As a united state, did not exist in the middle ages. The country of which that kingdom has been formed was divided into a number of fiefs, independent of and frequently at war with each other. Amongst these fiefs may be mentioned the duchies of Brabant, Limbourg, and Luxembourg; the counties of Flanders, Hainault, and Namur; the bishopric of Liège; the lordship of Malines; and the principality of Stavelot. The Belgians took part in all the expeditions of those chivalrous times, and were seen fighting in the plains of the East. But in spite of the frequent wars in which they engaged, they enriched themselves by commerce and industry. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, united them under his vast power, the bishopric of Liège and the principality of Stavelot alone maintaining a separate existence for more than four centuries. Under the Burgundian dominion, the Belgians became more and more prosperous; the brilliancy of their fêtes attracted numbers of cavaliers from all parts; whilst industry and commerce grew and prospered.

But the proper history of this country does not commence till the period when it came into possession of the house of Austria, by the marriage of the Archduke Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., in 1477, with Mary of Burgundy, only daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold.

Maximilian, when his son Philip had attained his twentieth year, resigned to him the government of the states; and at his death the inheritance of the Low Countries devolved upon the Archduke Charles of Austria, afterwards Charles V. The religious movement which then agitated Europe convulsed this country, which suffered fearfully under the cruel persecutions and oppression of Charles and his more bigoted son Philip II. The attempt to establish the inquisition at length roused the people to resistance, under the leadership of Count Brederode, a descendant of the ancient counts of Holland. The insurgents presented to Margaret, Duchess of Parma, to whom Philip had intrusted the administration of Belgium, a demand for a redress of their grievances and the restoration of their rights. To this document they gave the name of the compromise, which was signed by above five hundred of the nobles and principal men in the state. On the rejection of this, they drove back the inquisitors to Spain, and religious liberty was proclaimed. This drew down upon them the wrath of Philip, who sent the Duke of Alva, at the head of the Spanish troops, to reduce them to subjection. He devastated the country, erected scaffolds in every city, and perpetrated the most cruel atrocities upon the inhabitants. At length the confederates formed an alliance with the Prince of Orange. For many years the conflict was carried on between the states of the Netherlands, under the house of Nassau, and the house of Austria, with varying success.

The death of Charles II. of Spain in 1700 gave rise to a general war, which extended to almost every part of the world. The dying king bequeathed his dominions to the Duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., whose ambition had roused the jealousy of the other European states. This gave rise to the Grand Alliance. The Netherlands formed a part of the territory contended for, and again became the theatre of bloody battles and protracted sieges. The peace of Utrecht, concluded in April 1713, terminated the hostilities. By this treaty the ten provinces of Belgium, which now assumed the name of the Austrian Netherlands, were assigned to the emperor of Germany.

For a considerable time after this, in consequence of the weakness of the successors of Philip II., Belgium was in such a state of exhaustion, that Holland, to guard itself, occupied the greater part of her fortresses. The emperor had to treat with the states-general, and to accord to the Dutch advantages over the Belgians which excited the murmurs and threats of the inhabitants both against the emperor and the states-general; and it was only by extreme severity and the greatest precautions that a general revolt was prevented. But the prosperity which accompanied the subsequent peace reconciled the Belgian people to the Austrian rule.

The tranquillity of the Netherlands was interrupted by the war which broke out in 1743; but the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 re-established Maria Theresa in her Belgian possessions. Her good sense and good feelings preserved her from overstepping the bounds of the ancient laws; and her government, which was mild and prudent, remained popular with the people. She died in 1780, and was succeeded by her son Joseph II.

Joseph was inaugurated with the ancient formalities, and commenced his reign under favourable auspices. Anxious to promote the prosperity of the country, he resolved to deliver it from the yoke of Holland, to open up the navigation of the Scheldt, and, by the introduction of liberal commercial regulations, to restore it to its ancient importance. By various edicts he announced his determination to curb the power of the priests and to resist the papal encroachments; and even ordered the suppression of some of the monasteries. These reforms, too abruptly proposed, roused the opposition of the priesthood and the superstitious inhabitants, but they were not excited to revolt till Joseph began to overturn the civil departments by a complete change of system. The assembly of the states of Brabant then offered a determined opposition to his measures. They refused to vote the supplies, and in 1789 published a manifesto declaring Joseph II. deposed from the sovereignty. During the contests that followed, which were strongly marked by religious bigotry and fanaticism, Joseph died on the 20th January 1791, and was succeeded by his brother Leopold.

Leopold manifested much sagacity and moderation in his measures for the recovery of the revolted provinces. The states-general, on the other hand, occupied themselves almost exclusively in attempts to re-establish the monkish institutions; and having dismissed the able general Van der Mersch on account of his alleged heresy, their army became disorganized, and they had the temerity to reject with scorn the moderate overtures of the new emperor. The army of the imperialists advanced into the provinces; town after town opened its gates, and a short campaign gave the emperor quiet possession of the whole of the provinces. He revoked the ordinances of his predecessor which had given such offence to the clergy and bigoted inhabitants, and re-established the form of government on the footing on which it had existed under Maria Theresa. These arrangements were scarcely completed when he died, on the 1st of March 1792. His son Francis II. succeeded to the throne, and under his reign the final separation of the Belgian provinces from the imperial family took place.

The new emperor, soon after his accession, found himself involved in the war with revolutionary France, which ended in the conquest of the Netherlands by the French. See FRANCE. The Netherlands were formed by the French first into the Batavian republic, afterwards into the kingdom of Holland for Louis Buonaparte; and in 1811, on his abdication, they were annexed to the French empire.

In 1813, after the battle of Leipzig and Napoleon's evacuation of Germany, the Dutch threw off the French yoke, and recalled the Prince of Orange, who assumed the reins of government under the title of king. The Belgian provinces were soon after abandoned by the French and fell by the right of conquest into the power of the allied sovereigns.

From its position Belgium had been the battlefield of Europe in former periods; and the possession of that country by France would be of vast importance as an advanced post, from which she might easily proceed to other conquests. The house of Austria, having always found the Belgian provinces a source of trouble and annoyance, was ready to abandon its claims; trusting thereby to secure some advantages nearer the centre of its power. The Netherlands, if united under one power, might be sufficiently strengthened to become a strong barrier against France, and the means of securing the continuance of that general peace which was then so much desired, and indeed wanted. Belgium, and the other territories near it, the bishopric of Liège, and the duchy of Luxembourg, were considered merely as European objects, which were so to be disposed of as would best suit the purposes of the combined powers, particularly that of securing the tranquillity of the great community of nations. It was not, then, from any peculiar favour to Holland, or from any personal regard to King William, though his minister formed one of the assembly, that, in less than two months after the seizure of Paris, it was adopted as a principle by the representatives of all Europe, and promulgated to the world, "that Holland, placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange, should receive an increase of territory."

This declaration was made on the 30th of May, and at the time received with general approbation, although at a subsequent period it was one of the principal grievances set forth by the Belgians in their declaration of independence. The principle thus announced received its final sanction by a treaty dated the 21st of July, in virtue of which Baron Vincent was to deliver over to King William the provisional power he exercised in Belgium, upon the following conditions, viz. 1. That the two countries should form one state, governed by the constitution already established in Holland, to be modified by common consent; 2. That there should be no alteration in that part which assured to all religious sects an equal admissibility to public offices; 3. That the states should assemble in alternate years in a city of Holland and in one of Belgium; 4. That all the inhabitants of both parts should be alike in all commercial matters, without any restriction being imposed on one for the benefit of the other; 5. That the provinces and cities of Belgium should be admitted to the full enjoyment of commerce with the colonies; 6. That all expenses should be in common, and the debts of the two parts should be assumed by the treasury of the kingdom; 7. That the expense of maintaining and strengthening the fortresses should be defrayed from the common treasury; and, 8. That the cost of supporting the dikes should be furnished by the districts more immediately interested in them; but in case of any great disaster, succours were to be supplied by the general government, in the same manner as had formerly been practised in Holland. The king of England, by a separate treaty, on the 13th of August, agreed to give up to the newly-created king of the Netherlands all the conquests made from the Dutch during the war, with the exception of the Cape of Good Hope, and the settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, on the continent of South America.

By the treaty of the 21st of July, the government of the Netherlands accepted, on the conditions therein stated, that sovereignty over the Belgian provinces which the allied powers had offered, not from any peculiar feeling of regard to the interests of King William or of Holland, but as a European benefit, "de pouvoir à l'établissement d'un état d'équilibre en Europe, et en vertu de leur droit de conquête sur la Belgique." The duchy of Luxembourg was not a portion of Belgium, but a part of Germany; and that division was given up to the king of the Low Countries, by the German confederation, of which he was a member, not in his regal capacity, but in consequence of his transferring to Prussia the sovereignties, hereditary in his family, of Nassau-Dittenburg, Siegen, Hademar, and Dietz.

After the union of the two countries had been settled by treaty, and the whole delivered up to the government of William, it was thought necessary to submit, not the union itself, but the fundamental law or constitution, to the acceptance of the people. That constitution had already been accepted by an almost unanimous vote in the northern division, but it was deemed necessary to submit it also to the southern division. An assembly of Notables was accordingly convened in Belgium, on the same plan as had before been pursued in Holland. The number of the members of this assembly was 1600, but not more than 1323 attended. Upon the vote being taken, there appeared to be 529 in favour of accepting the constitution, and 796 against it; and thus, as far as that assembly was concerned, the acceptance of the proposed constitution was negatived. The government, however, took a different view of the subject, founded upon the assumption, that the union being adopted must be considered as a fact not to be questioned; and that this was a question for the united kingdom, which must be determined by a majority of the whole. For this purpose, the statistical view given of the kingdom was thus represented.

The inhabitants of the northern division, or what was before Holland, were...........................................2,071,181 Those of the south part, or Belgium......................3,411,082

In all..................................................5,482,263

The votes in favour of the acceptance were stated to be the whole of the northern part........................2,071,181 Two fifths of the southern part, who voted by their 529 delegates........................................1,364,432

3,435,613

The majority of the Belgian representatives, who voted for three fifths of that part, amounted to.........................................................2,046,650

Thus giving in favour of the constitution, or fundamental law, a majority of.........................................................1,388,963

We have given an account of this proceeding, because it was subsequently made one of the grievances complained of. The assembly had been chosen fairly, and consequently under clerical influence, which was decidedly op- posed to the toleration of any other party than the Catholic religion. This was proved by a kind of protest, issued under the title of "Jugement Doctrinal des Evêques du Royaume des Pays-Bas, sur le serment présent par la Nouvelle Constitution." In an authoritative style it condemns the liberty given to appoint persons of any religious creed to offices of power and trust; and it reproaches the enactment that the Catholic church was to be submissive to the law of the state, that the other religious sects were to be protected in their worship, that the government was to have the power to regulate all the seminaries of the kingdom, and that the liberty of the press was recognised. It concluded with these words: "Mais dès qu'une loi humaine est intrinsèquement mauvaise, et opposée à la loi divine et aux lois de l'église, on ne peut, sous aucun prétexte, s'engager d'y obéir." This declaration was signed by all the prelates, viz. the Archbishop of Malines, and the Bishops of Ghent and of Tournay, and the vicar-general of the chapter of Liège. It is natural to suppose that such a declaration must have had great influence with people so ignorant and superstitious as the lower classes of the Belgian population are universally allowed to be, and averse as they had ever been to a connection with the Dutch, who were represented to them as a combination of heretics. The nobles are also said to have been more attached to the ancient Austrian government; but the middle classes were supposed to have more sympathy with the French than with the German nation, and to be peculiarly jealous of the Dutch.

Whatever may have been the common sentiment, of which it is always difficult to judge, not the least appearance of discontent was displayed at the promulgation of the constitution, or the public entry made by the king and his family into Brussels. His first efforts there, as they had been in Holland, were directed to the means of defence; and all due exertions were employed for the purpose of raising an effective and numerous army. In this much progress had been made when the intelligence arrived that Bonaparte had escaped from Elba, advanced in a sort of triumphal procession through France, and again assumed the imperial title, and all the power connected with it.

The alarm and terror created by this event had the effect of, in a great measure, disarming the power of the ecclesiastical fulminations, and uniting all classes with the new government in preparing for the contest which was evidently about to take place on the frontiers of the kingdom. The time spent by Bonaparte in Paris in organizing his recovered army, and in conciliating the several parties in his capital, was most actively employed by the king in strengthening his means of defence; and a great advance had been made in his military affairs, when it became evident that the first inroad of the French would be on the side of Belgium.

