease separately; and hence, what has been called INFLAMMATION OF THE INTERNAL EYE, SPECIFIC INFLAMMATION, AND MOON BLINDNESS, may be considered as an inflammation of the whole internal parts of the eye. That there is anything specific about this complaint, we do not believe, although high authorities have proceeded so far as to distinguish it as the specific gouty ophthalmia. All that we are to learn from this is, that the constitution is often at fault, and must be regulated; that there is an inflammatory diathesis, and that every error in diet or treatment tells upon the weakened part. This inflammation is apt to move from one eye to another; and overcome once, to return again and again, (hence its name moon blindness,) till the sight is entirely lost; all which, we believe, is owing mainly to two causes already hinted at; namely, that due care is not taken of the organ in early attacks, and in endeavouring to restore the constitution to sound general health. These views are to be our guides in the treatment; and if this required to be decided in the ophthalmia already dwelt upon, still more is it necessary in that now under consideration. As to the symptoms, this internal inflammation may exist without the external parts participating, but usually they are soon involved. One symptom very pathognomonic we must also add; it is a whitish opaque state of the cornea, which supervenes in a few hours, completely obscuring vision, and interfering with our perception of what is going on within the eye. This is not to be viewed as a distinct disease of the cornea, as is often supposed, but merely the result of the fulness and pressure of the parts behind; and were that once relieved, the cornea would immediately regain its transparency. As to treatment, we have scarcely

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*Collyria.* Cooling. Sugar of lead, one drachm; opium wine, one drachm; water, two pounds. *Stimulating.* Sulph. zinci, two drachms; opium wine, one drachm; water, two pounds; or nitrat. argentii, one drachm, aquae distill. one pound. Veterinary any thing to add. The sight, and the whole value of the animal is at stake, and what is done, must be done promptly and thoroughly; and the animal should not be removed from the sick list till he is in sound wholesome condition, sound in lith and limb, when he would be as little liable to future attacks as others.

Cataract.

CATARACT is an opacity of the lens or its membrane. It may follow as a consequence of the disease last described, when no remedy can be of any use, as the whole organ is disorganized; or it may occur as a pure idiopathic disorder, when, ere long, it will completely obstruct vision. In this form it usually appears in the dog. This complaint can only be remedied by an operation; and extraction being exceedingly difficult in the horse, all attempts to perform it should be relinquished. Couching would be more easily performed. But still the removal of the lens is so detrimental, that it is scarcely worth a trial.

Gutta Serena, or Glass Eye, when pure, is an affection of the retina, or of the brain, which fails to receive the usual impression from light. Professor Coleman had a horse which fell backwards, on one side of the head, and the opposite eye became amaurotic, probably from injury to the brain. A touch of apoplexy often produces the same effect; or it may be acute inflammation of the retina; or chronic, which may never have attracted observation. Depletion may at first be tried; and then the use of setons, attending to the general health. Worms, the filaria already mentioned, (p.636,) occur in our East Indian possessions, in the aqueous humour of the eye of the horse, a curious locality, their occupancy of which is not readily accounted for. Twenty cases sometimes occur during a twelvemonth in a single cavalry stud. On puncturing the cornea, the prisoners escape.

The Ear of the dog is liable to several diseases, of which the internal and external canker are the most considerable. The former consists of irritation and ulceration of the tube, with discharge of matter, sometimes of blood, occasionally closing the ear, and producing deafness; or the ulceration may spread to the internal parts, and produce death. This chiefly occurs in water-dogs. Injections of sugar of lead, white vitriol, or nitrate of silver, are the most powerful local remedies, and the general state of health must be improved. Canker in the outside of the ear appears most frequently in smooth coated dogs: and the same kind of washes, with the decoction of oak bark and iodine ointment, are the most effective remedies. If it does not yield to these, the ear must be rounded, and the disease extirpated.

Cutaneous Affections. The name Surfeit has been given to a crop of small tumors about the size of hemp-seed or large peas, which break out suddenly over the bodies of horses, especially in spring, often beginning at the neck, and frequently disappearing as quickly as they come, being attended occasionally with itchiness. Its pathology is obscure. The digestive organs are supposed to be at fault; and poisonous herbs, a draught of cold water when heated, sudden exposure to cold and damp, calcareous balls, and worms, have been suspected. Moderate bleeding and laxatives form the surest remedies. The somewhat continued use of doses of antimony, nitre, and sulphur, have been much commended. The horse should be comfortably clad, and should receive regular exercise.

