Benedict, a noted officer in the war of American Independence. He was born in Connecticut in 1740; engaged with zeal in the cause of his countrymen, and rose to be a general of brigade. He was appointed, after a wound in the leg, to the command of Philadelphia, where he committed such acts of rapacity, that he was tried by a court-martial in 1779, and reprimanded. On this he resigned his commission; and appears from that time to have entered on the dishonourable scheme, for which now he is chiefly remembered, that of betraying his country to the British. These negotiations led to the death of the gallant and unfortunate Major André, while the guilty Arnold escaped to the British headquarters. He retained in the British the rank he had held in the American army, and was employed in Virginia and Connecticut; in both of which he committed great devastation, especially in his native province, where he butchered the garrison of Fort Turnball, and burnt New London. He was taken by the French while in our service in the West Indies, but made his escape. On the peace, he retired to Britain, where he died in 1801. His duel with Lord Lauderdale, in 1792, on account of some vituperative expressions used by his Lordship at a public meeting, is well known. Arnold. Arnold Struthian von Winckelried, one of the heroes of Swiss independence. When Leopold Duke of Austria, in conjunction with the nobles of Switzerland, attempted in 1386 to destroy the liberty of the people, the whole force which the Swiss had to oppose a regular army of 4000 soldiers amounted but to 1400 men, undisciplined and badly armed. They met under the walls of Sempach in Lucerne, and the Swiss were about to retreat, when the fate of the day was decided by Arnold, who rushed forward, and seizing in his arms the spears pointed against his friends, received them in his bosom. The enemy was routed; Leopold and most of his noble followers being slain; and the independence of Switzerland was secured. See Switzerland.

Arnold, Samuel, doctor of music, was born in 1740, and was received into the royal chapel at an early age, where he was successively the pupil of Mr B. Gates and Dr Nares. In 1764, he became the composer for the orchestra of Covent Garden Theatre; and two years afterwards also had the same office at the Haymarket. He is the author of 40 musical dramas, among which are The Maid of the Mill, Inkle and Yarico, The Son-in-law, The Battle of Hexham, The Surrender of Calais, The Babies in the Wood, The Mountaineers, with the oratorios of Saul, Abimelech, The Prodigal Son, and The Resurrection. In 1783, he was appointed organist and composer to the king; and in 1789, conductor of the Academy of Ancient Music. We owe to him the publication of the works of Handel and Boyce. He died in 1802, and was interred in Westminster Abbey.

Arnold, Thomas, a clergyman of the Church of England, was born at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on the 13th of June 1795. He was the son of William and Martha Arnold, the former of whom occupied the situation of collector of customs at Cowes. Deprived at an early age of his father, who died suddenly of spasm in the heart in 1801, his initiatory education was confided by his mother to her sister, Miss Delafield, who with affectionate fidelity discharged to him the office with which she had been intrusted. From her tuition he passed to that of Dr Griffiths, at Warminster, in Wiltshire, in 1803; and in 1807 he was removed to Winchester, where he remained until 1811, having entered as a commoner, and afterwards become a scholar of the college. In after life he retained a lively feeling of interest in Winchester School, and remembered with admiration and profit the regulative tact of Dr Goddard, and the preceptorial ability of Dr Gabell, who were successively headmasters during his stay there.

As a schoolboy he was not particularly distinguished by any of those attainments which usually determine the honours of the class. Beyond a very retentive memory, a love for solitary reading, and a certain precocity in the writing of English verse, he afforded but few indications of any superior power of intellect or any decided impulse towards literary pursuits. He was shy and somewhat stiff in his manners, inclined to prefer the society of persons more advanced in life to that of his schoolmates, and somewhat inordinately resolute in holding by any opinion he had formed or any purpose he had adopted. At the same time it is easy to trace in the favourite pursuits of his boyhood, and in the development of his youthful character, many of the most characteristic features of the future man. He was strong and fast in the friendships he formed amongst his fellows. He was already a careful and curious observer of character, and instinctively cleaved to the noble and the gentle, the vigorous and the pure, in whomsoever found. He was almost from infancy devotedly attached to the study of history and geography, as well as to ballad poetry. Already, however, he had begun to allot separate places in his mind to the romantic and to the real in narration; and whilst he relished both, he steadily refused to accept the one for the other. No boy had a heartier enjoyment of the myth or the ballad; but even as a boy he had begun to look with distrust upon much of the ancient history as, "if not totally false, at least scandalously exaggerated." In the stillness of these studies, and in the stream of schoolboy society, there can be little doubt that (according to "a true saying" of the great German poet) the talents and the character of the future historian of Rome and head master of Rugby, began to receive their peculiar mould.