An army composed of Dutchmen and Belgians, but chiefly officered by the former, was collected and led towards the frontiers by the Prince of Orange. When the French entered Belgium, these troops formed the advance of the allied army. It encountered the French at Quatre-Bras, and, aided by the British, resisted during the whole day (the 16th of June) the attacks of the left division of the French army, commanded by Marshal Ney. The loss of lives on both sides was great; but that action had a powerful influence on the issue of the battle of the 18th, as it gave time to bring up the whole of the allied forces, and place them on the field of Waterloo, where the decisive conflict took place which decided the fate of the French empire, and gave a long peace to Europe. During the whole of that day the troops of the Netherlands sustained the character for courage which past centuries had established. There were probably a few instances of overpowering terror, and some solitary examples of disaffection, arising from past associations with the French; but the great principle of public duty pervaded the Netherlands army, as was proved by the loss which they sustained in the battle. The victory was cemented by the blood of the Prince of Orange, who stood at the head of his troops throughout the whole of that arduous day, encouraging them by his cool and determined conduct. On one occasion he made a desperate charge on the enemy, and advanced so far that he was actually in the midst of the French, and in the greatest danger, when a Belgian battalion rushed forward, repulsed the enemy, and, after a desperate struggle, disengaged the prince. From the impulse of his gratitude, and his admiration of the bravery displayed, he tore from his breast one of the decorations gained by his conduct in some preceding action, and flung it amongst the battalion, calling out, "Take it, my lads; you have all earned it." This decoration was eagerly grappled for, and tied to the regimental standard amidst loud shouts of "Long live the Prince," and vows to defend the trophy, in the utterance of which many a brave man received the stroke of death. A short time afterwards, towards the close of the battle, the prince was hit by a musket-ball on the left shoulder. He was carried from the field, and conveyed to Brussels the same evening in a cart, accompanied by two of his aides-de-camp, one of whom, like himself, was badly wounded; displaying to those near him as much indifference to pain as he had previously shown contempt of danger.

The battle of Waterloo appeared at the moment to have consolidated the establishment of the kingdom of the Netherlands. It seemed to have attached the military part of the Belgians to the prince who had been wounded at their head, and who had led them to that victory which they so mainly ascribed to their own exertions, as almost to forget that the troops of any other nation had contributed to it. Advantage was taken of this feeling to commence the working of the new constitution, which had been accepted, as before noticed, by a majority of the whole kingdom, though rejected by a majority of the Belgian portion. The solemn inauguration was held a few weeks after the battle, and much interest was excited by the appearance of the Prince of Orange, on the occasion, still wearing his wounded arm in a scarf, and with the pallid countenance of an invalid.

The constitution was then declared to have been accepted by the people, and no allusion was made to the irregularity of the decision, as the objections once urged had arisen from repugnance to religious toleration; those who had urged them being sensible that any allusions to the subject would have been unavailing amidst the prevailing military enthusiasm. None was made, but such were certainly nourished, to be brought forward at some moment more favourable for making the desired impression. No murmurs were heard, and Belgium became, or appeared to have become, reconciled to the arrangement which had been made by the allied powers.

The speedy concentration of the two divisions was a spectacle viewed with astonishment, whilst a thousand channels were opened for the egress of national industry, capital, and enterprise. Every obstacle seemed to have vanished, asperities were softened down or concealed, faction seemed dead or paralysed, and a quiet enjoyment of the present formed the only public manifestation. The people of Belgium appropriated to themselves the glorious victory of which their country had been the theatre. The king, by his love of peace, and by his activity in whatever could improve the institutions and the condition of the country, at first gained a high opinion amongst those Belgians who were able to endure the religious toleration he established; and amongst others his personal virtues, his Belgium, domestic habits, and his unwearied industry, as favourable a view was taken of his character as could be formed of one who had the misfortune to be a heretic. This last party was soothed, if not reconciled, by the exertions which he made to recover and restore to their churches those pictures and other objects of value which had been pillaged by the French and carried to Paris.

The naval transaction of the following year, when a squadron of Netherlands ships joined the fleet under Lord Exmouth in the attack on Algiers, was another circumstance favourable to the consolidation of the new kingdom; for although the battle was gallantly fought by Dutchmen, yet the Belgians took care, in the exercise of their vanity, not to allude to the Hollanders; and as they had forgotten the English at Waterloo, so they now gladly assumed to themselves the glory of the united victory. The prosperity of Belgium made it the chosen residence of many respectable foreigners, as well as the place of refuge of others of the most opposite descriptions. The king busied himself less in projects to secure popularity, than in efforts to benefit the country; and it may here be proper to notice the institutions which were either established or ameliorated, and the beneficial consequences they produced.

Under the rule of France, Belgium, like the other parts of the Continent, had suffered severely from the operation of the conscription laws, which had deprived the country of those active labourers who were necessary to cultivate the fields. Although peace could not restore the great numbers who had perished, yet it stopped the farther progress of the evil in the Netherlands, by the establishment of a voluntary enrolment for a small regular army, and of a militia, whose service was required only for one month in the year. The mines felt the benefit of this regulation. The minerals of Belgium consist of coal, iron, and calamine. As soon as the union had been formed, and labourers became less scarce, a great impetus was communicated to this branch of industry; and companies were formed, who were most liberally repaid by the profit of their investments in this branch of industry, which was augmented from year to year as long as Belgium and Holland constituted one kingdom. By the excitement communicated to mining, the provinces of Liège and Hainault, and a part of Namur, were greatly enriched; and a company formed to explore the mines of Luxembourg were amply rewarded in their labours and their profits, till interrupted by internal commotions. The various branches of manufacturing industry received a similar impulse, though at first they were checked by the peace. The continental system of Bonaparte had given a fictitious encouragement to some articles of manufacture, which ceased with the return of peace; and, till the formation of the kingdom of the Netherlands, many branches were depressed by the rivalry of foreign goods in the markets to which they had access. But as soon as the junction was completed, a stimulus was given to the manufacturers, by opening to their goods the markets of the East and West Indies, and those of all countries with which the Hollanders had traded. The iron manufactures of Liège advanced rapidly in prosperity; the woollen manufactures of Verviers felt most powerfully a similar impulsion; and many large establishments were formed at Ghent and other places, where cotton goods were fabricated which rivalled those of England, and so far surpassed those of France, that much of the goods were sold by the contraband trade in that kingdom. The opening of the Scheldt was the necessary effect of the formation of the united kingdom. Merchants from various countries formed establishments with large capitals at Antwerp; its docks became crowded with ships from all countries; its warehouses were loaded with colonial and other produce; and it advanced rapidly to a rivalry with Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Hamburg, in the transit trade to the interior of Germany. The king directed his best efforts to the state of the roads, the Belgium, greater part of which had suffered dilapidation, whilst the cross roads, so important in a country chiefly agricultural, were in many places scarcely passable. The management of the former was under the general government, whilst that of the latter was superintended by the local authorities; but in the first few years of the union the whole were repaired and placed in the most excellent state. The interests of internal navigation were sedulously watched over by the king. The old canals were repaired, the shallow parts of the rivers were deepened, and new and important water communications were formed. The chief of these, the Canal Guillaume, which extends from Maestricht to Bois-le-Duc, was an expensive but highly beneficial work; whilst that of Antoing in Hainault, that of Charleroy in the province of Namur, and that of Ternuse in Flanders, have been found in a very high degree beneficial. Though no longer of any importance to Belgium, it may not be quite out of place to remark, that the spirit of improvement which spread throughout the whole kingdom was to be seen in Holland in the Grand Canal of North Holland, which opens to Amsterdam a way for ships of the largest size to the ocean by way of the Helder, without incurring the risks arising from the shoals of the Zuider Zee.

Some other plans of this kind had been decided on, when the disturbances broke out which ended in this disjunction of Belgium from Holland. One of these was to make the river Sambre navigable; the other was to form a canal from the Meuse to the Moselle, by means of which the prosperity of the duchy of Luxembourg would have been greatly advanced.

The state of education, from the schools for primary instruction up to the universities, was in a wretched state when the king ascended the throne. In Holland it had ever been an object of the greatest consideration; and it had received from Louis Bonaparte, during his short reign, a degree of perfection which fitted it for reception in Belgium. Normal schools for the instruction of teachers were early founded; and as soon as any were found qualified, they were fixed with moderate stipends in the rural districts where they could be most beneficially placed. To such an extent was this plan of organizing primary schools carried during the first ten years of the reign of William, that their number in 1825 was 3329, in which the pupils were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and the system of weights and measures. The numbers of pupils in the several schools of Belgium were 156,075 boys and 116,761 girls; in Luxembourg the numbers were 19,925 boys and 14,819 girls.

The schools for higher instruction were improved, and the number of students in them yearly increased. In ten years they had risen from 3400 to 7048. These were in general the institutions in which the youth were prepared for the universities. The king founded a new university at Liège, in addition to the two previously existing at Louvain and at Ghent. Great care was taken to procure the most able men in every branch of science; and as the country was rather deficient in such as possessed eminent qualifications, it was found necessary to repair to foreign lands for help. Several were invited from Germany, and others from France and Italy. No one establishment for education in Europe could boast of more distinguished names than those of the individuals who filled some of the professors' chairs, both in Liège and Ghent.

Whilst in the united kingdom the surface appeared smooth, and the vessel of the state seemed to be making a rapid progress, an under-current was perceived to be making its way in a direction not favourable to permanent tranquillity. At first William gained the highest applause from his Belgian subjects. The whole kingdom exhibited a show of bustling activity, if not of prosperity. Amongst the re- Belgium, fugitives from other countries, the king and people were spoken of as models of public and domestic happiness; the diplomats joined in the flattery, and prided themselves on the skill with which they had accomplished the tranquillity of Europe, by founding the kingdom of the Netherlands; and all united in the assertion that the king was much too good for his Belgian subjects.

For several years this favourable or flattering state of affairs continued, though thoughtful people soon discerned, from events unnoticed by superficial observers, the prognostics of future disunion. At the earliest meeting of the representative house, the different languages spoken by the members caused some difficulties; a Belgian in the discussions speaking in French, and a Hollander replying in Dutch. Too many of the questions brought forward might be of a local nature; and in these, as the whole of the Hollanders voted on one side, and the whole of the Belgians on the other, the decision was often dependent on the accidental absence of an individual on the one side or the other. The equality of numbers between the Dutch and Belgians made it difficult to come to a settlement on such subjects as affected the interests of the two countries in a different or opposite way. This was first exhibited on the subject of a free trade in corn. The Dutch provinces had never produced sufficient corn for their consumption, but a free trade in it had always furnished them with a sufficient supply. The Belgian provinces grew more corn than they consumed. As in the other parts of Europe during the last years of the war, the prices of corn had risen to an enormous rate, and the Belgian proprietors of land had increased their rents in due proportion. With the return of tranquillity the prices of grain and the rents of land were much reduced; and the Belgian members of the assembly desired to impose restrictions on the importation of grain. This was naturally opposed by the Dutch members, whose interest was engaged in favour of low prices, both as regarded the subsistence of the inhabitants, and the trade of the distilleries. The question was finally decided in favour of the freedom of the trade; but the contest gave rise to the formation of two parties, so equally balanced as to make the decision of many legislative questions dependent on accident.

As the royal authority had been established in Holland the greater part of a year before the union with Belgium, it had been organized without reference to that event. Holland had been a shorter period under French power; and during the prevalence of that influence when King Louis filled the throne, its government had been carried on upon the principle of nationality; the fittest men filled the offices in the different departments, and many of them remained unchanged when Holland became a French department. It was natural that King William should continue such men in their offices, and that in selecting officers for the new branches which were to be created, a preference should be given to natives, of whom there were numbers whose education, habits, and patriotism had well fitted them for the public service. At the union of Belgium and Holland the whole administration was in the hands of French functionaries, who speedily disappeared. Few men in Belgium had been brought up in such a way as to form them for official duties, and those who had sufficient information and capacity had been nominated to employments in the distant provinces of France. Under these circumstances, the greater number of officers was necessarily appointed from the northern division of the kingdom. Another cause of many offices in Belgium being filled by Dutchmen was, that some of those Belgians to whom offers were made declined to serve, on account of the influence of the priests, which prevented them from taking the oath to a constitution, one of the first stipulations of which was an equal freedom to all religions.

