or Algeria, an extensive country of northern Africa bordering on the Mediterranean, formerly an independent kingdom, but now a dependency of France. It extends from Long. 2. 20. W. to 8. 45. E., and is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, on the west by Morocco, on the south by the great desert of the Sahara, and on the east by Tunis; but, indeed, except along the coast, the exact boundaries of the country are very undefined.

Algiers is traversed by lofty ranges of the Atlas mountains, running nearly parallel to the coast, and rising in some places to the height of upwards of 7000 feet, with deep valleys and extensive plains. Some of the mountains rise abruptly from the sea, and the coast generally is steep and rocky, abounding in capes and gulfs; but it is very deficient in good harbours, and even in secure roadsteads, in consequence of its exposure to the north winds.

The rivers of Algiers are numerous, and generally assume the character of mountain torrents, rushing with great impetuosity from the elevations through deep and rocky channels. During the rainy season they are much swollen, which, from the present deficiency of sufficient bridges, renders communication with the different parts of the country extremely difficult. The most important river, both from the length of its course, and the volume of its waters, is the Chelif. It rises in the Djebel Amur, takes first a northern, and afterwards a western direction, flows through Lake Titterie, and finally empties itself into the Mediterranean, near Mostagan, after a course of nearly 300 miles; during which it receives numerous tributary streams. The Seibouse is formed by the union of several small brooks in the interior of the province of Constantine, south of the town of that name, and after a course of about 120 miles reaches the Mediterranean at Bona. The Oued-el-Kebir or Rummel rises west of Constantine, passes that town, and then pursues a north-westerly course to the sea. Among the less important rivers which empty themselves into the Mediterranean are the Harrach, Isser, Mazafran, Tafna, and Macta. Besides these there are a number of streams in the interior; but they are less known, and are generally dry except in the rainy season.

Algiers abounds in extensive lakes and marshes. Of the lakes, lakes in the northern part of the country, near the coast, are the Fezara, fourteen miles south-west of Bona; the two lakes Sebgha and El-Molah, south of Oran; three small lakes in the immediate vicinity of the Calle, and several others. In the southern parts of the country are the extensive lakes of Chott-el-Harbi or Western Chott; the Chott-el-Chergui or Eastern Chott; the Zarhez Gherbi; and the Zarhez Chergui; the Grand Sebkha-el-Chott, and a number of others. They are mostly dried up in summer, leaving a thick stratum of salt. Many of the marshes, especially in the neighbourhood of the larger towns, have been drained by the French, thus improving considerably the salubrity of the climate. There are also a number of warm mineral springs, principally containing salts of lime, which are used with success by the Arabs in several kinds of diseases. Some of these are in the vicinity of the Calle, Bougie, Milliana, &c.

It has several fertile and well-watered plains; the principal, that of Metidja, immediately south of Algiers, is about 50 miles long by 20 broad.

The mineral wealth of the country is considerable. Iron is very plentiful, and mines of copper, lead, silver, antimony, and coal, are wrought. Salt is obtained in great abundance from many of the lakes and marshes.

The nature of the climate varies considerably with the elevation. In the northern parts of the country it very much resembles that of the south of Spain, while in the Sahara the heat is frequently excessive. In the more elevated parts the winter is frequently severe; but along the coast it is mild, though often attended with heavy rain, and sometimes in such torrents as in a few hours to exceed the quantity falling at Paris in a whole year. The hottest month is August. In general, with the exception of places in the vicinity of the marshes, it is not unhealthy for Europeans. At Algiers the mean temperature is from 70° to 75° Fahr.; in summer averaging 86°, and in winter from 55° to 65°.

The vegetation generally resembles that of southern Europe. It has extensive forests of various species of oak, pine, cedar, elm, olive, &c. The trees are frequently of gigantic size, especially the cedars and oaks; but great injury is often done to the forests, by the inhabitants annually burning up the grass of their fields; and thus sometimes the most beautiful forests are consumed. The want of roads and navigable rivers, has, as yet, prevented the French from deriving much benefit from the forests. Among the fruits are oranges, lemons, pomegranates, dates, peaches, melons, &c.; wheat, barley, cotton, sugar-cane, and tobacco, are also extensively cultivated. In the animal kingdom, there is little particularly deserving of notice. Lions were formerly very plentiful, but they are now nearly extinct; leopards are still common, and in the south are many jackals and hyenas. The chief wealth of most of the Arab tribes consists in their sheep, of which they frequently possess immense flocks; horses, mules, and camels, are also abundant, and of superior quality. Coral and sponge fishing is extensively prosecuted along the coast.

Algiers was formerly divided into four provinces, viz., Constantine, Algiers, Oran, and Titterie; at present it is divided into three, Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. These provinces are divided into districts, and each district is subdivided into one or more circles. By the natives it is divided into the Tell or green country, in the north, and the Dated country, in the south.

The population of Algiers is estimated at about 3,000,000. At the close of 1850, the European population was 125,963; and in the preceding year 112,607; of whom 58,005 were French, 6943 Anglo-Maltese, 33,659 Spaniards, 6986 Italians, 2515 Germans, 1253 Swiss, and 3246 of other nations. The increase of the European population is caused by immigration, as for several years the deaths have exceeded the births. In 1847, 1848, 1849, the deaths were 5163, 4835, 10,493; the births in the same years were 4283, Algiers, 4347, 5206. The great mortality of 1849 was occasioned by cholera. The indigenous population residing in the towns in 1849, amounted to 84,133, being 60,928 Turks, 4177 Negroes, and 19,028 Jews.

Besides the Europeans there are eight distinct races inhabiting Algiers. 1st, The Arabs, the most numerous race in Algiers, inhabit the southern part of the country, and lead a pastoral life. They are the most unsettled and turbulent of the Algerine population, but are at the same time sprightly and intelligent. 2d, The Kabyles or Berbers are next to the Arabs in point of numbers, and are descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They occupy chiefly the more elevated and mountainous parts, but numbers of them also inhabit the plains and valleys: they are an active, industrious race, and principally engaged in husbandry. 3d, The Moors, a mixed race, inhabiting principally the towns. 4th, The Jews, also inhabiting the towns, and engaged in mercantile pursuits. They are supposed to amount to about 80,000. 5th, Negroes, originally brought from the interior, and sold as slaves. They were declared free in 1848, and are estimated at 80,000. 6th, The Turks, the former dominant race, are now decreasing rapidly. A great number of them left the country when it came into the hands of the French. 7th, The Kolouglis, who are the descendants of Turks by native women, are also decreasing, and at present are about 20,000. 8th, The Mozabites, an African race now principally inhabiting the coast towns. They are a peaceable, honest, and industrious race, chiefly engaged in manual labour.

The Algerine kingdom made formerly a considerable part History. of the Mauritania Tingitana, which was reduced to a Roman province by Julius Caesar, and from him also called Mauritania Caesariensis. The Romans were driven out of that continent by the Vandals; these by Belisarius, the Greek emperor Justinian's general; and the Greeks in their turn by the Saracens. This last revolution happened about the middle of the seventh century; and the Arabs continued masters of the country, divided into a great number of petty kingdoms or states, under chiefs of their own choosing, till the year 1051. In this year Abubeker-ben-Omar, or, as the Spanish authors call him, Abu-Texefien, an Arab of the Zinhanig tribe, gathered, by the help of his marabouts or saints, a most powerful army of malcontents, in the southern provinces of Numidia and Libya. His followers were named Marabites or Morabites, by the Spaniards Almoravides, probably from their being assembled principally by the saints, who were also called Morabites. The caliph's forces were at this time employed in quelling other revolts in Syria, Mesopotamia, &c.; and the Arabs in Spain were engaged in the most bloody wars; so that Texefien having nothing to fear from them had all the success he could wish against the Arabian sheiks or petty tyrants, whom he defeated in many battles, and at last drove not only out of Numidia and Libya, but out of all the western districts, reducing the whole province of Tingitania under his dominion. Texefien was succeeded by his son Yuset or Joseph, a brave and warlike prince. He founded the city of Morocco; and engaging in war with the Zeneti, a powerful tribe who inhabited Tremecen, defeated them in repeated engagements, and finally almost exterminated them. He then extended his conquests over almost all Barbary. Thus was founded the empire of the Morabites, which, however, was of no long duration, that race being in the twelfth century driven out by Mohavedin, a marabout. This race of priests was expelled by Abdulac, governor of Fez; and he in the thirteenth century was stripped of his new conquests by the Scherifis of Hascen, the descendants of those Arabian princes whom Abu-Texefien had formerly expelled. The better to secure their new dominions, the Scherifs divided them into several little kingdoms or provinces; and among the rest, the present kingdom of Algiers was divided into four, namely, Tremecen, Tenez, Algiers Proper, and Bujejah. The first four princes laid so good a foundation for a lasting balance of power between their little kingdoms, that they continued for some centuries in mutual peace and amity; but at length the king of Tremecen having ventured to violate some of their articles, Abul-Farez, king of Tenez, declared war against him, and obliged him to become his tributary. This king dying soon after, and having divided his kingdom among his three sons, new discords arose, which Spain taking advantage of, sent a powerful fleet and army against Barbary, under the count of Navarre, in 1565. This commander soon made himself master of the important cities of Oran, Bujejah, and some others. Finally, he landed a number of forces near Algiers, and obliged that metropolis to become tributary to Spain.

