most savage cruelty, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem. Fully convinced of the miseries that awaited their surrender, this city stood an obstinate siege; and nothing less than the inflexible and persevering spirit of Alva could have overcome difficulties almost insurmountable. Despairing of success, Frederick was at one time disposed to raise the siege, but the stern reproaches of his father urged him on; and at length the inhabitants, overcome with fatigue, surrendered. The victorious Frederick gave tolerable conditions to the town; but his inhuman father arriving on the third day after the surrender, sacrificed to his vengeance many who had been flattered with a promise of mercy. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar; but the spirit of desperate resistance was raised to such a height in the breasts of the Hollanders, that the Spanish veterans were repulsed with great loss, and Frederick constrained reluctantly to retire. Alva now resolved to try his fortune by sea, and with great labour and expense fitted out a powerful fleet, with which he proceeded to attack the Zeelanders; but was entirely defeated, and the commander taken prisoner. About the same period the prince of Orange proceeded to attack the town of Geertruydenberg. Alva's feeble state of health and continued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from the government of the Low Countries; a measure which, in all probability, was not displeasing to Philip, who was now resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In December 1573 that devoted country was relieved from the presence and oppressions of the duke of Alva, who, returning home, accompanied by his son, made the internal boast that during the course of six years, besides the multitudes destroyed in battle and massacred after victory, he had consigned 18,000 persons to the executioner.

Returning from this scene of oppression and blood, he was treated for some time with great distinction by his master. Justice, however, soon overtook the crimes of Alva; for his son, having debauched one of the king's attendants, under promise of marriage, was committed to prison; and being aided in his escape by his father, and married by him to a cousin of his own, Alva was banished from court, and confined in the castle of Uzeda. In this disgraceful situation he remained two years, when the success of Don Antonio, in assuming the crown of Portugal, determined Philip to turn his eyes towards a person in whose fidelity and abilities he could on this occasion most confide. A secretary was instantly despatched to Alva, to ascertain whether his health was sufficiently vigorous to enable him to undertake the command of an army. The aged chief returned an answer full of loyal zeal, and was immediately appointed to the supreme command in Portugal. It is a striking fact, however, that the enlargement and elevation of Alva were not followed by forgiveness. In 1581 Alva entered Portugal, defeated Antonio, drove him from the kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection of Philip. Entering Lisbon, he seized an immense treasure, and suffered his soldiers, with their accustomed violence and rapacity, to sack the suburbs and vicinity. It is reported, that Alva being requested to give an account of the money expended on that occasion, sternly replied, "If the king asks me for an account, I will make him a statement of kingdoms preserved or conquered, of signal victories, of successful sieges, and of sixty years' service." Philip deemed it proper to make no further inquiries. Alva, however, did not enjoy the honours and rewards of his last expedition, for he died in 1583, at the age of 74. See HOLLAND.

Pedro de, a native of Badajos, who, as the lieutenant of Hernando Cortes the famous conqueror of Mexico, was himself scarcely less celebrated. He died in 1541.—See Barcia, Historiadores Primitivos; and De Solis, Historia de la Conquista.