From Winchester he removed to Oxford in 1811, where he became a scholar at Corpus Christi College; in 1815 he was elected Fellow of Oriel College; and there he continued to reside till 1819. This interval was diligently devoted to the pursuit of classical and historical studies, to preparing himself for ordination, and to searching investigations, under the stimulus of continual discussion with a band of talented and congenial associates, of some of the profoundest questions in theology, ecclesiastical polity, and social philosophy. The authors he most carefully studied at this period were Thucydides and Aristotle, and for their writings he formed an attachment which remained to the close of his life, and exerted a powerful influence upon his mode of thought and opinions, as well as upon his literary occupations in subsequent years. Herodotus also came in for a considerable share of his regard, but more, apparently, as a book of recreation than one for work. In prosecuting his historical studies he adopted the plan which he afterwards recommended to his students in his lectures at Oxford, that of selecting some one period of which he made himself thoroughly master, and with reference to which he surveyed the events and persons that came under his notice either in the course of his more general reading, or as an observer of what was going on around him. In theology, his mind, accustomed freely and fearlessly to investigate whatever came before it, and swayed by an almost scrupulous dread of aught that might appear to savour of insincerity, was doomed to long and anxious hesitation, upon several points of fundamental importance before arriving at a serene and settled acceptance of the great verities of Christianity. Once satisfied, however, of these, his faith remained clear and firm; and having received his religion, not by tradition from men, but as the result of an earnest, penetrating, and honest examination of the evidence on which it rests, he not only held it with a steadfast grasp, but realized it and felt it as a living and guiding power. From this time forward his life became supremely that of a religious man. He had not only embraced orthodox sentiments, and seen his way to an honest conformity with the ecclesiastical arrangements and worship of the church to which he belonged, but he had experienced within his own soul the renovating and transforming energy of divine truth. Christianity was no longer a something which he had taken upon him; it was a life, a nature within him. Long exercised with doubts and difficulties as to the person and claims of Jesus Christ, he had at length reached to such an intense and all-subduing conviction on these points that a continual consciousness of love and adoration, of joy and confidence towards the Redeemer, seems to have occupied his bosom. To the name of Christ he was prepared to "surrender his whole soul," and to render before it "obedience, reverence without measure, intense humility, most unreserved adoration." It was his joy and consolation when lost amid the mysteries which sur-

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1 "Es bildet ein Talent sich in der stille; Sich ein charakter in dem strom der Welt."—Goethe.

2 Sermons, vol. iv. p. 210. round the being and government of the Infinite, to remember that, "in that unknown world in which our thoughts become instantly lost, still there is one object on which our thoughts and imaginations may fasten, no less than our affections; that, amidst the light, dark from excess of brilliance, which surrounds the throne of God, we may discern the gracious form of the Son of Man." This vivid realization of Christ as the centre and source of his religion, communicated peculiar animation as well as a single-hearted simplicity to his piety. To be like Christ—to please Christ—to have communion with Christ—to enjoy blessing from Christ:—these became the leading ideas and the ever-present impulses of his religion. Hence not only had all religious doubt and perplexity disappeared, but a new impulse was communicated to his whole spiritual life; his battle with evil in all its forms became more intense; his activity became more subject to a high sense of duty and an earnest desire to acquit himself well as a good soldier of Jesus Christ; and amidst the throng and bustle of this world he ever maintained a conscious sense of the spiritual state which had been revealed to him, and to which he felt himself continually drawn by his love to his Redeemer. He did not often talk about religion; he had no inclination to gossip about his experience, or dwell upon the frames and feelings through which he passed; he had not much of the accredited phraseology of piety even when he discoursed on spiritual topics. But no man could observe him for any length of time without feeling persuaded that more than most men he was directed by religious principle and feeling in all his conduct. The fountain of his piety was in his heart's core; and its streams mingled easily with all the issues of his life. As his biographer has beautifully remarked, "his natural faculties were not unclothed but clothed upon; they were at once coloured by, and gave a colour to, the belief which they received."

He left Oxford in 1819 and settled at Laleham near Staines, where he was occupied chiefly in superintending the studies of seven or eight young men who were preparing for the university. His spare time was devoted to the prosecution of studies in philology and history, more particularly to the study of Thucydides, and of the new light which had been cast upon Roman history and upon historical method in general by the researches of Niebuhr. He was also occasionally engaged in preaching, and it was whilst here that he published the first volume of his sermons. Shortly after he settled at Laleham he entered into the marriage relation with Mary youngest daughter of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of Fledborough, Nottinghamshire.

Under the plastic influences of domestic life, and amid the congenial occupations which divided his time at Laleham, his character was gradually maturing, his intellectual powers were becoming more fully developed, his opinions on social and ecclesiastical questions were acquiring consolidation and precision, and he was laying up a stock of experience and forming plans which demanded a much wider sphere for their operation than such a post as that which he now occupied could present. It was not long before such a sphere opened before him. After nine years spent at Laleham, he was induced to offer himself as a candidate for the head-mastership of Rugby, which had become vacant; and though he entered somewhat late upon the contest, and though none of the electors were personally known to him, he was nevertheless successful. He was elected in December 1827; in June 1828 he received priest's orders; in April and November of the same year he took his degree of B.D. and D.D.; and in August entered on his new office.