To this galling yoke the Algerines were obliged to submit till the year 1516, when, hearing of the death of Ferdinand, king of Spain, they sent an embassy to Aruch Barbarossa, who was at that time on a cruise with a squadron of galleys and barks, spreading terror wherever he appeared by his valour and success. The purport of the embassy was, that he should come and free them from the Spanish yoke; for which they agreed to pay him a gratuity answerable to so great a service. Upon this Barbarossa immediately despatched 18 galleys and 30 barks to the assistance of the Algerines, while he himself advanced towards the city with 800 Turks, 3000 Jogeites, and 2000 Moorish volunteers. Instead of taking the nearest road to Algiers, he directed his course towards Shershel, where Hassan, another famed corsair, had established himself. Him he surprised, and obliged to surrender, not without a previous promise of friendship; but no sooner had Barbarossa got him in his power, than he beheaded him, and obliged all Hassan's Turkish adherents to follow him in his new expedition.

On Barbarossa's approach to Algiers, he was welcomed by all the people of that metropolis, who looked for deliverance from this daring bandit, whom they accounted invincible. Elated beyond measure with this kind reception, Barbarossa formed a design of becoming king of Algiers; and fearing some opposition from the inhabitants, on account of the excesses he suffered his soldiers to commit, he murdered their prince Eutemi, and caused himself to be proclaimed king; his Turks and Moors crying out as he rode along the streets, "Long live King Aruch Barbarossa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chosen of God to deliver the people from the oppression of the Christians; and destruction to all that shall oppose or refuse to own him as their lawful sovereign." These threatening words so intimidated the inhabitants, already apprehensive of a general massacre, that he was immediately acknowledged as king.

Barbarossa was no sooner seated on the throne, than he treated his subjects with such cruelty, that they used to shut up their houses and hide themselves when he appeared in public. In consequence of this, a plot was soon formed against him; but having discovered it, he caused twenty of the principal conspirators to be beheaded, and their bodies to be buried in a dunghill, and laid a heavy fine on those who survived. This so terrified the Algerines, that they never afterwards dared to attempt anything against either Barbarossa or his successors.

In the mean time the son of Prince Eutemi, having fled to Oran, and put himself under the protection of the marquis of Gomarez, laid before that nobleman a plan for putting the city of Algiers into the hands of the king of Spain. Cardinal Ximenes, having approved of it, sent a fleet with 10,000 land forces, under the command of Don Francisco, or, as others call him, Don Diego de Vera, to drive out the Turks, and restore the young prince; but the fleet no sooner came within sight of land than it was dispersed by a storm, and the greater part of the ships dashed against the rocks. Most of the Spaniards were drowned, and the few who escaped to the shore were either killed by the Turks or made slaves.

Though Barbarossa had nothing to boast on this occasion, his pride and insolence had now risen to such a pitch, that he imagined himself invincible. He found little difficulty in conquering the kingdoms of Tenez and Tremecen. Abuchen Men, however, the exiled sovereign of Tremecen, had recourse to Charles V., then lately arrived in Spain with a powerful fleet and army. That monarch immediately ordered the young king a succour of 10,000 men, under the command of the governor of Oran, who, under the guidance of Abuchen Men, began his march towards Tremecen; and in their way they were joined by Prince Selim, with a great number of Arabs and Moors. The tyrant kept close in his capital, being embarrassed by his fears of a revolt, and the politic delays of the king of Fez, who had not sent the auxiliaries he promised. Being now informed that Abuchen Men and his Arabs, accompanied by the Spaniards, were in full march to lay siege to Tremecen, he thought proper to come out at the head of 1500 Turks and 5000 Moorish horse, in order to break his way through the enemy; but he had not proceeded far from the city before his council advised him to return and fortify himself in it. This advice was now too late, the inhabitants being resolved to shut him out, and open their gates to their own lawful prince as soon as he appeared. In this distress Barbarossa saw no resource but to retire to the citadel. Here he defended himself vigorously; but his provisions failing, he took advantage of a subterraneous path, which he had caused to be dug, and, taking his immense treasure with him, stole away as secretly as possible. His flight, however, was soon discovered; and he was so closely pursued, that to amuse, as he hoped, the enemy, he caused a great part of his money, plate, jewels, &c. to be scattered on the way, thinking they would delay their pursuit in gathering it up. This stratagem, however, failed through the vigilance of the Spanish commander, who being himself at the head of the pursuers, obliged them to march on, till he came up close to him on the banks of the Huexda, about eight leagues from Tremecen. Barbarossa had just crossed the river with his vanguard, when the Spaniards came up with his rear on the other side, and cut them all off; and then crossing the water, overtook him at a small distance from it. Here a bloody engagement ensued, in which the Turks fought like lions; but being at length overpowered by numbers, they were all cut in pieces, and Barbarossa among the rest, in the 44th year of his age, and four years after he had raised himself to the royal title of Jigel.

The news of Barbarossa's death spread the utmost consternation among the Turks at Algiers; however, they by Hayra caused his brother Hayradin to be immediately proclaimed king. The Spanish commander now sent back the emperor's forces, without making any attempt upon Algiers, by which he lost the opportunity of driving the Turks out of that country; while Hayradin, justly dreading the consequences of the tyranny of his officers, sought the protection of the grand signior. This was readily granted, and he himself appointed bashaw or viceroy of Algiers; by which means he received such considerable re- inforcements, that the unhappy Algerines could attempt no resistance; and such numbers of Turks resorted to him, that he was able not only to keep the Moors and Arabs in subjection at home, but to annoy the Christians at sea.

Hayradin next undertook to build a strong mole for the protection of his ships. In this he employed 30,000 Christian slaves, whom he obliged to labour without intermission for three years, in which time the work was completed. Hayradin soon became dreaded, not only by the Arabs and Moors, but also by the maritime Christian powers, especially the Spaniards. The viceroy failed not to acquaint the grand signior with his success, and obtained from him a fresh supply of money, by which he was enabled to build a strong fort, and to erect batteries on all places that might favour the landing of an enemy. All these have since received greater improvements from time to time.

In the mean time the sultan, either out of a sense of the great services Hayradin had rendered, or perhaps out of jealousy lest he should make himself independent, raised him to the dignity of bashaw of the empire, and appointed Hassan Aga, a Sardinian renegade, an intrepid warrior, and an experienced officer, to succeed him as bashaw of Algiers. Hassan had no sooner taken possession of his new government, than he began to pursue his ravages on the Spanish coast with greater fury than ever, extending them to the Ecclesiastical State, and other parts of Italy. Pope Paul III. exhorted the emperor Charles V. to send a powerful fleet to suppress these frequent and cruel piracies; and, that nothing might be wanting to render the enterprise successful, a bull was published by his holiness, in which a plenary absolution of sins, and the crown of martyrdom, were promised to all those who either fell in battle or were made slaves. The emperor accordingly set sail at the head of a powerful fleet, consisting of 120 ships and 20 galleys, having on board 26,000 chosen troops, and an immense quantity of money, arms, ammunition, &c. In this expedition many young noblemen and gentlemen attended as volunteers, and among these many knights of Malta, so remarkable for their valour against the enemies of Christianity. Even ladies of birth and character attended Charles in his expedition; and the wives and daughters of the officers and soldiers followed them with a design to settle in Barbary after the conquest should be completed. The expedition meeting with a favourable wind, soon appeared before Algiers; every ship displaying the Spanish colours on the stern, and another at the head, with a crucifix to serve for a pilot.

By this prodigious armament the Algerines were thrown into the utmost consternation. The city was surrounded only by a wall, with scarcely any outworks. The whole garrison consisted of 800 Turks and 5000 Moors, without firearms, and poorly disciplined and accoutred; the rest of their forces being dispersed in the other provinces of the kingdom, to levy the usual tribute on the Arabs and Moors. The Spaniards landed without opposition, and immediately built a fort, under the cannon of which they encamped, and diverted the course of a spring which supplied the city with water. Being now reduced to the utmost distress, Hassan received a summons to surrender at discretion, on pain of being put to the sword with all the garrison. He was on the point of surrendering the city, when advice was brought to him that the forces belonging to the western government were in full march towards the place; upon which it was resolved to defend it to the utmost. Charles, in the mean time, resolving upon a general assault, kept up a constant firing upon the town; which, from the weak defence made by the garrison, he looked upon as already in his hands. But while the douwan, or Algerine senate, were deliberating on the most proper means of obtaining an honourable capitulation, a mad prophet, attended by a multitude of people, entered the assembly, and foretold the speedy destruction of the Spaniards before the end of the moon, exhorting the inhabitants to hold out till that time. This prediction was soon accomplished in a very surprising and unexpected manner; for on the 28th of October 1541 a dreadful storm of wind, rain, and hail, arose from the north, accompanied with violent shocks of earthquake, and a dismal and universal darkness both by sea and land; so that the sun, moon, and elements seemed to combine together for the destruction of the Spaniards. In that one night, some say in less than half an hour, 86 ships and 15 galleys were destroyed, with all their crews and military stores, by which the army on shore was deprived of all means of subsistence. Their camp also, which spread itself along the plain under the fort, was laid quite under water by the torrents which descended from the neighbouring hills. Many of the troops, in endeavouring to remove into some better situation, were cut in pieces by the Moors and Arabs; while several galleys and other vessels, seeking to gain some neighbouring creeks along the coasts, were immediately plundered, and their crews massacred, by the inhabitants.