A complaint was brought forward, that in the appointment of officers in the army an undue preference had been shown in favour of the natives of Holland; and as Mr Northomb, an opponent of the house of Orange, in his work entitled Essai Historique et Politique sur la Révolution Belge, has placed the numbers in a statistical point of view, this matter is entitled to examination. According to his statement, in 1830 the officers of the army of the kingdom of the Netherlands is thus shown:

| Rank | Whole Number of Officers | Belgians | Belgians settled in Holland | |-----------------------|--------------------------|----------|----------------------------| | Generals | 5 | 0 | 0 | | Lieutenant-generals | 21 | 2 | 1 | | Major-generals | 50 | 5 | 2 | | Colonels | 48 | 8 | 1 | | Lieutenant-colonels | 48 | 9 | 1 | | Majors | 137 | 19 | 0 | | Captains | 211 | 38 | 3 | | Lieutenants | 808 | 115 | 2 | | Sub-lieutenants | 639 | 82 | 0 | | **Total** | **1967** | **278** | **10** |

This great disproportion is in some measure lessened, from the circumstance that many of the officers were Germans, some were Swiss, and some were natives of other countries. With this allowance, the exact number of which is unascertained, the contrast between the whole and the Belgians is very striking. Baron de Keverburg, a partisan of King William, gives a different account, making the whole number of Belgians in the army to be 536 instead of 278. In his work entitled Du Royaume des Pays Bas, he asserts of his catalogue that it is "d'après des renseignements puisés à des sources authentiques;" but, even on this showing, the more numerous population supplied but one fourth of the officers. This is accounted for, if not justified, by the baron, on various grounds.

When Louis Bonaparte became king of Holland, he sedulously attended to the formation of his army; and when he abandoned the throne the armed force was so well trained, equipped, and officered, that, on the annexation of Holland to France in 1810, it formed a military body equal to any other of the empire in its adaptation to the purposes of war. When that army was transferred to France, the different grades of officers retained their Dutch rank, and their former course of promotion. But when the people of Holland rose against France, and raised William to the throne, the Dutch resigned their posts in the French service, and repaired to their own country, where they were gladly received, and reinstated in the rank which they had attained during their service in France. It will be seen by the list of Mr Northomb that all the generals were Dutchmen; but that rank had been acquired in the French service, where, by their military talents, they had gained high reputation, and had been honoured and trusted by the French emperor. The names of the Dutch officers thus appointed generals by William are well known. Tindal had been raised by Bonaparte to the rank of general, and commanded a regiment of his body guard. Jansens had been distinguished as governor of Batavia, and in the army of the French emperor on the Ardennes frontier. Daendels was one of those Dutchmen who had been always placed in posts of the greatest danger, and had displayed the highest skill and valour. Dumonceau, though a Belgian by birth, had by his long service in the northern provinces become a Dutchman, and was highly esteemed in the French army. Chassé, an old officer of Holland when he was transferred to the French service, became known by the familiar title of General Balonnette, and afterwards distinguished himself by his gallant defence of the citadel of Antwerp.

When men like these returned to their liberated country, and at a moment when their services were wanted, there were no rivals to compete with them in Holland, and they were necessarily placed at the head of their profession. Those of the successive ranks who also returned, as almost the whole did, were retained in those ranks in the army, formed first in Holland, and afterwards strengthened by the addition of Belgians. The Belgian officers serving in the French army had not been kept apart, but mixed up with the Frenchmen. They had formed a part of the general conscription; few had raised themselves to the rank of officers; and of these only three had attained the grade of colonel, no one having risen higher. Being thus insulated, they had nourished little or no national feeling; some few tardily returned to their native country after the occupation of Paris; but many of them remained in the service, and fought against their country at Waterloo.

The king, in the hasty organization of an army, naturally availed himself of the materials within his reach, and adapted them to the emergency. When after the battle of Waterloo peace was established, it would have been highly unjust to the brave men who had assisted there not to have confirmed them in their ranks, or to have placed others over them merely because they were born in Belgium. But for these, and even for such as had fought against their country, and repaired to it after the victory, the provision made was the best that could be effected at the time; and they were subsequently placed in new corps, retaining their former rank and seniority.

The utmost economy was practised respecting the army; and from the number of good officers in the highest classes, and their seniority, there was no prospect of rapid promotion. Thus the gentry of Belgium had but little inducement to enter the military service, so that, without attributing to the king any great partiality, the facts here stated sufficiently account for the greater number of officers belonging to one division of the kingdom.

The other charge of partiality on the part of the king, which ultimately became one of the grievances, was, that, in the legislative body, the number of deputies was as great from the northern as from the southern division of the kingdom, although the number of inhabitants in the latter was so much greater. The foundation of this settlement of the relative numbers was based upon the principle of giving legislative power according to the rate of revenue to be extracted from each division, rather than according to the number of the population. The proportion of revenue raised in Holland was nearly equal to that raised in Belgium; indeed it was shown, at a subsequent period, to be as fifteen to sixteen. The rate of revenue per head in Holland was sixteen florins, and in Belgium ten florins. Whether the rate of revenue or the number of inhabitants be the proper scale for regulating the proportion of legislators, is not a subject to be discussed in this place.

In the distribution of the higher civil offices of the government, complaints were urged and magnified into weighty grievances by the Belgians. On this subject the statements of Baron de Keverburg, when confirmed by the official part of L'Almanach Royal, are as follow:

The cabinet consisted of six members. It was formed before the union of the two countries, and was composed wholly of Hollanders; but after the junction of Belgium, two of the members withdrew, and two Belgians were admitted in their stead. The first chamber of the states-general, similar to our House of Peers, but nominated by the king for life, contained fifty-six members, of whom thirty were Belgians, and twenty-six Hollanders. The Belgian Conseil d'Etat, or privy council, was composed of twelve Dutch and eleven Belgian members. The Prince of Orange and his brother Prince Frederick presided over the two divisions into which it was formed; one for the direction of the army, the other for that of the naval force. The Chambre des Comptes, or treasury, consisted of sixteen persons, taken equally from the two divisions of the kingdom. The judicial authority of the provinces and communes was in general intrusted to persons chosen in the division in which they were to execute their duties. There were a few exceptions to this rule, for two Dutchmen exercised these functions in Belgium; but two also, natives of Belgium, filled the same offices in Holland. Thus far there was an equality; but in North Brabant the judicial office was filled by a Belgian, which gave a trifling superiority to the southern division.

It may fairly be presumed, that in the appointment of officers in the several civil departments, the king had been mainly influenced by his view of the capacity of the persons selected to discharge the necessary duties; for at a subsequent period, when the most scrutinizing activity was exercised to discover grounds of complaint, no accusations were made of any other fault in the appointments than that which related to the portion of the kingdom to which the functionaries belonged. The king himself was active and regular; and being in a great degree his own prime minister, he must have been peculiarly anxious that the persons under him should be adapted to their several stations, and certainly under no government was more industry exercised or more regularity preserved.

Many of the important institutions of the country had, by the constitution, been left to the will of the king as to their local establishment. The seat of the states-general had been fixed by that law to be alternately in Belgium and in Holland, but not the place for the king's residence or the council of state; yet these also, though with some personal and political inconvenience, were made changeable, business being transacted six months of each year at Brussels and six months at the Hague. But the supreme court of justice, the court of appeal from all the inferior tribunals of the kingdom, was permanently fixed at the Hague, to the great disadvantage of the more numerous suitors in the southern part of the kingdom. This formed a material, and apparently a just cause of complaint; and nothing has been stated by the Dutch which has disproved the inconvenience, though attempts have been made to represent the practical injury arising from it as very trifling and insignificant. Several other establishments were also made permanent in Holland, such as the state archives, the diplomatic offices, the council of the nobles, the coining of money, the military and naval boards, the academies for the instruction of naval, artillery, and engineering officers, and the principal naval and military arsenals. This arrangement was justified upon public grounds by the partisans of the king. The kingdom, they affirmed, had been established as an European object, and to form a barrier for the defence of all the powers against the ambition of France. In any display of that ambition, Belgium would, as heretofore, become the first theatre of war, and, in spite of the range of fortresses about to be erected, might be occupied by an invading army. If the means of carrying on the war fell into the enemy's power, the effect might be fatal; but by having the establishments farther from the frontiers, and where they could be guarded by natural defences, the war might be kept up effectively behind the rivers and canals of Holland, so as to render the advance of the enemy a dangerous or a ruinous step.

There are in Belgium a variety of languages spoken, and the attempt of King William to introduce one uniform tongue created much discontent, and was by a great and influential part of the inhabitants considered as a serious grievance. The far greater portion of both the northern and southern inhabitants are of German origin, and their vernacular language is chiefly composed of Teutonic words. It is divided into several idioms, namely, the Dutch, the Flemish, and the Brabant. These three are so nearly similar, that those who use them understand each other better than the English and Scotch peasantry do. The Dutch language has been more polished than either of the others, having been the tongue of some of the most learned men that Europe has produced. It contains books of art, science, literature, law, theology, and history of the greatest merit, and which have been the means of spreading knowledge of all kinds to a great extent. The care bestowed on education has produced a greater number of readers and writers than are to be found in any other country of the same limited population. The Flemish and Brabant dialects have been little cultivated; few books have been written in it, except those of devotion, the lives of saints of the Catholic church, almanacs, and spelling-books. The numbers who read them are very small in comparison of the whole population, but with the rural inhabitants this dialect is the general medium of intercourse.

During the French dominion great pains were taken to extend the use of their language, and with much success as far as regarded those who had enjoyed the advantage of even the commonest education. This has extended the use of that language amongst those above the lowest classes; and it is said that even in Holland there are more persons acquainted with the French tongue than in those parts of Belgium where the other dialects of Teutonic origin are used. The Walloon language, a corrupted dialect of the French, is commonly used in the provinces of Hainault, Liège, and Namur; and the German language is most prevalent in Luxembourg.

Baron de Keverburg, assuming the population of 1829, gives the statistics of languages as follows:

The divisions in which the German is used, and their population: - In Holland .......................................................... 2,339,974 - In Belgium, the provinces of Antwerp, Limbourg, and the two Flanders ......................... 1,971,056 - The largest part of Brabant ........................................ 380,177 - One half of Luxembourg ........................................... 151,317

Total ................................................................. 4,832,524

The divisions in which the French and Walloon are used, with their population: - The provinces of Hainault, Liège, and Namur .................................................. 1,124,595 - The arrondissement of Nivelles, in the province of South Brabant ........................................ 126,733 - One half of Luxembourg ........................................... 151,317

Total ................................................................. 1,402,645

In this view the Dutch language is used by two fifths of the population, the other languages of German origin by two fifths, and the French and Walloon by one fifth. From the most remote periods all public affairs in Belgium were transacted in one or other of the Teutonic idioms. The Joyeuse Entrée, the Magna Charta of the country, was originally drawn up in the Teutonic dialect, and was only translated into French at a recent period, when the princes, no longer residing in the provinces, began to give a decided preference to that language; but all the proceedings of the states of Brabant were conducted in it till the conquest of the country by France. From that moment all public deeds were written in French, and the subdued people supported with pain the loss of their native tongue; but they dared not utter a complaint. This attachment of the Belgians to their native language was shown to have been little weakened by their subjugation to France; for when the allies had freed them from that yoke, and Baron Vincent was appointed governor ad interim by the house of Austria, a petition was presented to him by the ancient representatives of the city of Brussels, who resumed their former titles under the name of Syndics des neuf nations, et des cent quatre-temps doyens, complaining of the compulsory use of the French tongue. The petitions were favourably received, and an arrêt issued on the 18th of July, authorizing the use of the Flemish language, not, indeed, in all public writings, but in all notarial writings.

When this provisional government ceased by the accession of King William to the throne of the Netherlands, he proposed to redress what was then deemed one of the grievances of the country, by a decree of the 1st October 1814, which stated as a fact, "that, in consequence of the union with France, the national languages of the provinces had been almost suppressed, to give place to the French tongue;" and then added, "that if it was necessary on one side still to tolerate the use of the latter language in some parts where the Flemish is not used, it is but just, on the other side, that the Flemish, which is the natural language of the country, should be re-established in all the parts in which it is used and understood."

The king was certainly desirous of restoring the national language, and of restraining the use of the French; and for a time, whilst it was gratifying to the great body of the people, it occasioned very little complaint upon the part of those who alone spoke or understood French. Gradual enactments were made to induce practitioners to study the national languages; and three years were allowed to acquire them; at the end of which time those who did not understand them were to be removed to other stations, where they could practise their official duties in the tongue they were most familiar with. At the expiration of the prescribed time, 1st of January 1823, a decree fixed the following arrangement on the subject of languages—1. The use of the French language shall be preserved in the Walloon provinces of Liège, Hainault, and Namur. 2. The use of the Dutch language shall continue to be maintained in Holland. 3. The use of the Flemish language, in its several idioms, shall be re-established in the Flemish provinces. 4. The German language shall be used in the German part of the grand duchy of Luxembourg. In short, it was provided that the official language in each of the provinces should be that which was used and understood by the mass of the people who inhabited them.