Mange is a very common and most loathsome disease of the domestic animals, arising from a cause the very reverse of that implied in the name of Surfeit, being the result of under-feeding, starvation, and neglect. It is in a high degree contagious; for not only contact with an infected animal, but even with the sordes from his body wherever they are found, is sufficient to produce it. While we thus state that mange is common in the lower animals, we mean nothing more than that a disease of the same general character may affect them all. It is sometimes supposed that all these are specifically the same, and that the itch in man, and the mange in the dog, are identical with the disease in the horse, the ox, and the sheep. This, however, we apprehend is carrying the matter too far. It is said the mange in cattle has been propagated to the horse, and from the horse to cattle; but it is held there is no decided instance of the mange in the dog being communicated to the horse, and still less of the mange of the quadruped being communicated to man, or the itch of man to the quadruped. We may here however mention, that we have seen a herd of cattle labouring under ringworm, a modification of the complaint, and the two boys who were keeping them were infected with the same complaint. In the Horse, we have noticed two varieties, one of which is vesicular, and in this we are persuaded animalcular abound, whilst in the other there is a simple disquamation, with oozing of ichor and falling off of the hair. This variety is much the most common in summer. The face, particularly round the eyes and in the sides of the neck, the withers, shoulders, axilla, and thighs, are the parts most conspicuously manged. The grand cause we have already hinted is under-nourishment, what is technically called poverty; but when once induced care be not taken, it will spread widely. In stables consider it a token of want of care, and sufficient dress. When wishing to rid an animal of the complaint, or guard against its being infected, the most minute attention must be given to its clothing and furniture, as brush combs, pails, manger, &c.; these must be purified and kept uncontaminated; after this the cure with a little trouble is readily effected. As to constitutional treatment, gentle laxatives and alteratives should be prescribed, and the food nourishing and soft. As to local, sulphur ointment, in one of its well-known formulas, combined occasionally with some preparation of mercury, or tar with rape-seed oil, is a sovereign remedy. In Cattle and Sheep, the ichorous matter apt to collect in the neglected hair and wool, hence the name Scab-mange, Scab, and Scurf. In commencing the cure, these sordes must be washed off, and salting must be most freely administered. This should be done at the appearance of the complaint, for when once introduced into a flock it greatly diminishes its value. It seems to spread not so much by direct contact, as from the infected sheep-banks, &c., which are the principal resorts of the flock.

Dogs, the disease is obstinate, and exhibits several varieties. One of them is called the Red-mange, in which there is particular eruption, but a general redness of the skin, which is hot to the touch. Sulphur, sulphuric acid, chloroform, curcubits, tobacco, and hellebore, are the local remedies; laxative and alterative medicines, with abundant light feeding, the general.

Erysipelas in sheep appears in various slight modifications, which have received different names. Wilted it is said, generally shews itself at the beginning of winter, and first attacks the breast and belly. The skin inflames and rises into blisters, containing a reddish fluid, which escapes and forms a dark scab. The animal sometimes dies. Venesection should be used, the skin should be washed with a solution of sugar of lead or with lime water, a physic given, such as salts and sulphur; afterwards a few doses of nitre. Under a somewhat severer form, it is apt to spread quickly among the flock. It appears generally in autumn, and does not continue above eight days at a time although the sheep once affected are liable to a relapse. The treatment is the same as in wildfire, but somewhat more vigorous. Malleenders is the name given to a scurfy and somewhat obstinate eruption on the inside of the flock of the horse in the fore-leg, and Sallenders a similar affection in the hind one. Washing with solutions of corrosive sublimate, or with sugar of lead, or soaking with iodine ointment, with an occasional laxative, diuretic, should effect a cure. Saddle-galls are so The domestic animals are apt to be annoyed by vermin, which slight knowledge and attention would readily remove. In particular states of hot weather, fleas, especially some species of the Tabanidae are great nuisances; they will make a spirited horse unmanageable, will drive cattle from their pasture, to scamper about in a state of extreme agitation; and as to sheep, the Ettrick Shepherd says—