The next morning Charles beheld the sea covered with the fragments of his numerous ships, and the bodies of men and horses floating on the waves. Seeing his affairs desperate, he abandoned his tents, artillery, and all his heavy baggage, and marched in great disorder towards Cape Metaluz, in order to re-embark his troops in the few vessels which had survived the tempest. But Hassan, who had caused his motions to be watched, allowed him just time to get to the shore, when he sallied out and attacked the Spaniards in the midst of their confused and hasty embarkation, killing great numbers, and bringing away a still greater number of captives; after which he returned in triumph to Algiers, where he celebrated with great rejoicings his happy deliverance.

Charles having reached the port of Bujeiah on the 2d of December, was detained there by contrary winds for several weeks, whence he set sail for Carthagena, which he reached without further disasters. In this unfortunate expedition upwards of 120 ships and galleys were lost, with above 300 colonels and other land and sea officers, 8000 soldiers and marines, besides those destroyed by the enemy on the re-embarkation, or drowned in the last storm. The number of prisoners was so great that the Algerines sold some of them, by way of contempt, for an onion per head.

Hassan, elated with this victory, in which he had very little share, undertook an expedition against the king of Tremece, who, being now deprived of the assistance of the Spaniards, was forced to procure a peace by paying a large sum of money, and becoming tributary to him. The bashaw returned to Algiers laden with riches, and soon after died of a fever, in the 66th year of his age.

From this time the Spaniards were never able to annoy the Algerines in any considerable degree. In 1555 they lost the city of Bujeiah, which was taken by Salha Rais, Hassan's successor, who next year set out on a new expedition, which was suspected to be intended against Oran; but he had scarcely got four leagues from Algiers, when the plague, which at that time raged violently in the city, carried him off in 24 hours.

The dignity of bashaw passed through several hands, Bashaws when it was occupied by Hassan, the son of Hayradin. Immediately on his arrival, he engaged in a war with the Arabs, by whom he was defeated with great loss. Next year the Spaniards undertook an expedition against Algiers. Mostagan, under the command of the count d'Alcandela; but were utterly defeated, the commander himself killed, and 12,000 men taken prisoners.

Hassan engaged in the siege of Marsalquivier, situated near the city Oran, which he designed to invest immediately after. The army employed in this siege consisted of 26,000 foot and 10,000 horse, besides which he had a fleet consisting of 82 galleys and galliots, together with three French vessels laden with biscuit, oil, and other provisions. The city was defended by Don Martin de Cordova, brother of the count d'Alcandela, who had been taken prisoner in the battle where that nobleman was killed, but had obtained his liberty from the Algerines with immense sums, and now made a most gallant defence against the Turks. The city was attacked with the utmost fury by sea and land, so that several breaches were made in the walls. The Turkish standards were several times planted on the walls, and as often dislodged; but the place must have in the end submitted, had not Hassan been obliged to raise the siege in haste, on the news that the famed Genoese admiral Doria was approaching with considerable succours from Italy.

In 1567 Hassan was recalled to Constantinople, where he died three years after. He was succeeded by Mahomet, who gained the love of the Algerines by several public-spirited actions. He incorporated the janizaries and Levantine Turks together, and by that means put an end to their dissensions, which paved the way for making Algiers independent of the Porte. He likewise added some considerable fortifications to the city and castle, which he designed to render impregnable. At this time one John Gascon, a bold Spanish adventurer, formed a design of surprising the whole piratical navy in the bay, and setting them on fire in the night-time. For this he not only had the permission of King Philip II., but was furnished by him with proper vessels, mariners, and fireworks, for the execution of his plot. He came accordingly, unperceived by any, to the very mole-gate, and dispersed his men with their fire-works; but, to their great surprise, they found these so ill mixed, that all their art could not make them take fire. In the mean time Gascon took it into his head, by way of bravado, to go to the mole-gate, and give three loud knocks with the pommel of his dagger. This he had the good fortune to do without meeting with any disturbance or opposition; but it was not so with his men; for on finding their endeavours unsuccessful, they made such a noise as quickly alarmed the guard posted on the adjacent bastion, from which the alarm quickly spread through the whole garrison. Gascon now finding himself in the utmost danger, sailed off with all possible haste; but he was pursued, overtaken, and brought back a prisoner to Mahomet, who no sooner got him into his power than he immediately caused a gibbet of considerable height to be erected on the spot where Gascon had landed, ordering him to be hoisted up, and hung by the feet to a hook, so that he died in exquisite torture.

Mahomet, being soon after recalled, was succeeded by the renegade Ochali, who reduced the kingdom of Tunis, which, however, remained subject to the viceroy of Algiers only till the year 1586, when a bashaw of Tunis was appointed by the Porte.

The kingdom of Algiers continued to be governed, till the beginning of the 17th century, by viceroys or bashaws appointed by the Porte, whose avarice and tyranny were intolerable both to the Algerines and the Turks themselves. At last the Turkish janizaries and militia became powerful enough to depose these petty tyrants, and set up officers of their own. They sent a deputation of some of their chief members to the Porte, to complain of the Algerine avarice and oppression of these bashaws, and represent how much more honourable, as well as more economical, it would be for the grand signior to permit them to choose from among themselves their own dey or governor, whose interest it would be to see that the revenue of the kingdom was duly employed in keeping up its forces complete, and in supplying all other exigencies of the state, without any further charge or trouble to the Porte than that of allowing them its protection. On their part, they engaged always to acknowledge the grand signior as their sovereign, to pay him their usual allegiance and tribute, to respect his bashaws, and to lodge and maintain them and their retinue. All concerns which related to the government of Algiers were to be left under the direction of the dey and his douwan.

These proposals having been accepted by the Porte, the deputies returned highly satisfied; and having notified their new privileges, the great douwan immediately proceeded to the election of a dey from among themselves. Altercations, however, frequently happened between the bashaws and deys, the one endeavouring to recover their former power, and the other to reduce it.

In the year 1601 the Spaniards, under the command of Doria, the Genoese admiral, made another attempt upon Algiers, in which they were more fortunate than usual, their fleet being only driven back by contrary winds, so that they came off without loss. In 1609 the Moors, being expelled from Spain, flocked in great numbers to Algiers; and as many of them were very able sailors, they undoubtedly contributed to raise the Algerine fleet to that formidable condition which it soon after reached; though it is probable the frequent attempts made on their city would also induce them to increase their fleet. In 1616 it consisted of 40 sail of ships between 200 and 400 tons, their flag-ship having 500 tons. It was divided into two squadrons, one of 18 sail, stationed before the port of Malaga, and the other at the cape of Santa Maria, between Lisbon and Seville, both of which attacked all Christian ships, both English and French, with whom they pretended to be in friendship, as well as Spaniards and Portuguese, with whom they were at war.

The Algerines were now become very formidable to the European powers. The Spaniards, who were most in danger, and least able to cope with them, solicited the assistance of England and other states, and of the pope. The French, however, were the first who dared to show their resentment of these outrages; and in 1617 M. Beaulieu was sent against the Algerines with a fleet of 50 men of war, who defeated their fleet and took two of their vessels, while their admiral sunk his own ship and crew rather than fall into his enemies' hands.

In 1620 a squadron of English men of war was sent against Algiers, under the conduct of Sir Robert Mansel; but of this expedition we have no other account than that it returned without effecting anything; and the Algerines, becoming more and more insolent, openly defied all the European powers, the Dutch only excepted, to whom, in 1625, they sent a proposal directed to the prince of Orange, that in case they would fit out 20 sail of ships the following year, upon any good service against the Spaniards, they would join them with 60 sail of their own.

The next year the Coudolies or Cologlies (the children of such Turks as had been permitted to marry at Algiers), who were enrolled in the militia, having seized on the citadel, had nearly made themselves masters of the city, but were attacked by the Turks and renegadoes, who defeated them with terrible slaughter. Many of them were put to death, and their heads thrown in heaps. Algiers upon the city-walls, without the eastern gate. Part of the citadel was blown up; and the remaining Coulolies were dismissed from the militia, to which they were not again admitted till long after.