In one of the testimonials which accompanied his application to the trustees of Rugby, the writer stated it as his conviction, that "if Mr Arnold were elected, he would change the face of education all through the public schools of England." Nobly was this somewhat hazardous pledge redeemed by him in whose name it had been given. Arnold's headmastership at Rugby constituted a new era in the history of public education in England. By his skill, devotedness, and high moral earnestness, even more than by his scholarship or his direct tutorial influence, he completely "changed the face of education" at that great institution, and set an example which has acted upon all the educational institutions of the empire. Under his superintendence the school became not merely a place where a certain amount of classical or general learning was to be obtained, but a sphere of intellectual, moral, and religious discipline, where healthy characters were formed, and men were trained for the duties, and struggles, and responsibilities of life.

Rugby was privileged to enjoy his superintendence for nearly fourteen years. During this period his energies were chiefly devoted to the business of the school; but he found time also for much literary work, as well as for an extensive correspondence. Five volumes of sermons, an edition of Thucydides, with English notes and dissertations, a History of Rome in three vols. 8vo, besides numerous articles in reviews, journals, newspapers, and encyclopedias, are extant to attest the untriring activity of his mind, and his patient diligence during this period. His interest also in public matters was incessant, especially in such as bore upon the social welfare and moral improvement of the masses. Ecclesiastical questions occupied at all times a large share of his regards; he was earnest for church reform, and continually disposed to take a despairing view of the prospects of the hierarchy. From the outset he had watched with intense interest the progress of those opinions and tendencies at Oxford which have of late years excited so much public attention, and have issued in results which Arnold was among the first to predict.

In 1841 Dr Arnold received from Lord Melbourne, then prime minister, the offer of the chair of Modern History at Oxford, an offer which he accepted with peculiar satisfaction. The situation was one which connected him once more with the university where his own earlier studies had been conducted, and for which he ever retained the liveliest affection; its duties were not onerous, and they fell in with the course of his favourite pursuits; and it afforded him a provision against the time when he should be compelled to retire from the responsibilities of such an institution as Rugby, and seek that lettered ease to which, amidst all the distractions of his active life, he was continually looking forward as the ultimatum of his earthly ambition. On the duties of this new office he entered on 2d December 1841, by delivering his inaugural lecture, amidst circumstances which he felt to be peculiarly gratifying and flattering. Seven other lectures were delivered during the first three weeks of the Lent term of 1842; the whole have been published since his death.

A few months after the delivery of his lectures, Arnold was suddenly removed from his earthly duties and anticipated enjoyments by an attack of angina pectoris. The Midsummer vacation had arrived, and he was preparing to set out with his family to Fox How, a favourite retreat where he had purchased some property and built a house, in Westmoreland. After a busy day spent in various duties, he retired to rest apparently in perfect health. Between five and six next morning he awoke in severe pain. All attempts to arrest the fatal malady proved fruitless. He bore with heroic fortitude and Christian resignation his sufferings,

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1 Sermons, vol. iii. p. 90. 2 Life by Stanley, vol. i. p. 31. Arnoldus until eight o'clock, when he expired. The day on which he died was Sunday, the 12th of June 1842. "What that Sunday was in Rugby," says his biographer, "it is hard fully to represent: the incredibility—the bewilderment—the agitating inquiries for every detail—the blank, more awful than sorrow, that prevailed through the vacant services of that long and dreary day—the feeling as if the very place had passed away with him who had so emphatically been in every sense its head—the sympathy which hardly dared to contemplate, and which yet could not but fix the thoughts and looks of all on the desolate house where the fatherless family were gathered round the chamber of death." His remains were interred on the following Friday in the chancel of Rugby chapel, immediately under the communion-table.

We have no space left to attempt a delineation of the separate features of Arnold's character. We can only remark in general, that the great peculiarity and charm of his nature seemed to lie in the regal supremacy of the moral and the spiritual element over his whole being and powers. His intellectual faculties were not such as to surpass those of many who were his contemporaries; in scholarship he occupied a subordinate place to several who filled situations like his; and he had not much of what is usually called tact in his dealings either with the juvenile or the adult mind. What gave him his power, and secured for him so deeply the respect and veneration of his pupils and acquaintances, was the intensely religious character of his whole life. He seemed ever to act from a severe and lofty estimate of duty. To be just, honest, and truthful, he ever held to be the first aim of his being. Amid the trials and the duties of life alike, he "endured, as seeing Him who is invisible." Like Milton, who had also been a schoolmaster, his principle seems to have been—"Were it the meanest under-service, if God, by his secretary Conscience, enjoin it, it were sad for me if I should draw back." With all this, there was intense sympathy with his fellows, the tenderest domestic affections, the most generous friendship, the most expansive benevolence. But to understand aright his claims upon our respect and homage, the history of his life must be read at large. As has been truly observed by one who seems to have known him well—"His Thucydides, his history, his sermons, his miscellaneous writings, are all proofs of his ability and goodness. Yet the story of his life is worth them all."—Edin. Rev., vol. lxxxi., p. 234. His life has been most ably written by the Rev. A. P. Stanley, M.A., in two volumes, 8vo. Lond. 1845.