"The flies were at this time settled in the fold in such numbers, that we could with difficulty see each other; the heads of the sheep were swollen and black, and seemed all over a scab, the flies being settled on them like a black cloud. A few were anointed with train oil, and no sooner were they turned among the rest, than in less than a minute, not a fly was to be seen." Spirit of tar, added to the oil, renders it more efficacious; and as the fly will not face these remedies, horses and cattle should be protected. Fleas are very troublesome to dogs. Washing and combing are not without efficacy, nor tobacco-water, though it frequently poisons the dog. Mr Blaine says, "the only tolerably certain cure I know is, to make the dogs sleep on fresh yellow deal shavings." Rosin and bran may be usefully applied. Oil, however, we believe, is a specific. We have invariably found it so for lice, so common in horses, cattle, sheep, and dogs. In horses, the prevalence of this filthy lice vermin shows want of dressing, although it is often connected with poverty and munge. In the slighter visitations we have invariably found, that a single dressing of olive-oil alone, will cause their disappearance from all the above-named animals, or a solution of corrosive sublimate, although this requires a little more caution. For the tick in sheep, a mixture of tar and turpentine is a speedy and certain poison; and for the maggot, sometimes a most fatal vermin in this quadruped, the great matter is the shepherd's watchful care; as soon as discovered, the affected part must be shaved, and spirit of turpentine, or of tar with oil, or a solution of corrosive sublimate applied.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Generally of the Science.

Sainbel's Lectures on Farriery. 4to, London, 1793. Boardman's Dictionary of the Veterinary Art. 4to, London, 1805. White's Treatise on Veterinary Medicine. 4 vols., London, 1819. Dictionary of the Veterinary Art. 1 vol., 12mo, Lond., 1817. Blaine's Outlines of the Veterinary Art. 5th edit., London, 1841. Hurtrel's Dictionnaire de Med. et Chir. Veterin., tom. 4, Paris. Hazard's Esquisses de Nosographie Veterinaire. Morton's Veterinary Pharmacy. The Veterinarian, Periodical Journal. The Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. Thomson's Popular Essays on the Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine and Dogs. Perth, 1831.

Of the Horse.

Clark (J.), Treatise on Shoeing, &c. Clark (J.), on the Prevention of Diseases of Horses. 8vo, Edin., 1785. Coleman's Observations on Structure, and Foot of Horse. 2 vols., 4to. Clark's (B.) Essay on the Bots of Horses, &c. 4to, London, 1815. New Pharmacopoeia for Horses. 8vo, London, 1819. Description of a New Horse Shoe. 4to, 1829. History of the Horse. London, 1834. Lawrence's Treatise on Delamination of the Horse. London, 1809. Peale's Observations on Diseases of the Horse. 1814. Percival's Lectures on the Vet. Art. 3 vols., 8vo, London, 1823. Systematic Treatise on the Diseases and Lameness of the Horse. 8vo, London, 1834. Also, his Anatomy of the Horse. Lawrence's Inquiry into the Economy of the Horse. London, 8vo. The Horse, Library of Useful Knowledge. 8vo, London, 1840. Freeman's Observations on the Horse's Foot. 4to, London, 1796. Goodwin's System of Shoeing Horses, &c. London, 1820. Vines on the Glanders. Wilkinson on Tetanus and Epidemic Catarrh. London, 1818.

Of Cattle.

Library of Useful Knowledge. 8vo, London, 1840. Lawrence's General Treatise on Cattle. London, 1805. Skellett's Treatise on Cattle. London, 1to.

Of Sheep.

Library of Useful Knowledge. 8vo, London, 1840. Hogg's Shepherd's Guide. Edinburgh, 1807. MacKenzie's Diseases and Management &c of Sheep. 8vo, Edin., 1809. Transactions of Highland Society, vol. iii. Blacklock on Sheep.

Of the Dog.

Blaine's Diseases of Dogs, &c. 8vo, London, 1824.

then, is a very dangerous affection, attended Peritonitis. with marked symptoms of severe general pain in the abdo- men, with high fever, quick pulse, great costiveness, scanty urine, &c. Of all domestic animals, the disease occurs most frequently in the dog. It is produced by sudden chills and damp, after being over-heated, by wounds, sometimes after castration, by the introduction of air into the abdomi- nal cavity, or by irritating substances, as happens in the escape of the contents of any of the viscera, in which case it is almost necessarily fatal. The treatment required is the antiphlogistic, in its greatest rigour, and especially at the commencement, with large bleeding, strong purging, as with croton oil, the free action of the mucous very much relieving the peritoneal membrane; also large enemata, and strong counter-irritation rubbing the abdomen with some powerful epispastic.