In the year 1623 Algiers and the other states of Barbary threw off altogether their dependence on the Porte. No sooner was this resolution taken, than the Algerines began to make prizes of several merchant ships belonging to powers at peace with the Porte. Having seized a Dutch ship and palace at Scanderoon, they ventured on shore; and finding the town abandoned by the Turkish aga and inhabitants, they plundered all the magazines and warehouses, and set them on fire. About this time Louis XIII. undertook to build a fort on their coasts, in the room of one formerly built by the Marilians, which they had demolished. This, after some difficulty, he accomplished, and it was called the Bastion of France; but the situation being afterwards found inconvenient, the French purchased the port of La Calle, and obtained liberty to trade with the Arabians and Moors. The Ottoman court, in the mean time, was so much embarrassed with the Persian war, that there was no leisure to check the Algerine piracies. This gave an opportunity to the vizier and other courtiers to compound with the Algerines, and to share their prizes, which were very considerable. However, for form's sake, a severe reprimand, accompanied with threats, was sent them; to which they replied, that "these depredations deserved to be indulged to them, seeing they were the only bulwark against the Christian powers, especially against the Spaniards, the sworn enemies of the Moslem name;" adding, that "if they should pay a punctilious regard to all that could purchase peace, or liberty to trade with the Ottoman empire, they would have nothing to do but set fire to all their shipping, and turn camel-drivers for a livelihood."

In the year 1635 four younger brothers of a good family in France entered into an undertaking so desperate, that perhaps the annals of knight-errantry can scarcely furnish its equal. This was no less than to retort the piracies of the Algerines upon themselves, and this with a small frigate of ten guns! In this ridiculous undertaking 100 volunteers embarked: a Maltese commission was procured, together with an able master and 36 mariners. They had the good fortune, on their first setting out, to take a ship laden with wine on the Spanish coast, with which they were so much elated, that three days after they madly encountered two large Algerine corsairs, one of 20 and the other of 24 guns, both well manned, and commanded by able officers. These vessels attacked the frigate so furiously that she soon lost her mainmast; notwithstanding which, the French made so desperate a resistance, that the pirates were not able to take them, till the noise of their fire brought up five more Algerines, when the French vessel, being almost torn in pieces, was boarded and taken. The young knights-errant were punished for their temerity by a dreadful captivity, from which they redeemed themselves in 1642 at the price of 6000 dollars.

The Algerines prosecuted their piracies with impunity, to the terror and disgrace of the Europeans, till the year 1632, when a French fleet being accidentally driven to Algiers, the admiral took it into his head to demand a release of all the captives of his nation, without exception. This being refused, the Frenchman without ceremony carried off the Turkish viceroy, and his cadi or judge, who had just arrived from the Porte, with all their equipage and retinue. The Algerines, by way of reprisal, surprised the Bastion of France already mentioned, and carried off the inhabitants to the number of 600, with all their effects; which so provoked the admiral, that he sent them word that he would pay them another visit the next year with his whole fleet.

The Algerines, undismayed by the threats of the French admiral, fitted out a fleet of 16 galleys and galliots, well manned and equipped, under the command of Admiral Hali Pinchinin. The chief design of this armament was to capture the treasure of Loretto, which, however, they were prevented by contrary winds from reaching. They then made a descent on Puglia, in the kingdom of Naples, where they ravaged the whole territory of Necota, carrying off a vast number of captives. Thence steering towards Dalmatia, they scoured the Adriatic; and, having collected immense plunder, left these coasts in the utmost consternation and resentment.

At last the Venetians, alarmed at such terrible depredations, equipped a fleet of 28 sail, under the command of Admiral Capello, with express orders to burn, sink, or take, all the Barbary corsairs he should meet. An engagement ensued, in which the Algerines were defeated, and five of their vessels disabled, with the loss of 1500 men, Turks and Christian slaves, besides 1600 galley-slaves who regained their liberty. Pinchinin, after this defeat, returned to Valona, where he was again watched by Capello; but the latter had not lain long at his old anchorage before he received a letter from the senate, desiring him to make no further attempt on the pirates at that time, for fear of a rupture with the Porte. The brave Venetian was forced to comply; but resolving to take such a leave of the Algerines as he thought they deserved, attacked them with such bravery, that, without any great loss, his men towed out their 16 galleys, with all their cannon, stores, &c. To conceal this, Capello was ordered to sink all the Algerine ships he had taken, except the admiral's, which was to be conducted to Venice, and laid up as a trophy. Capello came off with a severe reprimand; but the Venetians were obliged to purchase, with 500,000 ducats, a peace from the Porte.

The news of this defeat and loss filled Algiers with the utmost grief and confusion. The whole city was on the point of a general insurrection, when the bashaw and douwan issued a proclamation, forbidding complaints and outcry, under the severest penalties. In the mean time they applied to the Porte for an order that the Venetians settled in the Levant should make up their loss. But with this the grand signor refused to comply, and left them to repair their losses, as well as build new ships, in the best manner they could.

Our pirates did not long continue in their weak and defenseless state; being able, at the end of two years, to appear at sea with a fleet of 65 sail. Admiral Pinchinin equipped four galliots at his own expense, with which, in conjunction with the chiayah, or secretary of the bashaw of Tripoli, he made a second excursion. This small squadron, consisting of five galleys and two brigantines, fell in with an English ship of 40 guns, which, however, Pinchinin's captains refused to engage; but being afterwards reproached by him for their cowardice, they swore to attack the next Christian ship that should come in their way. This happened to be a Dutch merchantman of 28 guns, which, however, beat them off with great loss. But though Pinchinin thus returned in disgrace, the rest of the fleet quickly returned with vast numbers of slaves, and an immense quantity of rich spoils; insomuch that the English, French, and Dutch, were obliged to court the mighty Algerines, who sometimes vouchsafed to be at peace with them, but swore eternal war against Spain, Portugal, and Italy, whom they looked upon as the greatest enemies to the Mahometan name. At last Louis XIV., provoked by the grievous outrages committed by the Algerines on the coasts of Provence and Languedoc, ordered, in 1681, a considerable fleet to be fitted out against them, under the marquis du Quesne, vice-admiral of France. His first expedition was against a number of Tripolitan corsairs, who had the good fortune to escape him, and shelter themselves in the island of Scio, belonging to the Turks. This did not, however, prevent him from pursuing them thither, and making such a terrible fire upon them as quickly destroyed fourteen of their vessels, besides battering the walls of the castle.

This severity seemed only to be designed as a check to the piracies of the Algerines; but, finding they still continued their outrages on the French coast, he sailed to Algiers in August 1682, cannonading and bombarding it so furiously, that the whole town was in flames in a very short time. The great mosque was battered down, and most of the houses laid in ruins, insomuch that the inhabitants were on the point of abandoning the place; when on a sudden the wind changed, and obliged Du Quesne to return to Toulon. The Algerines immediately made reprisals, by sending a number of galleys and galliots to the coast of Provence, where they committed the most dreadful ravages, and brought away a vast number of captives; upon which a new armament was ordered to be prepared at Toulon and Marseilles against the next year; and the Algerines, having received timely notice, put themselves in as good a state of defence as the time would allow.

In May 1683, Du Quesne, with his squadron, cast anchor before Algiers; where, being joined by the marquis d'Afranville at the head of five stout vessels, he resolved to bombard the town next day. Accordingly, 100 bombs were thrown into it the first day, which did terrible execution; while the besieged made some hundred discharges of their cannon without doing any considerable damage. The following nights the bombs were again thrown into the city in such numbers, that the dey's palace and other great edifices were almost destroyed; some of their batteries were dismounted, and several vessels sunk in the port. The dey and Turkish bashaw, as well as the whole soldiery, alarmed at this dreadful devastation, sued for peace. As a preliminary, the immediate surrender of all Christian captives who had been taken fighting under the French flag was demanded; which being granted, 142 of them were immediately delivered up, with a promise of sending the remainder as soon as they could be got from the different quarters of the country. Accordingly Du Quesne sent his commissary-general, and one of his engineers, into the town; but with express orders to insist upon the delivery of all the French captives without exception, together with the effects taken from the French; and that Mezomorto, the admiral, and Hali Rais, one of their captains, should be given as hostages.

This last demand having embarrassed the dey, he assembled the douwan, and acquainted them with it; upon which Mezomorto broke out into a violent passion, and told the assembly that the cowardice of those who sat at the helm had occasioned the ruin of Algiers; but that, for his part, he would never consent to deliver up any thing that had been taken from the French. He immediately acquainted the soldiery with what had passed; which so exasperated them, that they murdered the dey that very night, and next day chose Mezomorto in his place. The new dey immediately cancelled all the articles of peace, and hostilities were renewed with greater fury than ever.

The French admiral now kept pouring in such volleys of bombs, that in less than three days the greater part of the city was reduced to ashes; and the fire burnt with such vehemence, that the sea was illumined by it for more than two leagues around. Mezomorto, unmoved at all these disasters, and the vast number of the slain, whose blood ran in rivulets along the streets, or rather growing furious and desperate, sought only revenge; and, not content with causing all the French in the city to be cruelly murdered, ordered their consul to be tied hand and foot, and fastened alive to the mouth of a mortar, whence he was shot away. By this piece of inhumanity Du Quesne was so exasperated, that he did not leave Algiers till he had utterly destroyed their fortifications, shipping, almost all the lower, and above two-thirds of the upper part of the city, by which means it became little else than a heap of ruins.