The profession of the law in Belgium forms a body which, next to the clergy, is the most formidable body of any. They had been trained by the study of French eloquence, and the young advocates, when called upon to plead in the language of the country, were often mortified by the ridicule of the audience. They did not wish to incur the displeasure of the Belgians by degrading their language, and therefore directed their attacks on the Dutch language, which, for that purpose, they confounded with the Flemish. In these attacks they were joined by the writers of many pamphlets, and also those of the public journals. The attacks were very violent. From those on the Dutch language they passed on to attacks on their literature, on their manners, and their morals. The Dutch writers, irritated by these attacks, replied and defended themselves; and thus arose, from mere literary disputes, a powerful and enduring animosity between the two countries.

The subject of religion was one which, above all others, served to produce discontent. A set of writers who neither had, nor pretended to have, any religious principles, encouraged the government at first in measures of toleration, according to the fundamental law, and were, or affected to be, vehement against the Jesuits, who opposed it. William was no bigot in religion, but it was his desire to raise the character of the Catholic clergy, by imparting Belgium, to them a more extensive and better education than had previously been necessary before entering on their office.

With this view he framed regulations which offended the clergy and the ignorant party who submitted to them, and who were at length joined by those who distinguished themselves as liberals, as soon as they saw that some advantages could be drawn from that union to forward their own republican views.

The Catholic clergy in Belgium had submitted to the regulation of their affairs which French subjugation had imposed. The vicar of the diocese of Ghent has indeed been unwilling to allow this; but Baron de Keverburg, himself a Catholic, and under the French regime governor of West Flanders, asserts most positively that the imperial institutions were observed in Belgium as elsewhere; that the catechism of the empire was taught to almost every one; and that the four articles of the clergy of France formed a part of the religious instruction in all the Belgian departments. As soon as the kingdom was established, they brought forward claims to power which they dared not even to whisper under Napoleon, and even carried those claims to an extent beyond what they had been urged for the last three or four centuries, and beyond what are acknowledged in the Catholic kingdoms of Europe.

The vicar-general of Ghent had required, as essential to the establishment of the kingdom of the Netherlands, "le rétablissement de tous les articles des anciens pactes inauguraux, constitutions, chartes, et cetera, en ce que concerne, non seulement le libre exercice de religion Catholique, mais aussi les droits, privilèges, exemptions, et prérogatives des évêques, prélats, des maisons-dieu, et des autres institutions religieuses quelconques." A single exception was indeed admitted to this exercise of power. The church would indulge the monarch so far as "accorder au prince et à sa cour des chapelles, bien entendu seulement dans l'enceinte des palais royaux." Thus these old powers, which the French had destroyed twenty years before, were to be restored; and then the prelates would allow, but only to the king and his family, the toleration of his own worship in secret. According to the principle of the prelates, the chief and sole duty of the temporal power was, in its relation to the Catholic church and its clergy, limited to "protéger la religion et ses ministres, à faire exécuter les lois de l'église, à faire punir les actes extérieurs nuisibles à la société religieuse."

This extraordinary claim of the church to a power independent of, and in fact governing the state, would not, on its own account, have deserved the notice here taken of it. It was at least quieted by the prudent conduct of the king, who suffered the Count Mean, one of the prelates, upon his nomination to a seat in the council of state, to swear to the tolerating constitution under a protest, that if the pope should declare the oath to be contrary to the rights of the church, it should thereby cease to be binding. The king, whilst he adhered to the constitutional principle of tolerating other sects, extended his liberality to the Catholic clergy, by increasing the stipends of the inferior orders; by making provision for those who, from age or infirmity, were incapable of performing their duty; and by contributing liberally to the erection or repairs of churches where the communal funds were inadequate to the purpose.

The opposition of the clergy was for a time dormant; but it was again roused, when, at a subsequent period, the leaders of the church formed a junction with the leaders of the French party, and thus placed the lower classes, who could not read their effusions, but were under the influence of the priests, who spoke to them in Flemish, in a state of hostile excitement towards the government. The hostility of the clergy was much aggravated by the attempts made to improve the education of the priests. The king had determined that no priest should be inducted who had not passed two years in the study of the literae humaniores before his ordination, and appropriated a college at Louvain for that purpose, to which was given the unfortunate name of the philosophical college, a name with good Catholics almost equivalent to infidel or heretic. The prelates, to counteract this, established seminaries connected with the cathedrals, in which the pupils were instructed in their humanities. These contravened the design of the king, and were forcibly shut up. It was an objection to the philosophical college that the professors of history were not priests, but laymen, and some Protestants. This may not seem a solid ground of declining to attend lectures on history; but it was so with the Catholics; for, as their doctrines rest quite as much on tradition as on the Holy Scriptures, it was of vast importance that history should be taught by those alone who were orthodox in their opinions.

In truth, the critical spirit of some of the German professors would make sad work with many parts of the traditions held sacred by the Catholic church. The prelates, in the discussions on this subject, indulged in language of a violent kind, and were prosecuted. A law enacted by Napoleon was made the instrument of condemning one or two of them to banishment, and excited no small degree of hatred amongst their adherents, who, if not the most enlightened, were the most numerous portion of the inhabitants. These mortifications were increased by circumstances of inferior importance. Some of the religious festivals were curtailed, certainly with no views mimical to religion, but to benefit the morals of the people, by lessening the number of days that were devoted to idleness and drunkenness. The architecture of the national schools was similar to that of the reformed places of worship, and the youth of the country were forbidden to be educated out of the kingdom. These trifles were magnified into matters of plain evidence of a regular system to proselytise the whole of the Netherlands. Whilst these controversies respecting religion and education were carried on, the conduct of the king was applauded and encouraged by the active party of the liberals, who represented them as proper steps to secure the people from the insidious attempts made by the Jesuits to blind and cajole them. There was no evidence of any plan of the kind on the part of the Jesuits, and it was only affectation in the liberals to insinuate it. It served their turn for the time, but was soon forgotten, when it appeared advantageous for their party purposes to join with the most bigoted of the Catholics against the government of the house of Orange.

Another subject was at times brought forward, and must be added to the causes of the internal disunion between the two parts of the kingdom. The number of members of the representative body had been fixed at the time of the union, and made equal for Holland and for Belgium. The subject was then investigated with the greatest deliberation, and all parties were content. It had been suggested that Belgium brought, to form the kingdom a more numerous population than Holland, and therefore ought to have a greater proportion of members in the assembly. But, upon the other hand, it was shown that the colonies which Holland brought to the common stock contained, in Asia, Africa, and America, as many persons as rendered them equal in number, and, in regard to common advantage, much superior to Belgium; and, besides this, it was urged, that the Dutch contributed to the common cause a powerful fleet and an army, with the stores belonging to both services. This point was, however, settled with perfect cordiality, and remained at rest during several years. But at length it was thought necessary to extend to Belgium the Dutch system of taxation on the grinding of corn. This was severely felt, and gave rise to renewed agitation as to the inequality of representation in reference to the numbers of inhabitants. It became a mere prominent object, because the tax was imposed only by a majority of two votes, all the Hollanders voting for the measure, and all the Belgians but two against it.

During the whole of the period from 1815 to 1839 the popularity of the monarch was very variable. After the uttering of some loud complaints, as alleged grievances arose, they seemed to die away and be forgotten; and, till some new cause supervened, the king was as much respected as his best friends could wish. At no time, indeed, was his personal character assailed; and the general feeling in Belgium was, that he always meant well, but gave too ready an acquiescence to what they tauntingly called the schemes of their Dutch cousins.

The king, attacked by two parties, by the priests and their bigoted followers on one side, and by the republicans on the other, avowed his intention to act with indifference to all parties in the pursuit of what he deemed for the general advantage. In conformity with this disposition a concordat was in 1827 entered into with the pope, by which the right of nomination to the bishoprics was settled. It was provided that each should be selected by the pope out of three individuals to be nominated by the king, and that the education of the priests should be under the control of the prelates; but that in the seminaries professors should be appointed to teach the sciences, as well as what related to ecclesiastical matters. This arrangement was highly satisfactory to the cool and thinking part of the community, but was far from pleasing to the extravagant partisans. The clergy thought that too little had been granted to them, and the liberals that too much power was conferred on their order. Conciliatory as this measure was intended to be, it thus proved nugatory; and several nominations of Belgians to offices before filled by Dutchmen had no better effect.

Brussels at this time contained a most heterogeneous foreign population, consisting of the intriguing and discontented subjects of almost every country of Europe. There were of Frenchmen, regicide conventionists, exiled Napoleonists, and proscribed constitutionalists, besides Italian carbonari, expatriated Poles, Spanish liberals, disgraced Russians, English and Irish radicals, and visionary students from the various parts of Germany. As the greater part of these had but insecure means of subsistence, and for the most part understood the French language, the press groaned with libels, not more against the Belgian than against all other governments, and thus contributed towards the production of a high state of political excitement. The press of the capital also furnished cheap editions of such works as, either from their irreligious, immoral, or democratic tendency, were prohibited in France; and thus became a nuisance to the regular governments of Europe. The great mass of the population could not be inflamed by these fire-brands; few of them could read, and fewer still could read French. They were, however, acted upon by other means. The Flemish preachers, schoolmasters, and confessors, in their several spheres, were ready to join in any movement, and were sure to be supported by the idle, the dissolute, and the indigent, with which the cities and large towns abounded. To bring the whole body of discontent to bear upon the same point, it was found advisable to form the two parties into one; and this was achieved by the liberals affecting a zeal for the Catholic faith, which they had before treated with contempt and ribaldry. The union was thus formed, meetings of the parties were held, the junction was openly announced, and threatenings were promulgated tending to give confidence to the confederacy, as well as to excite apprehension in the king and his ministers.

This system of agitation was carried to an extent which no government could behold with indifference, however confident in the rectitude of its measures. It was attempted to oppose the calumniating writers by employing others to counteract their influence; but the attempt was far from successful, as in that kind of warfare the assailants have almost always the advantage on their side. The avowed object of the liberal writers was to urge the clerical party to make such extravagant demands of extensive power as they knew, if granted, would be the ruin of the royal authority, and if refused, would increase the agitation they had already created. Although the whole of the Dutch members of the representative assembly, and several of the most respectable of the Belgian members, gave a majority in favour of the royal party, yet many of the latter adopted most inflammatory language, and, as far as the rules of debate allowed, seconded the views of the united party of the liberals and bigots.

As the union openly flung defiance at the government, it appeared necessary to bring before the courts of law the most notorious of the inflammatory writers; and two were selected as subjects for prosecution before the court of assizes of South Brabant. These individuals are thus described by the Baron de Keverburg. Of the first, Louis de Potter, he says, "Il s'était fait remarquer longtemps avant les troubles de la Belgique par des écrits qui, aux yeux de l'église, étaient reçus fort impies, et, aux yeux des hommes doués, d'un peu de délicatesse, de très-mauvais goût. Ce que j'ai de dire sur le second est moins honorable encore. M. François Tielemans, avant l'époque pré-indiqué, n'était connu que par les bienfaits qu'il avait reçus et qu'il continuait de recevoir du roi, et plus tard il le fut par son ingratitude envers son bienfaiteur."

These men, with two others, likewise editors of journals, were sent to the tribunal in which Van Maanen filled the office of presiding judge. The prosecution terminated in a sentence of banishment from the kingdom for the period of eight years; a sentence which brought on the judge the execrations of the libellous journals, and elevated the prisoners to the rank of martyrs. The sentence was put in force by sending the culprits to the frontiers, where they were detained, as neither of the neighbouring states would admit them. The revolution of July occurred in Paris whilst they were in this state; and the party which prevailed in that city allowed them to enter France, and they were received in the capital with great applause by the propagandists.