Besides appearing as an acute disease, peritonitis of Ascites- ten shews itself in a chronic form, and in both of these aspects it is a common cause of ASCITES, DROPSY, or an effusion of serous fluid into the abdominal cavity. When this follows a violent inflammation, it is usually accompa- nied with an effusion of coagulable lymph, which more or less agglutinates the parts together, and it is highly dan- gerous under this form. When the inflammation is mode- rate, the dropsical affection is not so dangerous. Its symp- toms are marked; there is tension of the abdomen, with a feeling of undulation when struck, great thirst, short breath- ing, and scanty urine. Together with the internal effu- sion, there is sometimes present anasarca of the abdominal parietes, sheath, and other parts. Here laxatives and diu- retics are the most appropriate remedies. In many other cases, dropsy is purely a symptomatic affection, arising not from any complaint of the peritoneum itself, but from watery effusion, the consequence of impeded circulation towards the heart. Enlargements of the liver and spleen, anomalous tumors in the abdomen, and various diseases of the heart and lungs, operate in this way. The complaint is not very common in the horse, but we have frequently witnessed it in mules and donkeys. Nor is it uncommon in cows and sheep, being often in them conjoined with a si- milar affection in the chest. The dog, when labouring, as he often does, under the complaint, loses his appetite, the countenance is haggard, the appearance dejected, abdo- men distended, and perhaps he is finally suffocated. In these cases, temporary relief may be afforded by TAPPING Tapping. with the trochar; when, from cattle, five or six gallons may be drawn off, and sometimes with permanent relief. In conducting the operation, care must be taken that the ab- domen be swathed, and kept compressed. When dwelling upon the peritoneum, we must not omit to mention that both it and its folds, as in the OMENTUM and MESENTERY, are peculiarly liable to a variety of anomalous tumors, and

Nitre, dose from half an ounce to an ounce; foxglove or digitalis, dose one to two drachms of the powder; cream of tartar, dose one to two ounces; sweet spirit of nitre, Spiritus Etherei Nitroso, dose one or two ounces; oil of juniper, dose one to two drachms, are cooling diuretics, given once or twice a day; Oil of turpentine, and the powdered resin, are somewhat stimulant, and therefore not employed where there is fever; they are however more commonly and extensively used than any of the others, and are more certain in their effects, dose two or three ounces of the oil, and from half an ounce to an ounce of the powdered resin, formed, with half a drachm of sugar and linseed meal, into a ball, by means of palm or other oil, or of soap.

VOL. XXI. Veterinary to tubercles of various kinds, often produced by inflammation, and the occasion of obscure disease and of death. Of these diseases, melanos is one of the most extraordinary. It consists of an extraneous deposition of a black amorphous mass, or masses, which most frequently appear about the rectum, but may occur in other localities: it is witnessed almost exclusively in grey horses, and particularly when they are passing from a dark to a light colour. All these cases are generally obscure during life, and are more frequently suspected than demonstrated. They are often, however, seen on dissection, and a knowledge of their occurrence is essential to satisfactory practice.

Scirrhus of the Stomach is one of those diseases which we have occasionally witnessed in the horse, though we do not remember it has anywhere been described. It occurs at the cardiac orifice, and lower part of the esophagus, but is still more frequent at the pyloric extremity. Here the thickening is sometimes immense, appearing like canker of the foot, with numerous and large granulations, several inches long, and making the part feel as if distended with food. These morbid growths produce symptoms of eructation, and of acidity and distention, as already described. Anodynes may be administered; but the disease is beyond the reach of art.

Diarrhoea, Flux, Scouring, occurs in most of the domestic animals. It supervenes as a consequence of superpurgation, by which the animal is much weakened, and, in the case of the horse, to his serious detriment. Physicking used to be practised far too freely and frequently; and the regulating of this fashion is one of the most decided improvements in modern practice. Diarrhoea, however, often occurs spontaneously, the result of change of food, irritation in the bowels, or chill after over-exertion. When moderate, the pain is inconsiderable; but when aggravated, the mucous membrane, which is the seat of the disease, acquires a tendency to inflammation, and griping and colicky pains are the consequence. It is most frequently witnessed in what are called weakly animals, whose loins are narrow, with a long space between the ribs and ileum; and this remark holds good of cattle, sheep, and dogs, as well as horses. The disease should always be speedily checked. If the food be at fault, it should be regulated, and green meat should be withheld: if there be ground to suspect any existing irritation, it should be removed by a laxative; and chalk, or chalk with a little powdered opium, may afterwards be administered; this is a powerful remedy, as is also catechu. Starch gruel should be given, and cold guarded against. Some horses, in going to hunt, apparently from the excitement, are troubled with occasional diarrhoea. Starch gruel, with chalk and a small quantity of powdered opium (a drachm for a dose), will generally prevent it.