The haughty Algerines were now thoroughly convinced that they were not invincible; they therefore immediately sent an embassy into France, begging in the most abject terms for peace, which Louis immediately granted, to their inexpressible joy. They now began to pay some regard to other nations, and to be a little cautious how they wantonly incurred their displeasure. The first bombardment by the French had so far humbled the Algerines, that they condescended to enter into a treaty with England, which was renewed upon terms very advantageous to the latter in 1686. It is not to be supposed, however, that the rooted perfidy of the Algerines would at once disappear. Notwithstanding this treaty, they lost no opportunity of making prizes of the English ships which they could conveniently reach. Upon some outrage of this kind, Captain Beach drove ashore and burnt seven of their frigates in 1695, which produced a renewal of the treaty five years after; but it was not till the taking of Gibraltar and Port Mahon that Britain could have a sufficient check upon them to enforce the observation of treaties, and they have since paid a greater deference to the English than to any other European power.

The eighteenth century furnishes no very remarkable events with regard to Algiers, except the taking of the city of Oran from the Spaniards in 1708 (which, however, they regained in 1737), and the expulsion of the Turkish bashaw, and uniting his office to that of dey, in 1710.

The increasing naval power of the great European states, in this century, made the Barbary corsairs more cautious in their attacks, which were now chiefly confined to the weaker states in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, particularly those of Naples and Sardinia—not only attacking their vessels, but making descents upon their shores, and carrying off not only property but also persons of every age, sex, and rank, and disposing of them as slaves. Europe, engrossed by the mightier evils in which it was involved during thirty years of war, bestowed comparatively little attention on this partial distress. At the Congress of Vienna, however, when the peace of the Continent appeared to be established on a permanent basis, the attention of the sovereigns was laudably drawn to every quarter from which it could suffer disturbance. The evil in question, by which numerous individuals, often of a respectable place in society, were torn from their homes, immured in dungeons, and exposed to every outrage, could not fail to appear of the first magnitude. The Congress, having been unexpectedly broken up, did not come to any final decision. The subject, however, continued to be agitated in the councils of Britain, and her gallant officers who had been employed in the Mediterranean strongly represented the propriety of interference. The Dutch, at the same time, her now friendly neighbours, cordially concurred in promoting this common interest of humanity.

The first step taken was to send squadrons under Lord Exmouth to Algiers, and Sir Thomas Maitland to Tunis, Algiers, with a demand for the general liberation of the slaves actually in bondage, and the entire discontinuance, for the future, of this detestable trade. Overawed by the immense power with which they knew these demands to be supported, they returned a conciliatory answer. They dismissed a number of slaves actually in their hands, and engaged that only the final sanction of the Porte should be wanting to abolish forever the system of Christian slavery. The British commanders then returned to England with their fleets, which were immediately laid up.

Tunis, which had imbibed some portion of European humanity and civilisation, and was better aware of its real interests and position, adhered very tolerably to the terms stipulated. But Algiers, bred in rapine, furiously repelled a system which opened to its rovers the fearful prospect of being obliged to earn a subsistence by honest industry. So dreadful was the ferment, that a plan, it is said, had been formed to assassinate Lord Exmouth on his way to the ship. The dey, raised from the dregs of the soldiery, and sharing all their barbarism, allowed full scope to their violence, and sought only to secure himself against its effects. He formed alliances with the Porte, the emperor of Morocco, and other leading Mussulman potentates; he strengthened Algiers with new works, and prepared to brave the utmost fury of the Christian powers. Under these precautions, the system of Christian piracy was commenced with redoubled activity, to compensate for the late suspension, and to repair the loss of the slaves who had been given up. The Algerine soldiery, in their blind fury, had recourse to an outrage still more terrible. A number of vessels, belonging to Naples and other Mediterranean states, had been in the practice of assembling at Bona to carry on the pearl fishery, in which, upon payment of an annual tribute, they were protected by the Algerine state. Suddenly these peaceful and industrious fishermen were surrounded by a band of Moors, who commenced an indiscriminate massacre, which could not be justified on any ground or pretence, and seems to have had no object but to show their implacable hatred to the Christian name.

As soon as the tidings of this dreadful outrage arrived in England, they kindled at once a just indignation, and a determination to follow up to the utmost the measures projected against this common pest of the civilized world. Lord Exmouth's fleet was re-equipped with almost incredible dispatch. Early in July 1816 he sailed with five ships of the line and eight smaller vessels, and arrived at Gibraltar in the beginning of August, when he was joined by a Dutch fleet of six frigates under Admiral Capellen. Having remained at Gibraltar a short time, to make some necessary preparations, Lord Exmouth sent forward Captain Dashwood; of the Prometheus, to bring away, if possible, the consul and his family. Captain Dashwood was strictly interrogated as to Lord Exmouth's armament, of which the dey had received information from a French vessel, and from other quarters. He contrived to evade the questions; and, though he found it impossible to obtain the consul's release, managed to bring off his wife and daughter, disguised in the uniform of naval officers. An attempt was also made to carry off his infant child in a basket, but it betrayed itself by its cries; however, the dey, with unusual humanity, allowed the child to follow its mother. The consul himself was thrown into close confinement. The dey, meantime, was exerting himself in the most extraordinary manner to put the place in a posture of defence. The batteries on the mole, and all other points commanding the harbour, were strengthened and enlarged; and armed men, to the number of forty thousand, were brought in from the surrounding country.

Lord Exmouth, being detained by calms and contrary winds, did not anchor in front of Algiers till the 26th, when he sent in a flag of truce under cover of the Severn gunbrig, with a peremptory demand of certain conditions, which, however, were extremely moderate. They consisted in the final abolition of Christian slavery—the immediate liberation of all slaves now within the territory of Algiers—the repayment of all ransoms obtained since the commencement of the year—the liberation of the consul and all British subjects now in confinement. On the Severn arriving in front of the mole, the captain of the port came out to meet the English, and invited them to enter the city. Salame, the interpreter, declined, but presented the conditions, demanding that an answer should be sent within an hour. The captain, not without some reason, replied that this was a period wholly inadequate to decide on so important a demand. Hereupon two or three hours were allowed; and two were declared by the captain to be sufficient. Meantime, a favourable breeze having sprung up, Lord Exmouth moved forward his ships to within a mile of the harbour, where he held himself ready for action. Salame waited three hours and a half, when no boat appearing from the land, he steered for the fleet, making signals of the failure of his mission; after which, steps were immediately taken for commencing operations.

Algiers was fortified in the strongest manner, and by all the resources of nature and art. The mole, considered a masterpiece of defensive architecture, was encircled by four batteries, respectively of 44, 48, 66, and 60 guns. All the range of steeps facing the sea, on which the city was built, were covered with batteries, which could keep up a united fire on an assailing fleet. Lord Exmouth, undismayed, bore up into the centre of this mighty line of defence, and placed the Queen Charlotte within fifty yards of the mole—a bold and happy position, where her own fire was more effective than elsewhere, and many of the principal Turkish guns could not bear upon her. The other ships took their stations in line; while the Dutch squadron, which could not find room in front of the mole, was detached to the flanks, to occupy the fire of batteries which might otherwise have borne on the English. The fleets were placed in this formidable array, yet all was still silent, and the surrounding heights were crowded with spectators, who came as to a show. Lord Exmouth began to hope that the dey was yet to yield, when three shots were fired from the batteries. They were instantly returned, and a fire commenced, as animated and well supported as was ever witnessed. The British navy, pitched against these iron walls, underwent as hard and doubtful a struggle as it had ever maintained against the strongest array of hostile fleets. The atmosphere was filled with so thick a smoke, as to render it impossible for one ship to discern the position of another. About sunset Admiral Milne communicated that his vessel, the Impregnable, had lost 150 killed and wounded, and that he stood in urgent need of a frigate to divert some part of the fire now directed against them. Soon, however, the enemy's efforts began to slacken; the principal batteries were successively silenced; ship after ship caught fire, till the flame spread over the whole fleet, and reached the arsenal; the harbour and bay were illumined by one mighty and united blaze. At ten o'clock, seven hours after the commencement of this hard combat, the destruction of the Algerine naval force was complete; but as some distant batteries still kept up a harassing fire, Lord Exmouth gave the signal to steer out into the bay, which was speedily accomplished.

Next morning Lord Exmouth, confident that the dey Algiers was now sufficiently humbled, sent a letter, in which, after enumerating the heavy wrongs which had called forth this signal chastisement, he repeated the moderate terms already offered, adding, that in the event of their being now accepted, three guns should be fired as a signal. This letter was sent in the same boat as the day before, with instructions to wait three hours. As soon as the English boat was seen, another came out, having on board the captain of a frigate, who received the letter, and intimated that there was no doubt of its terms being complied with; pretending even that, had a little longer time been allowed the day before, the conflict would have been unnecessary. Accordingly, in an hour and a half three shots were fired, and a boat immediately came out, on board of which were the captain of the port and the Swedish consul. All the demands were granted; and the dey in vain attempted, on various pretexts, to evade or delay their execution. The captives, to the number of 1083, were set at liberty; ransoms amounting to 382,500 dollars were repaid to Sicily and Sardinia; the consul was liberated, and received a compensation for the insults he had endured; in fine, a treaty was signed, by which the dey bound himself to discontinue the practice of Christian slavery, and hereafter to treat prisoners of war according to the established practice of civilized nations.