The popular mind in Brussels was highly agitated by these trials, which did not operate to restrain the indignant language of the journals, nor the distribution of the most vehement placards, many of them in the Flemish tongue, in which the minister Van Maanen, and the editor of a royalist journal entitled the National, were held up to the public indignation, and threatened with vengeance. In this state of the public feeling, the news of the success of the Parisian mob in overturning the throne was received with enthusiasm. Numbers of the young propagandists from Paris reached Brussels. Assuming to themselves the character of heroes of the revolution, and with feelings of disappointment at the tranquil issue at which it had so soon arrived, these young men displayed the three-coloured cockade in the streets and public places; talked loudly in the theatres and coffee-houses; sang the Marseillaise and Parisienne hymns in chorus with impassioned groups; and dwelt with enthusiasm on the glories of the republic and the empire, and the future destinies of their "young France." Some of the more active of the Belgians repaired to Paris, and are said to have sounded the new government on the subject of the reunion of their country to France, in the event of the dissolution of the monarchy of the Netherlands. These last were, however, mere adventurers, who had little or no power over, or intercourse with, those who were destined to influence the fate of Belgium. The disturbances which followed at first may be easily concluded to have been the result of mere popular excitement, such as is often seen in large cities. The first symptom of outrage was presented by the audience of the theatre, on the 25th of August 1830, after the representation of a piece, the *Muette de Portici*, which abounded with passages well calculated to kindle a flame amongst materials well charged with inflammable particles. When the curtain fell, the excited audience rushed into the street, exclaiming, "To the office of the National." They ran thither, soon forced in the doors and windows, and began the work of destruction. They then rushed into the dwelling of the editor, which was speedily demolished, though the obnoxious individual, whose life was threatened, made his escape unhurt. The house of Van Maanen was that next assailed. It was plundered, and then set on fire, and the populace stopped the fire-engine from playing till every thing in it was consumed. The police-office was then attacked; the books, furniture, pictures, and plate of the chief magistrate were brought out and burnt in the street; and the hotel of the provincial governor shared the same fate; whilst some private houses and several manufactories were pillaged, and otherwise much damaged. Fury, confusion, or terror were visible in every countenance, before the civil and military powers made any attempts to stop these disorders; and those which were made showed a want either of the courage or the coolness necessary to act with decision. "From this conduct," says an eye-witness, "before ten o'clock on the morning of the 26th, the guards and posts in the centre of the city had been overcome, or had tranquilly surrendered; and the troops who had been drawn out either retreated to their barracks, or were withdrawn to the upper part of the city, where they piled their arms in front of the king's palace, and renounced all attempts at suppressing the tumult."

By the operations of these two days, the multitude had in fact gained the mastery of the city, and every one in it felt himself exposed to whatever private malice, political fury, or the love of plunder, might induce the populace to inflict. This moved a few of the more influential inhabitants to take up arms, and to enrol themselves into a burgher guard, for the protection of their lives and property. Within three days, not less than as many thousand persons, chiefly heads of families, had enrolled themselves in this corps, and, under chiefs of their own selection, paraded the streets; so that, if they did not put a stop to plunder and destruction, they at least contributed in some degree to contract the extent of the mischief. In such circumstances, the actual power within the city devolved on those who obtained the direction of these hastily organized and scarcely armed citizens. They determined on resisting the troops, which were advancing; and the general who commanded them having no precise orders from the king to act, readily agreed to suspend the march, and entered into a kind of treaty of neutrality with the burghers, till they could receive directions from the Hague, where the king and his family had that year their residence. The intelligence of these events in the capital soon spread throughout the provinces, and in all the large towns, except Antwerp and Ghent, similar scenes were exhibited, commencing with plunder and outrages by mobs, and settling down into an uneasy but rather more secure state by the institution of burgher guards.

The intelligence from Brussels was quickly communicated to the Hague, but the royal councils were divided in opinion. The only positive demand in Brussels was the dismission of the minister Van Maanen; and he offered to resign his post. The king is said to have refused accepting his resignation, whilst the Prince of Orange urged the acceptance of it, and the adoption of some other measures of a conciliatory kind. The result of the decision can only be known by the events which followed; and they show that neither the adoption of concessions, nor the positive use of force, was resolved upon, but a course was pursued which, being some undefined medium between the two different paths, ended, as was natural, in converting a mere popular riot into a confirmed revolution. It was determined by the council that the Prince of Orange should proceed to Brussels on a peaceful commission; whilst the command of the army was conferred on his brother, and the troops advanced with alacrity from the various parts of Holland, where they were quartered, and where the most astonishing zeal was displayed in support of the royal authority.

The prince, however, departed for Brussels, but only furnished with such limited powers as, in the actual circumstances, were utterly ineffective. On his arrival at Vilvorde, near the city, he was waited on by a deputation from the city, composed of some of the most respectable inhabitants, who had been nominated at a public meeting of the householders. After some preliminary discussions, the prince courageously resolved on entering the city with no other suite than a few officers of his staff. His passage through the streets, crowded with the irregular burgher guard, and a ferocious mob, was attended with imminent risk; but at length he reached his own palace, and commenced a conference. Discussions were continued for several days between the prince on one side, and respectable citizens on the other, which were conducted with firmness and in a conciliatory spirit by both parties. The substance was not a rejection of the royal authority, or of the reigning dynasty, on the part of the citizens, but a separation of the administration of Belgium from that of Holland. They all declared that no wish prevailed for any union with France, but only for such a kind of independence for both countries as had been fixed between Sweden and Norway, with which both countries were satisfied and benefited. It was more than intimated to the prince that the wishes of all Belgium would be fulfilled if he were elevated to the throne; but in answer to such suggestions he firmly asked of one of the most influential men both at that and the present time, "What opinion would you entertain of me were I to sacrifice the interests of my father to my own? What confidence could you repose in a man who could cast off his allegiance to his king, and that king his father, merely to gratify his own ambition? I also am a father," added the prince with deep emotion, "and am bound to show a proper example to my children. Posteriority shall not revert to my name, and revile me as that disloyal Nassau who tore the diadem from his father's brow to place it on his own."

At a final meeting held on the 3rd of September, when many members of the states-general attended, it was so fully obvious to the prince that nothing but a separate administration of the two countries would restore tranquillity, that he resolved to use his influence with his father to accomplish that object; and he received the fullest assurance from the persons present, that they would unite in the most efficacious measures to assure the dynasty of the house of Orange, and to protect the territory of Belgium against any attempts to subject it to France, or any other foreign power. The prince expressed his determination to use his most powerful arguments with his father to obtain his assent to this proposal; but expressed his apprehension that he should be unable to succeed in his endeavours. The prince then quitted the city, carrying with him the respect of all those with whom he had communicated, for the courage he had displayed, for the knowledge of public affairs which he discovered, for the cool judgment which he exercised, and, above all, for the sense of parental duty which he had manifested. Whilst these transactions were passing in Brussels, the whole country was in a flame; in every town the populace were triumphant, and indulged unre- Belgium, strained in plunder, to which, especially in the important city of Liège, was added the conflagration of several valuable manufacturing establishments. The officers of the army, with no definite orders how to act, were paralyzed in some places, in others gave up their arms, and in others engaged to be neutral.

The king, amidst the general disorder in Belgium, and the most fanatical attachment to the royal cause in Holland, had summoned the states-general from both divisions to assemble at the Hague. The members from Belgium, with some slight hesitation, resolved to repair thither, and the assembly was opened on the 13th of September, by a speech from the king, which was firm and temperate, but by no means definitive. The proceedings of this body were dilatory; the Belgium members were treated with indignity and insult by the populace; and the language of some of the Dutch members expressed vengeance rather than conciliation. The accounts received at Brussels from the Hague, and the warlike demonstrations made by the troops, rekindled and accelerated the preparations for defence, and induced some approaches to organization. The burgher guards had become tired of military duty, and being mostly tradesmen living on their business, which had now been ruined, they were anxious for the return of the tranquillity upon which their existence depended. The leaders of the opposition, however, drew fresh recruits of a more determined and more reckless description from the rude population of the Walloon provinces, from the men employed in the coal and iron mines, and from the iron forges and other works which had been destroyed or shut up in and around Liège. These were, in a great measure, old and hardy soldiers, who had served in the ranks of Bonaparte's army, and fought in Germany, in Russia, or in Spain. Their arrival in the capital spread terror amongst the peaceable inhabitants, and kindled alarms lest they should be again exposed to the outrages which had marked the first days of the explosion. The defenders were thus divided into two parties; but, as usual, the most violent soon prevailed; and the council of the rabble soon dispersed that of the burghers (for both had their separate assemblies), seized the arms of the latter, and added to them others which had been collected in different parts of the country.

Although the states were still sitting at the Hague, the king's army was gradually drawn around Brussels. It consisted of 14,000 well appointed troops, under the command of Prince Frederick. But the motions of this powerful body were so dilatory, and its whole operations so unmilitary, that they are difficult to be accounted for, unless on the supposition that the conduct of the king was too conciliatory when force should have been applied, and too hostile when conciliation would have been of most advantage to his cause. On the 20th of September the council resolved to take possession of Brussels, and orders were sent to Prince Frederick to that effect. This resolution was taken at the Hague in consequence of the information of numerous emissaries from Brussels, who represented the inhabitants as eager to receive the troops, and to assist in putting an end to the anarchy and oppression which the mob were exercising. The most respectable names in the city were appended to these representations, which were doubtless sincere, but came from such as were more prepared to enjoy the return of peace and good government than to contribute any share of their personal services to secure these blessings.

On the 25th, the troops advanced towards the city, and with little opposition occupied the upper portion or court part of it, which is situated on a hill, by which the whole of the rest of the town is commanded. The opponents in the lower part of the city were dispirited and disunited, and most of the more violent leaders had fled. But the commanders of the army seem to have been seized with a panic, or to have dreaded doing too much mischief to the houses and property of the more wealthy inhabitants. In the square, where the troops had been drawn up, they were exposed to a galling fire from an invisible enemy, who, from the roofs of the houses, and from the cellars, picked off the officers and men without being much exposed to any return from the troops. Instead of destroying the houses and buildings which concealed the assailants, the prince had recourse to unavailing negotiations, and, after three days of most harassing service, determined to withdraw his troops. He had the means of stopping all supplies from entering the city, and thus of effecting a surrender by starvation; or, by a bombardment, he might have easily enforced submission. Why neither of these means were adopted cannot be certainly known; but the friends of the royal party attribute it to humanity alone. The loss of lives was not very great on the side of the king's troops, considering their exposed situation, and the number engaged. It is stated in the returns as 138 killed, and 650 wounded; whilst of the defenders of the city, though far inferior in numbers, the casualties were acknowledged by themselves to be 450 killed, and 1250 wounded. This disparity must be considered as one of the many extraordinary circumstances of the transactions, and renders the result utterly incomprehensible. The incredible intelligence of this repulse was rapidly conveyed to the provinces, with great exaggerations; and dissension, anarchy, and demoralisation were spread everywhere. The army retreated towards Antwerp, which, in spite of the force near it, soon became involved in confusion. Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, and the other towns in that direction, immediately became a prey to the revolutionary party, and experienced the horrors of anarchy in the destruction of some of their most extensive manufacturing establishments. The universal rejoicing of the Belgians did not prevent some measures from being adopted to restrain outrages. In a few days, some individuals, with the general acquiescence, formed themselves into a provisional government. They were for the most part men of character and property; but amongst them was De Potter, who had returned as soon as the danger was over, and had been placed by the popular feeling at the head of the body. His power was but of short duration, and he soon fell into utter insignificance, if not contempt, as did others of the original leaders of the insurrection. When those of the representatives who had assembled at the Hague returned home, and their conduct was reviewed in a dispassionate manner, the weight of their character gave them an influence which proved favourable to the return of order. Some of them were added to the body forming the provisional government, and they exercised their influence with prudence, firmness, and integrity.

In the provisional government the state of parties was singular, from the variety of opinions. De Potter, who looked forward to the dignity of president, advocated a republican form of government; Gendebeer, a decided advocate of democracy, preferred a union with France; whilst Van de Weyer wished for an independent government, on a monarchical basis, with the Prince of Orange at the head, if he would consent to withdraw altogether from his Dutch obligations, and become exclusively the sovereign of Belgium. The plan of Van de Weyer was known to be favoured by all the kings of Europe; and even France, at that moment under the pilotage of Lafayette, was averse to the entire exclusion of the Nassau dynasty, and sent an agent to Brussels to forward his views. Gendebeer had visited Paris, and there found little or no disposition amongst the leading people to agree to a union with the Belgians, which, they were aware, would involve them in a war with all those powers that had founded the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, solely as a European object and a barrier against France.