Molten-grease, the Gras-fondy, is often associated with more aggravated cases of diarrhoea. It derives its name from the appearance of fatty matter, forming a crust, or partial covering to the fecal pellet. It is usually supposed to have a constitutional origin, and to be connected with some inflammatory tendency, more especially of the mucous membrane of the lungs, or with general fever. Be this as it may, it is often produced by violent exertion in a horse, which is not prepared for it, being fat and unaccustomed to exercise. The symptoms of threatening fever are present, and venesection is often the first step in the cure; the remaining treatment is the same with that of diarrhoea.—Dysentery, Cling and Brecksweeche, in sheep, is likewise an affection of the mucous membrane of the intestines. It differs from the foregoing, in having a tendency to be local, especially in the large intestine, and termination of the gut; and also in being more violent, more apt to produce febrile action, and effusion of bloody mucus and lymph-like matter, sometimes resembling membranes, and to run on to deep and troublesome ulceration. The blood is sometimes coagulated on the dung, and in such quantity as, with other secretions, to receive the name of The Blood. Upon the whole, it is a more dangerous complaint than diarrhoea, and the symptoms, though to a certain extent corresponding, are more severe. Great promptitude, therefore, should be used in endeavouring to effect a cure. In cattle, it is generally easy, by administering a dose or two of salts; a single dose often at once checking the disorder. In sheep, chalk and warm milk, followed up with catechu and opium, are very efficacious. In all the affected animals, the diet must be carefully regulated, and small doses of calomel, chalk, and opium given. This usually acts as a charm, altering the morbid secretions, and affording relief. Anodyne clysters may also be used, and cold must be avoided.

Obstruction of the Bowels may arise from a variety of causes, with which the veterinarian should be familiar, and the disease may be more acute or chronic in its nature. To the former category belong violent local spasm and inflammation, producing intussusception and death in a few hours. In enteritis and peritonitis likewise, there is sometimes a remarkable and very complicated twisting, which seems by its mechanical action alone to obstruct all descent of the ingesta. Hernia, external and internal, are additional causes. To the latter class belong various tumours, which are prone to occur, and schirrous contractions of the canal itself, and the presence of foreign bodies. In all these cases the practitioner must be on the alert. On the treatment of inflammatory attacks we have already dwelt. Intussusception is a protrusion of an upper into a lower part of the bowel, or from inverted action, the reverse, as may be seen in the finger of a glove. It is a frequent cause of obstruction, as connected with inflammation, and is often witnessed after death; it is very common in dogs, and more frequent in sheep and cattle than in the horse. The extent to which it may occur is considerable, reaching to many feet of inverted intestine. Sometimes it is near the anus, and a part may protrude, and slough, and yet the animal recover. In a variety of this complaint, occurring in the rectum, the result of constipation, the part, impacted with hardened faeces, which it cannot evacuate, is forced onwards by the peristaltic action, and is protruded a hand-breadth, or even to double or triple that extent. In these cases, the gut must instantly be relieved, and then its return is easily accomplished. Cases of Hernia, both external and internal, sometimes occur in the horse, usually produced by violent exertion. The latter cases will usually be fatal; the former occur in the scrotum of the perfect horse. If immediately detected and reduced, the animal may be saved. Foreign Bodies, which usually produce obstruction, are called balls, and are distinguished as hair, dust, and calcareous balls. The Hair-ball, very common in cattle and sheep, is produced by animals licking their coats. The hair thus introduced into the stomach, and there supplied with some nucleus, by the constant and almost violent rotatory action of the part, is speedily converted into a ball, most regularly and thoroughly felted. It may continue a long while in the stomach, and till death. The Dust-ball, most common in horses, derives its name from being composed chiefly of corn and barley dust, saved in grinding meal, and used as food. It owes its origin to the same phenomena occurring in the stomach, but more frequently finds its way into the intestinal canal. There are often several of them, as of the former. They are almost exclusively found in those animals which have been fed on the substance. Whether the Calcareous Ball has a different origin, we do not know; but it is of most common

1 Calomel, from one drachm to two drachms; chalk, from half an ounce to one ounce; opium, half a drachm to one drachm.