In this desperate contest the English lost 128 killed and 690 wounded, the Dutch 13 killed and 52 wounded. Lord Exmouth received two slight hurts, and his clothes were cut with several balls. The enemy lost four frigates, five large corvettes, and 30 gun-boats. All their arsenals were consumed, and their principal batteries reduced to a state of ruin. The city also was greatly injured, Salame having counted no less than thirty shots which had passed through the walls of the consul's house.

The Algerines, notwithstanding this severe and merited chastisement, did not long adhere to sentiments of moderation. No time was lost, and no effort spared to place the city in a more formidable state of defence than ever; and they considered themselves again in a condition to set even the great powers at defiance. Annoyances were begun against the French trade; and the consul having made remonstrances on the subject, was grossly insulted. France then declared war, and sent a fleet against Algiers; but the fortifications on the sea-side were so strong, that for more than a year her ships could only prolong an ineffective blockade. At length war on a great scale was resolved on. A large fleet under Admiral Duperre, and a land force of upwards of 30,000 men under General Bourmont, then minister at war, sailed from Toulon in the end of May 1830. After some delay in the bay of Palma in Majorca, this armament reached the coast of Africa, and the troops began to land on the morning of the 14th June, upon the western side of the peninsula of Sidi Ferruch, in the bay of Torre Chica. The disembarkation began at a quarter past four, and continued till twelve. The Algerines at first showed only flying parties of horse, which retreated before the fire of two steam-vessels. Afterwards they opened a somewhat brisk fire from several batteries, which having kept up for several hours, not without some loss on the part of the French, they retreated.

The army continued for some days landing their provisions and stores, with only slight annoyance from flying troops of cavalry. On the 19th, however, the Turkish troops in Algiers being reinforced by the contingents of the beys of Constantine, Oran, and Titterie, a general attack was made with a force of 40,000 or 50,000 men. They advanced, outflanking the French army, and charged with such impetuosity as to penetrate the line at several points. After a very obstinate conflict they were compelled to retreat, and their camp was taken and plundered. The French admit a loss of 60 killed and 450 wounded; and the son of the commander-in-chief died of his wounds.

The Algerine troops renewed their attacks on the 24th and 25th, when, after hard combats, they were again repulsed. The French then advanced upon Algiers; on the 29th the trenches were opened, and at four in the morning of the 4th July the batteries began their fire, which was returned with much vigour. At ten the fort called Emperor, being no longer defensible, was blown up by the enemy, with a tremendous explosion. The French commander took possession of its ruins, where he received a flag of truce; before the close of the day a treaty was concluded for the entire surrender of Algiers; and next day, 5th July, the French flag waved on its forts. Twelve ships of war, 1500 brass cannon, and L2,028,500 sterling, came into the hands of the conquerors. The Turkish troops were permitted to go wherever they pleased, provided they left Algiers; and the dey chose Naples for his place of retirement, while most of the soldiers desired to be landed in Asia Minor.

The capture of Algiers was celebrated in France with great demonstrations of joy. This was the first military exploit of any brilliancy of which France could boast since the downfall of Napoleon. General Bourmont was raised to the rank of marshal, and Admiral Duperre was promoted to the peerage. The ministry had hoped by this war to render themselves popular with a people so enthusiastically fond of military glory, and to divert the public attention from their mal-administration. But three weeks after the capture of Algiers, the revolution of 1830 dethroned the elder branch of the house of Bourbon, and placed the crown on the head of the Duke of Orleans. On receiving intelligence of this event, the army in Algiers declared in favour of the revolutionists. General Clausel was appointed to succeed Marshal Bourmont, with instructions to reduce to obedience all the provinces dependent on Algiers, and to promote commerce and agriculture by encouraging the settlement of European emigrants. The new governor found himself placed in circumstances requiring the greatest prudence, both in his intercourse with the natives, and in his military operations. The French army, which had not been there three months, was already reduced, by the loss of 15,000 men, killed, wounded, or sick; and from the unsettled state of the country at home, the French government was unable to render him any efficient assistance. The conquerors, instead of attempting to gain the good will of the natives, had destroyed a number of their mosques, seized upon lands set apart for religious purposes, and attempted to introduce their own forms and usages in the place of those of the country,—the consequence of which was that the natives imbibed the greatest abhorrence of their oppressors, whom they looked upon as the enemies of God and their prophet. General Clausel increased them still more by seizing upon the possessions of the dey, the beys, and the expelled Turks, in direct violation of the conditions on which the capital had been surrendered. Colonists, however, now began to arrive from Europe, particularly from France and Germany, and a model farm was laid out in the vicinity of Algiers for the purpose of instructing the inhabitants in the arts of cultivation. Bona was taken possession of, and an incursion made into the southern province of Titterie, when the troops of the bey were defeated, and Mediah taken. The beys of Titterie and Oran were deposed; the former being sent to France, and a pension of 12,000 francs granted him; and the latter to Alexandria. Clausel established tributary rulers in the provinces, and actively assisted them when attacked by the hostile Arabs, while he severely punished those who were faithless in their engagements to him. Still the war continued. Mediah was evacuated, and Oran abandoned. The French were incessantly harassed by irruptions of hordes of the Arabs, so that no Frenchman was safe even in the vicinity of the town, and little reliance could be placed on the fidelity of the beys who governed the provinces. In these circumstances a corps of irregular Arab troops was organised; and Clausel entered into an agreement with the bey of Tunis, by which the provinces of Constantine and Oran were transferred to two brothers of the latter, on condition of their paying an annual tribute of a million of francs, and of their doing all in their power to promote the settlement of the French in the country. The French government, however, refused to sanction this treaty, on the ground that the governor had exceeded his powers. General Berthezene was now appointed commander-in-chief of the troops, although Clausel was still allowed to retain the title of governor of the colony. The warlike operations were continued during the ensuing spring and summer (1831), and several expeditions were made into the interior, to chastise the hostile tribes; but on the approach of the French troops, these wild hordes deserted their villages, dispersed themselves over the country, and again collecting, hung upon the rear of the army on its return.

In one of these expeditions (in June 1836) the French having gone to assist the new bey of Mediah whom the inhabitants refused to acknowledge, were attacked in their retreat by a numerous army of nomad tribes, which engaged them in incessant skirmishes, in which a great number of the French were slain. It was no longer possible to keep Belida and Mediah in subjection, and the newly-installed bey was obliged to take refuge in Algiers. In October Bona was surrounded and taken by the Kabyles. There was now no safety but in the town of Algiers; and the government found itself compelled, at the same time, to support the emigrants who had settled there. Agriculture was consequently neglected; and it was necessary to send to France for a supply of provisions, and for fresh troops.

The French government now determined to try the effect of a change in the administration of the colony, and entrusted the civil and military jurisdictions to distinct officers. Accordingly, in the end of the year 1831, Savary, Duke of Rovigo, was sent out as governor with an additional force of 16,000 men, and Baron Pichon was placed at the head of the civil administration of the colony; but in consequence of the conflicts between the two powers, they were both afterwards united in the hands of the governor. The determination of the French government to retain permanent possession of Algiers was now no longer doubtful. The new governor, the Duke of Rovigo, did not disdain to have recourse to fraud and cruelty for the accomplishment of his purpose. Among his exploits was the extirpation of an Arab tribe, on account of a robbery committed by them, when not only the men, but the women and children were massacred in the night-time; as were also two Arab chiefs, whom he had enticed into his power by a written assurance of safety. These proceedings still farther exasperated the natives, and those tribes which had hitherto remained quiet now embraced the cause of their countrymen.

About this time Abd-el-Kader first appears as an opponent to the French. For fourteen years, this chief, with a few nomadic Arab tribes, kept in check the forces of one of the most powerful nations of the world. His father, a marabout of the tribe of Hachem, had collected a few of the hostile tribes, and attacked and taken possession of Oran. On this the tribes wished to acknowledge him as their chief; but this, on account of his great age, he declined in favour of his son Abd-el-Kader, who, he said, united in himself all the qualities of intelligence, activity, valour, and piety, necessary to ensure success; farther adding, that in his journey to Mecca, an old fakir had predicted that his son would one day become sultan of the Arabs. Abd-el-Kader was born about the beginning of 1807, at the ghetna of his father, in the vicinity of Mascara. The Ghetna is a seminary where the marabouts instruct the young Arabs in literature, theology, and jurisprudence. Abd-el-Kader early distinguished himself in these branches, and soon acquired great reputation among his countrymen for his learning. Nor did he neglect those manly exercises for which the Arabs are distinguished, but was remarkable for his skill in horsemanship, and in throwing the lance and wielding the yatagan. He made two pilgrimages to Mecca in company with his father, once when only a child, and again in 1828, by which he obtained the title of Hadji. On his return he married a female whom he tenderly loved, and by whom he has two sons. He also visited Egypt, for the purpose of observing the civilisation which had been introduced there under Mahomet Ali. At the time that his father was proclaimed emir, he was living in obscurity, distinguished by the austerity of his manners, his piety, and his zeal in observing all the precepts of the Koran. Having resolved to devote himself to the defence of his country, he, by great exertions, collected an army of 10,000 horsemen, with whom, accompanied by his father, he marched to attack the town of Oran, which had been taken possession of by the French. They arrived before the town about the middle of May 1832; but after continuing their attack for three days with great bravery, they were repulsed with considerable loss.