It soon became evident in Belgium itself that republicanism had made little or no progress. The prevailing opinion was strong in favour of the Catholic religion, with all its ancient powers and observances, but stronger still in favour of a nationality independent of all foreign control. This latter spirit contributed to increase the number of those who had taken up arms; and by such persons the repulse of the Dutch at Brussels was vainly considered as an evidence of the military power of the people. Many of the privates, and a few Belgians of distinction, had been in the army of Prince Frederick; but they soon left his colours, and entered the ranks of their countrymen. The Belgian colours waved on every tower in the country, except those of Antwerp and Maestricht; when the Dutch army, greatly reduced in numbers as regarded subalterns and privates, but with the artillery in complete order, withdrew into their own territory.

The council of the king at the Hague resolved on the separation of the two governments into different administrations; but it was then too late to produce reconciliation; and an attempt made by the Prince of Orange to procure for himself the supremacy of Belgium had no other effect than to beget contempt in that country, and to draw upon himself the temporary suspicion of double dealing towards his father and his countrymen in Holland.

The transactions which took place at Antwerp in October had the further effect of rendering the Belgians still more adverse to the Orange dynasty than they had before been. That city was invested by a Belgian force, whilst within, notwithstanding the resistance of the armed burghers, the populace became masters of the place; and the citadel was occupied by a garrison of 8000 good troops, commanded by the bravest of the Dutch officers, General Chassé. A truce had been concluded between the adverse parties, and a white flag hoisted from the fort; but the Belgian officers were unable to maintain it, the populace having begun an attack on the citadel, though with no other arms than muskets. This was not returned, but a cannon was brought forward by the populace, and a fire opened on the gates of the citadel, which, as the Belgian officers assert, was without their approbation or knowledge. On this infraction of the truce, Chassé ordered two or three guns to be fired from the bastion facing the arsenal. This being found ineffectual, the white flag was taken down; a signal was made to the fleet, consisting of eight vessels of war, in the Scheldt, close to the town; and a cannonade and bombardment commenced. It was more terrific than injurious, the fire being chiefly directed against the arsenal and the entrepot, where all the military and naval stores in the former were destroyed; whilst in the latter large quantities of sugar, coffee, hides, cloths, silks, and spices, were burned and buried in the ruins of the storehouses. The firing had continued some hours when a deputation from the city made their way to the citadel, and proposed a suspension of hostilities, which was instantly agreed to, and the firing ceased. Never, perhaps, was exaggeration or misrepresentation carried farther than on this occasion, in the reports printed and circulated through Belgium; and the effect which they produced destroyed the last hope of those who wished well to the Orange dynasty. Since that event, official accounts made out by the Belgian custom-house show, that the whole loss of goods in the stores amounted to 1,888,000 florins, or L157,200; whilst the damage done to private buildings, and the furniture in them, amounted to 679,466 florins, or L59,450. In this the loss of the public buildings was not included. The number of the killed was only sixty-eight, of whom seventeen were military men, and the others those of the populace who had caused the calamity. The Dutch asserted that the fire was confined almost wholly to the spot where the munitions of war were stored, and that the rest of the city was designedly spared.

As all hope of conciliation was thus destroyed, the court of the Hague made pressing solicitations to the four powers who by treaty had formed the kingdom of the Netherlands, to fulfil the obligations imposed upon them by the treaty of Vienna of 1813. But it was soon seen by the answer of Lord Aberdeen, the British secretary of state, and by those of the ministers of the other powers in succession, that none of them was disposed to make use of any other than pacific measures. This proceeding gave rise to negotiations between the allied powers, which were chiefly carried on in London, out of which proceeded numerous protocols, which had no decisive influence on the course of events. The public affairs of Europe favoured the independence of Belgium. All the powers were in alarm at the recent events in France, and all feared, not that the scarcely seated king would willingly commence a war of aggression, but that the democratic party might become sufficiently powerful to compel him to associate himself with the Belgians, and to bring that country under the power of France. The obvious interest of the four great powers was tranquillity, and the securing of the Continent against Flanders becoming the base of military operations towards the centre of Europe. If these could be obtained, it mattered little whether they arose from the junction or the separation of the two portions which had formed the kingdom of the Netherlands. The first meeting of the ministers of the great powers showed that they merely considered themselves as arbitrators between the northern and southern divisions of the newly-dissolved kingdom; and their first measures were addressed to the object of a suspension of hostilities, which was to a limited extent acquiesced in by both parties.

To settle the internal government now became the first object of the Belgians, who considered their independence as firmly assured. A national congress was accordingly assembled at Brussels, consisting of two hundred deputies, chosen in the several provinces, from all tax-paying persons above twenty-five years of age, without exception as to religion. The qualification for the electors and the elected was the paying of taxes, which varied in the several provinces according to their estimated wealth. Thus, in Luxembourg, the poorest province, the qualification was the payment of taxes annually to the amount of twenty-one shillings and sixpence; but from this the required rate was gradually raised, till, in Flanders, the richest of the provinces, the tax paid required to be six pounds five shillings. The assembly was a fair representation of the people of Belgium; for scarcely any proprietor was excluded from voting, whilst in the larger towns and cities the mere populace, from the qualification being higher, had not the means of introducing their favourites. As soon as the assembly met, the demagogues, who had contributed to the revolution, became insignificant. De Potter, Thielman, and the others who had been martyrs and heroes with the mob, sunk into insignificance.

The assembly proceeded to business in a regular manner. Three important propositions were presented to the congress. The first was the declaration of independence, which was voted unanimously; the second, proposed on the 23rd of November, decided against a republic, and in favour of a constitutional hereditary monarchy, by a majority of 174 against thirteen votes, but it did not fix on the title of the future chief of the state; the third proposition, brought forward on the 23rd, was for the perpetual exclusion of the Orange Nassau family. This was debated during two days, and at the close was agreed to by a majority of 161 against twenty-eight. The object of the minority was to delay the proposition till a more cool and distant period, and till it could be known whether the revolution which had taken place would lead to a war against Belgium. Mr Van de Weyer had, however, returned from a mission to London, Belgium, and it was commonly believed he had ascertained that the sentiments of Lord Grey and the new ministers were as averse to any warlike interference as those which had been previously expressed by the Duke of Wellington and Lord Aberdeen.

It seems probable, that at the period in question the governments of England and France were co-operating in endeavours to place the Prince of Orange on the throne of Belgium; even if it could be accomplished in defiance of the positive declaration of the king his father, who did not scruple to assert, "that he would rather see De Potter placed on the throne than the Prince of Orange." But if such was the desire of the two kingdoms, it was soon discovered to be utterly impracticable, though much time was spent under the impression of its feasibility, and much suspicion excited amongst the Belgians against the sincerity of France.

Whilst the plenipotentiaries were settling the most equitable plan for separating the two countries, and had given their view with respect to the boundaries of each, they also adjusted what portion of the debt of the Netherlands should be assigned to Belgium, and what to Holland, fixing the former at $\frac{1}{3}$ parts, and the latter at $\frac{2}{3}$ parts. These discussions led to others; and it soon became known, that however independent Belgium might become as regarded Holland, it was too dependent on the superior power of the European kingdoms to be permitted the spontaneous nomination of the individual who was to become its sovereign. At that time a large, perhaps a predominant, party in the assembly would have preferred one of the Bourbons' family; but this, it soon appeared, would not be permitted by France. Another party were inclined to select a son of Louis Philip, the king of the French; but intimations had been communicated to that prince, that England would consider an acquiescence in the project as a sufficient cause of war; and he agreed to the exclusion of his son, but so privately that it was only known to a few individuals beyond the diplomatic circles. The partisans of the house of Orange took no open and avowed part in these discussions.

The inefficiency of this representative assembly to the real purposes of a government was speedily shown in the long and bombastical speeches of the members; in the absolute confusion in every department, whether civil, military, or judicial; and in the mobbing and plundering which prevailed in all the provinces. The necessity for an executive power was so strongly felt by the more reflecting members of the assembly, that after several days' preparatory debate, it was resolved, on the 19th of January 1831, to proceed to the election of a chief on the 28th of that month. The election of a sovereign, or rather of a dynasty, was enough to kindle agitation and intrigue; but perhaps less of these than might have been expected was discoverable, from the great number of the candidates whose pretensions were urged. On the day before the election, petitions were presented to the assembly in favour of Lafayette, Fabvier, Chateaubriand, the Prince of Carignan, the Archduke Charles; Surlet de Chokier; Charles Rogier, and Felix de Merode, private Belgians; Prince Otho of Bavaria, John duke of Saxony, a Prince of Salm, the Pope, the Duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Philip, and the Duke of Leuchtenburg. Besides these, the Duke of Lucca, the Duke of Reichstadt, the son of Napoleon, and the Prince of Capua, brother of the king of the Two Sicilies, were suggested. The choice of the last was seriously contemplated by the French, through Talleyrand; but the Belgians showed no predilection for him, although he was not objectionable to any of the four powers. Had the Belgians showed any decided eagerness for Prince Otho of Bavaria, it was known that he would have been recognised by England, France, and Prussia; and that he would then have obtained the hand of the Princess Mary, Belgium's third daughter of the king of the French. But his age, for he was only fifteen, formed an objection with the Belgians. The popular press, decidedly democratic, was most united in favour of the Duke of Leuchtenburg; but its power had been used till it was exhausted; and, besides, the choice was in better hands than those who are influenced by its inflammatory declamations. It is remarkable, that amongst the long list of candidates the name of Prince Leopold was never once mentioned. It has been suggested that England had not even then abandoned the hope of fixing the Prince of Orange on the throne. This would have been approved of by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and by the nobles and wealthier part of the Belgians, but not by France, as Louis Philip was disposed to fear that the example of enthroning the son of the deposed monarch might hereafter have been taken as a precedent in favour of the Duke of Bordeaux against his son in France.

At the eve of the election, however, by some strange caprice of circumstances, all the names were withdrawn excepting the two, who, all intelligent persons knew, could not be allowed to rule. It was remarked of them by Norrbom, one of the most respectable of the democratic members, that "the Duke of Leuchtenburg was essentially anti-French, without being European, whilst the Duke of Nemours was so exclusively French as to be directly anti-European." It is singular that both these personages had been declared inadmissible by the conference of the representatives of the great powers. The name of the Archduke Charles of Austria was then brought forward; but he could only be considered as a cloak for the partisans of the Prince of Orange, and for other members, who knew he would not accept the dignity, for the purpose of reducing that absolute majority of the whole voters which was necessary to the choice. The votes were taken by ballot, and the following result appeared when the names were drawn from the urn:—The total number of voters was 191, and consequently the required absolute majority was ninety-six. Nine members being absent, there appeared for the Duke of Nemours eighty-nine, for the Duke of Leuchtenburg sixty-seven, and for the Archduke Charles thirty-five, so that, in fact, there was no election. A new voting then became necessary, and the second scrutiny gave a definite result. Another member had entered, making 192, and consequently the absolute majority required was ninety-seven. The state of the voting then appeared to be, for Nemours ninety-seven, for Leuchtenburg seventy-four, and for the archduke twenty-one. This annunciation was received with acclamation by the populace, and with expressions of joy by the partisans of the successful candidate, who well knew his father would not permit him to accept the offered crown. A deputation was despatched to Paris to announce the choice. But the throne was refused, and the deputies returned after paying and receiving some unmeaning compliments.

The moment was seized by the partisans of the Prince of Orange in order to raise a commotion in his favour. It was a wild project, confined to Ghent, Bruges, and Antwerp, where his adherents were numerous, especially amongst the lower class, who had been thrown out of employment by the cessation of commerce and manufactures. The attack on Ghent was speedily quelled, and the leader fled; but he was seized on his way to France, and on his person were found letters from the Prince of Orange, then in London, encouraging the project. This unsuccessful effort, and the evidence of the prince's participation in it, proved very injurious to his cause; and even sober men who had favoured him, were disgusted with what appeared to them to be an attempt to involve the country in a civil war.