In this first essay of Abd-el-Kader as a soldier, he is said to have conducted himself with extraordinary bravery. He several times threw himself into the thickest of the fight, to teach the Arabs not to dread the fire of the artillery. This enterprise was followed by a series of contests more or less severe between the parties, without any permanent or decided advantage being gained by either. In March 1833, the Duke of Rovigo was obliged, on account of his declining health, to return to France, and General Avizard was appointed interim governor; but the latter dying shortly afterwards, General Vorrol was nominated his successor. Abd-el-Kader was still extending his influence more and more widely among the Arab tribes, and now resolved to subdue the whole province of Mascara. He accordingly marched to Tlemecen, which at that time was in the possession of two separate factions; the Turks occupying the citadel and the Moors the rest of the town. Abd-el-Kader began by attacking the Moors, whose chief soon took to flight, and the inhabitants surrendered the town. He treated them with great kindness, and set a new chief over them; but he was not equally successful with the Turks, who refused to surrender; and not having been able to force the citadel, he returned to Mascara, where he heard with great grief of the death of his father. The French now considered it their interest to offer the emir conditions of peace. A treaty was accordingly concluded with him by General Desmichels, governor of Oran; one of the conditions of

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1 When the French undertook the Algerine expedition, the Duke of Wellington's Ministry insisted upon and obtained from the French court pledges that France did not aim at the permanent possession of Algiers, but only to obtain satisfaction for the injuries and insults she had received, and to put down that system of piracy with which Europe had been so long outraged. The French Ministry engaged that these objects being accomplished, the final settlement and government of the country should be arranged in concert with the other European powers for the general advantage; and the Wellington Cabinet obtained a repetition of these assurances from Louis Philippe and his ministry immediately after their accession. Nevertheless, in the session of 1833, the French Ministry declared that it was the intention of their government to retain possession of Algiers and to colonise it. which was, that the emir was to have a monopoly of the trade with the French in corn. This part of the treaty General Desmichels at first endeavoured to keep secret from the government; but they soon heard of it, from the disputes which arose, and the general was consequently removed from his post. Towards the end of 1834, Drouet Count d'Erlon was appointed governor-general of the colony; and under him were appointed a commander of the troops, a commander of the naval forces, and several other officers. Tribunals of justice were also established, by which both French and natives were allowed to enjoy their respective laws. From the tranquil state of the country at this time, the new governor was enabled to devote his attention to its improvement. The French soon became jealous of the power of the emir; and on the pretence that he had been encroaching on their territory, General Trezel, who had succeeded Desmichels in the governorship of Oran, was sent out against him with a considerable force. The two armies met at the River Macta, where the French army was routed with great slaughter on the 28th of June 1835. On the news of this defeat the government resolved effectually to humble Abd-el-Kader, and sent Marshal Clausel to Algiers for that purpose, where he arrived in August 1835. On the 26th November following, he set out, at the head of 11,000 men, for Mascara, which he reached on the 6th of the following month. On his arrival, finding the town totally deserted, he destroyed it, and afterwards returned to Algiers, persuading himself, if we may judge from his bulletins, that he had extirpated the Arab power. Some time after this the emir attacked General d'Arlanges and a company of 3000 men, on the Tafna. The contest was continued for some time with great vigour, but the French troops were at length put to flight. On this General Bugeaud was commissioned to put down the emir either by hostile or pacific measures. Conciliatory means having failed, he attacked the Arabs at the pass of Sikak, on the 6th of July 1836, and gained a complete victory over them; but not having sufficiently followed up this advantage, the emir in a few months had so far recovered himself that the French were fain to conclude a treaty with him, even on terms very advantageous to the Arabs. By the terms of this treaty, Abd-el-Kader was allowed to retain possession of those parts of the country that were already in subjection to him, with liberty to purchase from the French such military stores as he required; while on his side he was bound to acknowledge the sovereignty of France, and to deliver for the use of the French army a stipulated quantity of provisions. This treaty was concluded on the 30th of May 1837. Previous to this, however, Marshal Clausel made an unsuccessful attack upon Constantine. He arrived before the town after a very fatiguing march on the 21st of November 1836, with a force of about 9000 men. After several unsuccessful attacks upon the town, he was obliged to retreat. In this expedition he lost a great number of his soldiers through exhaustion and disease; and this failure occasioned his recall from his government. His successor, general Damremont, arrived on the 3d of April 1837; and after subjecting some tribes of the Kabyles who had revolted, he directed his attention to the capture of Constantine—for which purpose he collected a force of 12,000 men, partly Europeans and partly natives. With this army he arrived before the town on the 6th of October without encountering any opposition on his march. The town was defended by 6000 or 7000 men, chiefly Kabyles, under the command of Ben Aissa, the deputy of the bey. After a very gallant defence, the town was taken by storm on the 13th of that month by General Vallée, General Damremont having been killed by a cannon ball on the preceding day. On the capture of the city, the neighbouring tribes hastened to make their submission to the conquerors; and a strong garrison being left to defend the town, the army retraced its steps to Bona, where it arrived on the 3d of November. As a reward for his services, General Vallée was made a marshal, and appointed governor-general of the colony. Disputes with the emir as to the boundaries of his territory were very frequent, until at length war was again declared between the parties. The French have endeavoured to fix upon the emir the infringement of both these treaties; but the truth seems to be, that it was occasioned by their jealousy of his growing power; and even some of themselves admit, that he can be accused of no breach of faith, and that, in both instances, the formal violation of the treaties was by the French. The emir, like a good general, had employed those intervals of peace in extending his influence among his subjects, chastising those tribes that refused to acknowledge him, and treating those who submitted to his authority with the greatest kindness. He set rulers and chiefs on whom he could depend over the divisions and subdivisions of his territory, and bestowed the greatest attention on the military training of his subjects.

The immediate cause of the war on this occasion was the marching of an armed force of French troops through the emir's territory. This the latter looked upon as an infringement of the treaty, and consequently declared war. On the 14th of December 1839, he fell upon the French troops in the plain of Metidja, and routing them with great slaughter, took and destroyed their settlements. He even advanced as far as the very walls of Algiers, and soon reduced their possessions to the fortified places which they occupied. On this the French army in Africa was augmented, and numerous skirmishes took place, without any decisive results to either party; the only thing worthy of notice being the gallant and successful defence, for four days, of Fort Mazagran, near Mostagan, by a garrison of 123 men, against from 12,000 to 13,000 of the enemy. The campaign was opened on the part of the French on the 25th of April 1840, when they set out with a considerable force to take possession of the towns of Mediah and Milanah. Although successful, the permanent results of this expedition were comparatively trifling. The garrisons left behind found themselves so surrounded by enemies that they could not trust themselves without their walls; and even when the French arms were successful at a distance, no one could consider himself secure immediately without the walls of Algiers. The French government being dissatisfied with Marshal Vallée's want of success, appointed General Bugeaud as his successor. The new governor-general arrived at Algiers on the 22d of February 1841. On opening the campaign, his first object was to provision Mediah and Milanah. Having accomplished this, he next marched at the head of 11,000 men to Jekedent, the principal stronghold of Abd-el-Kader. When he arrived there on the 25th of May, he found it abandoned by its inhabitants; on which he ordered it to be destroyed, and the citadel, which had been built by the emir, to be blown up. From hence the general went to Mascara, which he entered on the 30th of the month. In October following, he set out for Laida, the only remaining stronghold in the possession of the emir, which he took, and entirely demolished. These misfortunes of the emir caused numerous defections among his subjects;—none of them now offered any opposition to the French, and several of them became their allies. The region towards the borders of Morocco being still unsubdued, an expedition was sent into that territory in January 1842. On the 30th of that month, they took the town of Tlemcen; and ten days afterwards the fort of Tafrua, which they demolished. The troops of Abd-el-Kader having been almost entirely destroyed by so many misfortunes, he was Algiers.

obliged to take refuge in Marocco, and most of his subject tribes now submitted to the French. But Abd-el-Kader was not yet overcome: he appeared again with a small force, and going from tribe to tribe exhorted them, by all they held dear and sacred, to bestir themselves, and by one vigorous effort, to drive the invaders out of their country. By these means he was able to raise a considerable force; and he made up for the want of troops by the rapidity of his movements. He suddenly made an attack upon one part of the French territories, when he was supposed to be in quite a contrary direction, and even advanced to within a short distance of Mascara. An army was accordingly sent out against him, which advanced south as far as the sources of the Taguin, but without coming up to the enemy. On their retreat, however, a conflict took place at Isna, in which the Arabs were defeated, and the emir himself narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. On this the French troops returned to Mascara, in the end of November 1842. The emir now stirred up the Kabyles of Bongie to make an attack upon Cherchell. In this however they were baffled by the energetic proceedings of General Bugeaud, who did not hesitate to go in the middle of winter to the mountainous regions of the Jurjura to quell this insurrection. Though the colony was now in a comparatively quiet and secure state, this had only been accomplished at a vast expenditure of money, amounting to not less than £50,000,000 sterling, and at a great sacrifice of human life, of which we may in some measure judge from the fact that, in the month of September, independently of the lives lost, out of 80,000 men, as many as 24,000 were lying in the hospitals. It is unnecessary to follow out the remaining struggles of the emir in Algiers. His forces were now so reduced, that he could not cope with the French in the open field, though he did not cease to harass them by incursions into their territories.

The emir was at length reduced to such straits, that he agreed to deliver himself up to the French, on receiving a promise of safety, and of being allowed to retire to Alexandria or to St Jean d'Acre. Notwithstanding this promise, which was given by General Lamoriciere, and ratified by the governor of the colony, the Duke d'Aumale, son of Louis Philippe, he and his suite were embarked at Oran for Toulon, where he arrived on the 29th of January 1848. From Toulon the emir was removed first to the chateau of Paris, and afterwards (in November) to the chateau of Amboise near Bois, where, till very recently, he was detained a prisoner. The emir, in December 1852, left France for Broussa, where he now lives in retirement, and is said to be devoting his time chiefly to reading the Koran, and religious exercises.

Since the removal of Abd-el-Kader from Algiers, the French power may be said to be established in the country; but even now skirmishes are not unfrequent with some of the more unsettled tribes. This possession has as yet turned out to be anything but a profitable speculation for France; and although it has been lately much improved, it is doubtful if, for many years to come, it will compensate for the immense sums of money and the loss of life that it has occasioned to that country.

Before giving an account of the present government of Algiers, it may be interesting to take some notice of it under the Turks. The bey or pasha, although nominally under the Porte, to whom he annually transmitted some presents, was in reality an absolute monarch. The first Beys were elected by the militia, who were then called the douwan or "common council." This body was at first composed of 800 militia officers, but was afterwards reduced to thirty chiah-bashanes or colonels, with the mufti or high priest, and cadji, or chief judge, upon some emergencies; and on the election of a dey the whole militia was allowed Algiers to vote. Latterly the power of this court was merely nominal, and it had only to sanction the measures of the dey. The dey rose from the army, and indeed any bold and aspiring soldier might attain that honour, if he succeeded in getting rid of the existing ruler. Thus the dey was continually exposed to attacks, and few of them had the good fortune to die in office. The new dey frequently established his power by causing to be strangled all the officers of the douwan who had opposed his election. Each of the three provinces, exclusive of Algiers, was governed by a bey nominated by the dey. The corsairs or pirates formed a number of small republics, of each of which the rais or captain was the supreme bashaw; who, with the officers under him, composed a kind of douwan, in which every question relating to the vessel was decided. These corsairs carried on likewise the commerce of Algiers, importing whatever commodities were brought into the kingdom either as merchandise or as prizes.

At present the country is under a governor-general, who is invested with the chief power in all the civil and military affairs. Each of the provinces has a prefect, under whom are sub-prefects for each of the districts, and under these, a number of native rulers over smaller divisions. Various courts of justice have been established, with a court of appeal in the capital, composed of two chambers—the one for civil, and the other for criminal cases. The natives are also still allowed their own courts and laws; and among the Jews, justice is administered by the rabbis.

The Roman Catholic religion was established here in 1838. Religion. There is a cathedral in Algiers, and the Catholic worship is performed in almost every town, either in edifices built for the purpose, or in mosques which have been appropriated to that end. The Bishop of Algiers is assisted by four vicars-general, and eight canons, with a number of curates and vicars, amounting in 1849 to 114. There are four Protestant pastors in the country, established at the towns of Algiers, Douera, Blidah, and Oran. The Jews and Turks are also allowed the free exercise of their religious worship.

Considerable attention is paid to education by the establishment of schools and other means. In 1850 there were 68 public, 39 private, and eight infant schools, attended by 9679 scholars, besides Mussulman and Jewish schools. There is also a college at Algiers, the capital; and in 1848 an academy was established there, at the head of which is a rector, who, assisted by an inspector, has the general superintendence of the public instruction.

The medical knowledge of the Arabs is in a very rude state, but latterly the French surgeons have been in great request among them. A medical board has been established near each Arab bureau; and the inhabitants come in great numbers to consult the physicians. Some tribes less subject to national prejudice even bring their wives, and consent that they should be visited by the French practitioners. The patients most seriously affected are received into the military hospitals, when they can surmount the repugnance to enter them. The officers of health likewise make frequent tours to visit the sick in their tents. Vaccination has spread with unexpected success. At first the Arabs refused to present their infants, because they believed that the object of the French was to fix a mark upon them by which they might afterwards recognise them and carry them into France as slaves or as soldiers. This distrust has now been overcome.

The Arab markets were always objects of vigilant surveillance, for it was there that all the reports hostile to the French originated and were propagated. To meet these fomenters of disorder, and to circulate intelligence of the administrative measures of the government, a journal is printed in the Arabic character, and distributed gratis among Algiers, the chief. It is published every fortnight, and is sought after with great avidity; and has already produced the most beneficial effects.

Commerce. From the unsettled state of the country, the restrictions and heavy duties of the French tariff, and the poverty of the people, Algiers has as yet attained little commercial importance. The principal exports of the country are horses and cattle, skins of animals, leeches, wool, wax, coral, tobacco, and minerals. The exports of 1848 amounted in value to L281,863, of which L138,484 was the produce of the country, and L143,379, was the re-exportation of French and foreign merchandise. The following were the proportions of the principal of its exports:—to France, 485 per cent.; Spain, 228; the Two Sicilies, 76; Sardinia, 68; England, 58; Tuscany, 55. The imports of the same year amounted to L3,419,858, of which nearly a third consisted of cotton and woollen goods, and a fifth of grain. The following countries contributed to its imports as follows, viz.—France, 775 per cent.; Tuscany, 57; Turkey, 57; Spain, 49; England, 41. The French troops in Algiers in 1850 amounted to 70,771 infantry, and 13,189 cavalry, 6,437 native infantry, and 3,422 cavalry, with a militia force of 16,407 men.—See Tableaux de la situation des établissements Français dans l'Algérie, 1851.

capital of the above territory, is probably the ancient Icosium; by the Arabians called Algezair, or rather Al-Jezier or Al-Jezerah, i.e. the island, because there was an island before the city, to which it has since been joined by a mole. It is built of white stone, on the declivity of a hill fronting the sea, in the form of an amphitheatre; and from the sea resembles a ship under sail. The houses rise above each other in such a manner that each from its flat roof commands a view of the sea. The streets are so narrow as scarcely to admit two persons to walk abreast. But since the French conquest, about a fourth part of the old town has been superseded by new streets, lined with fine houses, shops, and hotels; and in the centre of the city is the Place du Gouvernement, a large and handsome square in the European style. The streets have all received French names; and in a population amounting in 1849 to 97,389, including the garrison, 72,393 were French or other Europeans, the rest Moors, Kabyles, Jews, &c. The town is the seat of a court of appeal and two courts of primary jurisdiction, has a public hospital, a chamber of commerce, library, and museum, a cathedral, and a Protestant church. Many shops have been opened by Europeans, but business is still mostly transacted in the bazaars; which, with barbers' shops and cafés, are the chief places of resort for the natives. Algiers is the residence of the governor-general of the French possessions in Africa, and of the principal functionaries, and courts of justice. It has been newly fortified, and is strongly garrisoned. It is well supplied with water; provisions are generally cheap, except bread, which is dear. Long. 3° 30'. E. Lat. 36° 49'. N. The harbour of Algiers, at the time of the capture, was rather small, and incapable of accommodating any vessel larger than a middle-sized frigate; but a plan was definitively adopted in 1848, which, when carried out, will render the harbour very capacious. It will be surrounded on the northern side by a breakwater 700 yards long; on the south by one 1200 yards long, and the entrance will be 350 yards wide. Each side of the entrance is to be defended by a strong battery. These improvements are now being effected, and experiments were recently made (1852) to ascertain how far they were satisfactory. Five men-of-war towed by steamers severally entered the port, and cast anchor at a cable's length from each other; a sixth man-of-war and several steamers also entered and anchored; and all these vessels did not encroach upon the space set apart for merchant vessels. It is said that three men-of-war and three steam frigates in addition might have anchored there without inconvenience. It is calculated that the removal of a rock called "Roche sans nom," situated about the middle of the port, will allow a fleet of at least twelve men-of-war and as many frigates to anchor, in addition to the merchant vessels. Orders have been given to have this rock removed forthwith.