On the refusal of France, the assembly, still feeling the want of an executive power, passed an act that the throne was vacant, thereby establishing the monarchical principle, and then proceeded to the election of a regent as a temporary measure. The choice fell upon Baron Surlet de Chokier, a worthy, well-meaning man, of no great abilities, who showed little solicitude for the dignity; and on the 25th of February he was installed with some parade. Plots and conspiracies were forming around him in every direction, and the demon of civil war was urging on the people to mutual destruction. The feeble government of the regent could produce neither obedience nor tranquillity within the country; and it was threatened by the Dutch, who adhered to their king and his purposes with equal union and ardour. It was reported, during the regency, that schemes for the dismemberment of Belgium were contemplated by some of the continental powers. According to this project, two thirds of Flanders, the province of Antwerp, and the northern half of Limburg and Brabant, including Brussels, would have fallen to Holland; the eastern part of Luxembourg, with Liège and other territories upon the left bank of the Meuse and the Moselle, would have been transferred to Prussia; and Namur, Hainault, and the west part of Flanders, would have been ceded to France. If this project was seriously entertained, it received such discouragement from the British government, that it was speedily abandoned. About the same period, that is, about a month after the instalment of the regent, extensive plans were formed for a general rising amongst the Orange party, in connection with some of the chief officers of the army and the most influential leaders of the burgher guards of Brussels. But this came to nothing, having, it is said, been discouraged by the British minister at Brussels, who saw no other effect that could arise from it but a general European war. It is said that after some discussion respecting Luxembourg, and checking the petty hostilities on the frontier, the British government in April gave up all hope of establishing the Prince of Orange on the Belgic throne. On the 12th of that month a kind of proposition was made by some of the influential members of the assembly, and privately communicated to Sir Edward Cust, one of the equerries of Prince Leopold, with the design of ascertaining whether the prince, if chosen, would accept the crown. Leopold answered in the affirmative, but strictly abstained from giving any authority to make exertions in his favour. He was however convinced, before the election, that a vast majority of the electors would vote in his favour; and that he should have all the aid of the clergy and the high Catholic nobility, with no opposition but from the French and movement party, and the few Orangeists that had seats in the assembly. A deputation of four members repaired to Claremont, and had an interview with the prince. They explained their object, and the conditions upon which they were authorized to offer the crown, and awaited his reply. It manifested a noble, simple, and frank disposition, and concluded thus: "All my ambition is to contribute to the happiness of my fellow-creatures. When yet young, I found myself in so many difficult and singular situations, that I have learned to consider power only with a philosophic eye. I never coveted it but for the sake of doing good, durable good. Had not certain political differences arisen, which appeared to me essentially opposed to the independence of Greece, I should now be in that country; and yet I never attempted to conceal from myself the difficulties of my position. I am aware how desirable it is that Belgium should have a sovereign as soon as possible. The peace of Europe is deeply interested in it."

The deputation returned, and many stormy discussions ensued. Attempts were made to defer the election till all differences with Holland were settled; but these were overcome by the votes of 137 to 48. The election took place on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196, four only being absent, determined that Prince Leopold should be proclaimed king of the Belgians, under the express condition, that he "would accept the constitution, and swear to maintain the national independence and territorial integrity."

This choice, though not expressly unanimous, was such in reality; for of the minority of forty-three, nineteen voted on the ground that the election was premature, fourteen voted for Baron Surlet de Chokier, solely on account of private friendship, and thus the real opposition to Leopold consisted only of ten. Though the voting was by ballot, yet the vote of every man was known; and all who dared, gave reasons for it, except the ten, who were well known as terrorists.

Leopold lost no time in repairing to the post to which he was appointed, and, with only one aide-de-camp and a few domestics, landed at Ostend on the 17th of June, and proceeded directly through Ghent to the palace of Lacken, near Brussels. He made his public entry into that city on the 21st, and was received with cordiality by the higher classes, and by the populace with loud acclamations. The king took the oath to the constitution; the regent delivered up his power; and the congress was dissolved, to make way for the election of the members who were to form the two legislative chambers, as prescribed by the fundamental laws.

The first chamber, or the senate, was to consist of fifty members, chosen for eight years, but one half of them was to be renewed at the end of four years. The qualifications were to be, having attained the age of forty years, and paying direct taxes to the amount of 1000 florins, or L.84 yearly. The second chamber was to consist of 101 members, being at the rate of one for 40,000 inhabitants. They were to be of the age of twenty-five years, to pay annual direct taxes to the amount of L.8, and to be paid at the rate of 200 florins, or L.16, each month during the session. They were to be renewed by one half retiring at the end of two years, but they might be again elected.

After a few formalities, and appointing the ministers to compose the cabinet, on the choice of which much judgment was exercised, the king left the capital to visit Antwerp, Liège, and the other parts of the new kingdom, and was everywhere received with demonstrations of respect and of loyalty. But whilst the proceedings just narrated were passing in Belgium, a storm was gathering on the side of Holland, which had not been anticipated, and to meet which no adequate preparations had been made. The Belgians relied on the armistice which the conference of the ambassadors had established, and the few measures which were taken by them discovered only the confusion and disorder inseparable from all popular movements. In Holland, everything betokened tranquillity, order, and loyalty. The different orders of the government and the people were more eager for punishing what they denominated the rebellion, than even the king and his family. A powerful army was quickly assembled. It was well disciplined, officered, and appointed, and furnished with an ample train of artillery; and yet all was done with so much secrecy, that till that army was ready to advance beyond the frontiers, no preparation was made to resist it.

Much dispute has arisen relative to the right of Holland to commence hostilities without due notice of the cessation of the armistice; but, on the other hand, Holland maintained that due notice had been given. The whole turned on the precise sense of the words "ses moyens militaires," in a note delivered by the Dutch ministers to the conference of ambassadors. The king was certainly encouraged in the enterprise by the stormy scenes exhibited in the Belgian assembly between the period of Leopold's election and the time of his arrival. By the noxious influence of the press, such angry passions had been kindled in every Belgium division of society, as seemed to threaten internal war; but happily a most powerful speech of Mr Lebau in favour of union, and urging the importance of rallying round their new monarch, had the effect of producing feelings of tranquillity; though no language had power to produce order or infuse energy, when the time approached for the exhibition of the one and the exercise of the other.

The Prince of Orange having assumed the command of the Dutch army at Breda, on the 1st of August, the order to advance was instantly given; and the march of the several divisions commenced the next day. This was a complete surprise to the Belgians, who were unprepared at every point to resist a disposable army of more than 40,000 men. It is not necessary here to describe the position and the movements of the various corps on both sides. It was, however, remarked by military men, that the Prince of Orange advanced more deliberately than the occasion required. Leopold collected his forces, such as they were, near Louvain, in order to cover his capital. In this position the Dutch army, having seized the road which led to Brussels on the 9th of August, advanced to attack him. The Belgian troops could not stand for a moment against their opponents, but instantly fled, throwing away their arms, and escaping in disorder; and a neglect of the Dutch, who thoughtlessly left open a road behind Louvain, alone prevented Leopold and his whole staff from becoming prisoners of war. He, however, made good his retreat to the capital, upon which all hostilities ceased. As soon as the movements of the Dutch were known, Leopold appealed to France for assistance. A French army was cantoned on the frontiers, which, by telegraphic communications, was instantly set in motion; and intelligence of their advance was formally announced to the Prince of Orange by Lord William Russell, coupled with an intimation, from the French marshal Gérard, of the determination of the two powers to enforce the abandonment of all military operations. As the French army rapidly entered the country, the Prince of Orange soon saw the necessity of retreating; and a convention was concluded between him and the French general, in consequence of which he returned to Holland, and the French repassed the frontier; so that by the 1st of September both armies had left the Belgian territory.

The cowardly disgraceful conduct of the Belgic troops was of great benefit to the new government. It showed the reflecting part of the community the folly of trusting the defence of their country to a host of popular partisans, too ready to destroy or to plunder, but too much inflamed by the flattery they bestowed on themselves to become efficient defenders when steadily opposed. All saw the necessity of confiding in their chief, and became convinced that a regular army must be formed, in which the men should be compelled to obey their officers. The formation of an army was therefore determined on; but Belgium could not furnish officers. Most of those appointed had been placed in stations of which they were unworthy, because they had been what was called distinguished patriots, that is, leaders of the revolutionary movements; but those active disorganizers were found worse than useless when energy against an enemy required order, discipline, and obedience. By the interference to protect Belgium against Holland, this farther advantage was gained, that the protecting powers were placed in a position to obtain more weight in the negotiations carried on in the conferences of the ambassadors, and both parties were more disposed to leave the contested points respecting boundaries to their arbitration.

In forming an army, Leopold was assisted by the French, who, as far as could be done, furnished it with able officers; a want which Belgium could by no means supply from the natives of that country. The partisans of the Orange family, on this occasion, justified the conduct of King Wil. Belgiumian previous to the revolution, in having selected few of his officers from the Belgians. The selection of Frenchmen, they contended, proved that William was right in not trusting to officers taken from that division of his kingdom.

After the Dutch irruption, Leopold proceeded with coolness and vigour to restore order and gain confidence. He kept on the best of terms with the most important party, the Catholic clergy and the Catholic nobility, and avoided any nearer contact with the French party than politeness and civility required. He knew who were the real friends of monarchical government, and his best supporters. His marriage with a daughter of the king of the French, who was a Catholic, and the contract that the children of the marriage should be educated in the Catholic faith, were powerful means of attaching to his throne all those of his subjects who were under the influence of the clergy. The Belgian army, under the French officers, soon attained considerable advancement in organization and discipline. The undisciplined free troops were disbanded, and the best of the men incorporated in the regiment of chasseurs. Some superior officers were superseded, and many of the subalterns dismissed. A military school was established, and a corps of sappers and miners with a pontoon brigade raised.

The civil list was arranged with economy and order, and the other branches of the public service reformed, and others newly arranged. The talents and the integrity of Leopold, and his benevolent disposition, made a very favourable impression on all that approached him.

Whilst affairs were thus proceeding within, the great work of general pacification was attended to by the members of the conference in London. A final decision was come to on the 15th of November, expressed in twenty-four articles. These settled the great point of boundaries, and placed the question of Luxembourg in a way the most favourable, as was thought, for future pacific arrangement; but, above all, it expressed a determination "to oppose, by every means in their power, the renewal of hostilities between the two countries." This arrangement was ratified by the Belgian and French sovereigns on the 20th and 24th of November, by the British on the 6th of December, by Austria and Prussia on the 18th of April 1832, and by Russia on the 4th of May.

By these articles, the division of the joint debt was fixed on the scale before arranged, viz. 1/6 for Belgium, and 5/6 for Holland; but as the latter had discharged the whole interest as it became due from the first disturbances, she was to be paid the share of the advances, with interest on them at the rate of five per cent. Another point arose out of the settlement of the limits of the two countries. Holland was to have Maestricht, and was in actual possession of that place and its citadel; but Antwerp, which was allotted to Belgium, and was in possession of the Belgians, was commanded by the citadel, which was garrisoned by a Dutch army under the command of General Chassé, a distinguished officer, who, after the annexation of Holland to France, had served in the army of the Emperor Napoleon. The Belgians had given only a conditional ratification of the articles of the 15th of November, upon the express stipulation that the whole of them, in which the possession of the citadel of Antwerp was certainly included, should be fulfilled. They were precluded by that instrument from exercising hostilities, and therefore claimed from the parties to it the performance of its conditions.

It was important to the allied powers that the throne which they had established in the person of Leopold should be strengthened in the views of his subjects, who had sometimes manifested dispositions to democracy, and at others strong inclinations for a union with France, neither of which were deemed compatible with the interests of the European commonwealth. But it could not retain respect if the con- ditions framed by the founders were to be impugned by the Dutch holding the citadel of Antwerp, whilst they were still in possession of Maastricht. These considerations had their due effect on the conference, who, on the 1st of October, unanimously resolved that forcible means were necessary. They differed in regard to the means, the northern courts wishing to adopt pecuniary coercion, by deducting from the debt due from Belgium to Holland a sum weekly till the fortress was delivered up; but to this France and England objected, as leading only to future and tedious negotiations, during which Rotterdam and Amsterdam might enjoy those exclusive commercial advantages which Antwerp was entitled to share with them.

Belgium, being wearied with these entangled negotiations, and having now created an army of more than 100,000, gave notice that, unless their territory was evacuated before the 3rd of November, they would use force to compel it. But this would have created a war, which all the powers were anxious to prevent. On the 22nd of October, a convention was therefore entered into between England and France, which was forthwith communicated to the three other powers, of whose passive adhesion they were assured.

By this convention it was determined, that if the places assigned by the former resolutions to the respective parties were not given up before the 12th of November, France and England would enforce the delivery of these places. This determination was communicated to both nations. Belgium was ready to give up Venloos, which she held; but Holland positively declined surrendering the citadel of Antwerp. The result was, that a combined fleet of English and French proceeded to blockade the ports of Holland, and detain the merchant-ships, whilst France prepared an army to besiege the citadel, without allowing the Belgians in any way to interfere in the military operation. The siege of Antwerp by the French, as a fine practical exemplification of science, became an object of great interest to the military amateurs of all Europe, who repaired thither as spectators. But this is not the place for recording the history of that warlike spectacle. It was vigorously and skilfully attacked; and the defence, which was altogether passive, exhibited a conspicuous example of fortitude and endurance. The first works of the besiegers were opened on the 30th of November, and on the 24th of December the citadel capitulated, when the garrison marched out, and the French took possession of the battered fortress, which, on the 1st of January, they delivered up to the Belgians. The city of Antwerp was not in the least injured, as the approaches were carried on upon the opposite side. The French army shortly afterwards withdrew from Belgium to its own territory. The Dutch garrison was marched into France as prisoners, on the ground that two forts on the river Scheldt, those of Lillo and Liefenschoeck, were still retained by the Dutch. This led to long and complicated diplomatic negotiations, which were at length adjusted, when the captured garrison returned to their own country. On the 16th of May 1833 an indefinite armistice was agreed upon, and on the 21st a provisional convention was signed, which preserved the liberty of the Scheldt, regulated the tolls of the Meuse by the tariffs of Mayence, maintained the existing territorial arrangement, including therein Luxembourg, raised the embargo on the Dutch ships, and set at liberty all the Dutch prisoners kept in France since the siege of Antwerp. Nevertheless, the house of Orange still numbered many partizans among the people, and when the government sequestered its possessions in Belgium murmurs were heard in many towns, chiefly at Ghent, Liege, Antwerp, and Brussels. The people thus irritated became violent; at Brussels they pillaged the houses of the principal Orangists, and were appeased with difficulty. All the attention of the government of King Leopold was given to the encouragement of Belgian commerce, which the revolution had almost annihilated. In 1838 a financial crisis endangered the bank, which was constrained to suspend its payments. The government, however, came to its aid, and soon restored public confidence.

On the 14th of March of the same year, Holland signified readiness to accept the treaty of the twenty-four articles. This announcement produced an extraordinary movement in the kingdom, for since the year 1830 Luxembourg and Limbourg were identified with Belgium, and sent representatives to both chambers; addresses were sent to the government from all parts of the country, the Brabant colours were hoisted, and the people were roused by protestations of the most energetic kind. Leopold was in the meanwhile obliged to yield to the representations of Prussia and Austria, and in 1839 the Belgians had to abandon more than one-third of the provinces of Luxembourg and Limbourg. A subsequent treaty was formed on the 19th of October 1842, which had for its object the settlement of the debts chargeable against Holland and Belgium. By this it was agreed that Belgium should only be liable for an annual payment of five millions of florins, instead of eight millions four hundred thousand florins, which had been imposed upon it by the treaty of November 15, 1831.

In the same year was discovered a conspiracy to place the Prince of Orange upon the throne. The generals Vandermeer and Vandersmissen were at the head of this movement. They were tried before the tribunals, and condemned to death, but the king commuted their punishment to twenty years' imprisonment. Vandersmissen effected his escape, and Vandermeer was afterwards pardoned on condition of retiring to America.

During the revolutions and insurrections of 1848, Belgium was one of the few European kingdoms in which tranquillity was maintained, for which it was mainly indebted to its constitutional government and the wisdom and liberality of its sovereign. On the 11th October 1850 the queen Louise died, leaving two sons and a daughter.

Belgium extends from Lat. 49.27° to 51.30° N. and from Long. 2.34° to 6.4° E. On the N. it is bounded by Holland; E. by Dutch Limbourg and Luxembourg, and Rhenish Prussia; S. by France; and on the W. by the North Sea. It is somewhat of a triangular form, of which the longest side is that adjoining France, being 366 miles in length. The eastern boundary is 233 miles, and the northern and western are together 279 miles in length. Its greatest length from N.W. to S.E. (from Ostend to Arlon) is 46 leagues of 5000 metres, or 174 English miles, and its greatest breadth from N. to S. is 105 miles. It has an area of 2,945,593 hectares, equal to 7,278,968 English acres, or 11,373 square miles; being about one-eighth of the area of Great Britain. This country is divided into nine provinces—Antwerp in the N.; West and East Flanders and Hainault in the W.; Namur in the S.; Luxembourg in the S.E.; Liege and Limbourg in the E.; and Brabant in the centre.

Belgium is in general a very flat country with few elevations, and these rarely exceeding 2000 feet in height. They are principally to be found in the E. and S.E., while the N. and N.W. parts of the country bear a considerable resemblance to Holland. The elevations of Belgium take their rise in France, and extend generally in a N.E. direction. A chain proceeding from the neighbourhood of the sources of the Saone separates the waters of the Meuse from those of the Moselle, passes Arlon and Neufchateau, then extends in a north-eastern direction towards Bastogne, and finally enters Prussia. A branch of this chain goes off at Neufchateau, proceeds northward towards Liege, passes St Hubert, and separates the Ourthe from the Meuse. A part of the Ardennes also extends into Belgium, and separates the basin of the Meuse from that of the Scheldt. It pro- ceeds in a north-eastern direction, passing Fontaine l'Eveque, Gembloux, Ramillies, and Tongres, then gradually decreasing in height, it turns northward to Asch, and afterwards N.W. to Hechtal, Lommel, and Turnhout. A series of heights on the frontier of France, near Chimay, extend in a N.W. direction towards Namur, and separate the Meuse from the Sambre.

The provinces of Liège, Luxembourg, and Namur present the greatest irregularities of surface. This part of the country is intersected by numerous ravines and streams with steep and rocky banks, by deep valleys, and by ridges of hills, with frequently precipitous and rocky escarpments. The vegetation here is of a very poor and languid character. The greater part of this region is covered with dense forests, marshy and uncultivated plateaux, or wretched pasture land, and corn is very rarely cultivated. The inhabitants are a primitive and pastoral race, principally engaged in the tending of flocks, which constitute their chief riches. Descending towards the coast the forests become less frequent and extensive, and rye, oats, and potatoes take the place of the pasture land. In the western and north-western provinces are extensive and well-watered plains which, from their great fertility and the high state of their cultivation, are the boast of the Belgians and the admiration of strangers. Even here, however, are to be seen occasional patches of waste land and uncultivated heaths, particularly in the provinces of Antwerp and Limbourg. From the improvements which have been going on lately, it is expected that at no distant period these shall have all disappeared.

In the provinces bordering on the sea, the land is in some places so low as to require to be protected from inundation by dikes. Those places are called polders. Numerous places along the banks of the rivers are also protected by embankments; these are called interior polders. About a sixtieth part of the kingdom is thus artificially gained from the sea and rivers, being 50,000 hectares, or 193 square miles.

The coast of Belgium is said to be undergoing a change similar to that of Scandinavia,—in some parts a gradual elevation, and in others a gradual depression. Nieuport is said to be the axis of this change, from which, northward to the mouth of the Scheldt, the sea is continually gaining upon the land, while southward to Pas de Calais it is losing.

This country is watered by the rivers Scheldt, Meuse, and Yzer, with their tributaries. The Scheldt is navigable during its entire course through Belgium, and has a general direction from S.W. to N.E., passing through the province of Hainault, along the eastern boundary of West Flanders, traversing East Flanders, and finally forming the boundary between the provinces of East Flanders and Antwerp. Its entire length through Belgium is 108 miles. The Meuse has a course nearly parallel to that of the Scheldt, traversing the provinces of Namur, Liège, and Limbourg. It is 115 miles in length, during the whole of which it is navigable. The small river of Yzer, which enters the sea at Nieuport, is navigable for about 26 miles. The navigable rivers connected with the Scheldt are,—the Dyle, which after receiving the Nethe at the village of Rumpst, takes the name of Ruppel, and joins the Scheldt nearly opposite to Ruppelmonde; the Great and Little Nethe, which after their junction take the name of Nethe and fall into the Dyle; the Demer, also an affluent of the Dyle; the Dender, which enters the Scheldt at Dendermonde; the Durme, which joins it near Thielrode; and the Lys at Ghent. The entire navigable length of these streams is 230 English miles. The navigable rivers of the Meuse are: the Amblève and the Vesdre, affluents of the Ourthe; the Ourthe, which joins the Meuse at Liège; and the Sambre, which joins it at Namur. The navigable length of these is 142 miles. The small river of Yperlee, which joins the Yzer, is navigable for about nine miles. The principal other rivers are the Senne, the Haine, the Semoy, and the Lesse.

Besides these navigable rivers, Belgium has a number of canals for inland navigation, some of which are used also for irrigation. They are 29 in number, and their entire length is 605,440 metres, or 376 English miles. The principal of these are,—the canal from Bruges to Ostend, that from Brussels to Charleroy, from Bocholt to Herenthal, from Brussels to Willebroeck, from Ghent to Bruges, from Liège to Maastricht, from Maestricht to Bois-le-Duc, from Pommeroeul to Antoing, from Plasschendaele to Nieuport, the Louvain canal, the Lieve, and the Moervaert. Each of these canals is upwards of 12 miles in length, and the longest, that from Brussels to Charleroy, upwards of 46 miles. The entire length of the river and canal navigation of Belgium is therefore 1006 English miles.

Belgium possesses a number of mineral springs, the principal of which are the hot springs of Chaudfontaine, situated about five miles from Liège, and the mineral spring of Tongres. See Liège and Tongres. But the most celebrated waters are those of Spa, of which an account is given under that head. See Spa. The ferruginous springs of Huy were formerly in considerable repute, but are now little used.

The climate of Belgium is considered as very similar to that of England, and is more temperate and salubrious than that of Holland. In the south-eastern parts the atmosphere is more pure and bracing than in the lower parts towards the N.W., where it is frequently damp and hazy. Frost rarely appears before the middle of October or after the middle of April. From observations made at Brussels for the eighteen years preceding 1851, the mean annual temperature was found to be $50^\circ$ Fahr.; the maximum mean being $55^\circ$, and the minimum $45^\circ$. During that period there were no frosts in the five months from April to October, and only twice snow in May and three times in October. The average number of foggy days annually was 581, and with thunder 132. The annual average of rainy days was 191-4; the quantity being 27-9 inches. The average annual fall at Greenwich during the last 37 years was 27-1 inches.

Since the formation of Belgium into an independent state, the government has taken a laudable interest in all that concerns the happiness and improvement of the people; and not being trammeled by a respect for old laws or useless customs, they have adopted as far as possible the most improved systems of other countries. The whole system of government is based upon the broadest principles of rational freedom and liberty; all power emanates from the people, and can only be exercised according to law. The people are upon a strict equality in the eye of the law, personal liberty is guaranteed to all, as well as entire freedom in opinion and in religious worship. All the religious sects are endowed by the state, and large grants are also given annually for educational and charitable purposes. Home is inviolable, nor can any one be deprived of his property unless for the good of the state and for a suitable indemnity. Justice is open to all, as well as the means of education, and the benefits of the public charities. The press is free, and civil death is abolished. Any one may address petitions to the public authorities, signed by one or more persons. Trial by jury is established for all criminal and political charges, and for offences of the press. The contents of letters are inviolable, and the post-office is responsible for all letters committed to it.

The government is a constitutional representative and hereditary monarchy. The legislative power is vested in the king, the chamber of representatives, and the senate. The judicial power is exercised by fixed tribunals, freed from all authoritative influences, judging publicly and assigning reasons for their decisions. The provincial and communal affairs are managed by local councils chosen by the people.

The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order King. of primogeniture, to the exclusion of females and their descendants. The king's person is declared sacred; and his ministers are held responsible for the acts of the government. No act of the king can have effect unless countersigned by one of his ministers, who thus becomes the responsible party. The king convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the chambers, and makes rules and orders necessary for the execution of the laws; but has no power to suspend or dispense with the execution of the laws themselves. He nominates to civil and military offices, and commands the sea and land forces. He declares war, and concludes treaties of peace, of alliance, and of commerce, communicating the same to the chambers as far as may be consistent with the interest and safety of the state. Those treaties which may be injurious to the state or to the individual interests of the people can only have effect after obtaining the sanction of the chambers. No surrender, exchange, or addition of territory can be made except when authorized by a law passed by the chambers. In no case can the secret articles of a treaty be destructive or contrary to the patent ones. The king sanctions and promulgates the laws. He has the power of remitting or reducing the punishments pronounced by the judges, except in the case of his ministers, to whom he can extend pardon only at the request of one of the chambers. He has the power of coining money according to law, and also of conferring titles of nobility, but without the power of attaching to them any privileges. In default of male heirs the king may nominate his successor with the consent of the chambers. On the death of the king the chambers assemble without convocation at latest on the tenth day after the decease. From the date of the king's death to the administering of the oath to his successor or to the regent, the constitutional powers of the king are exercised in the name of the people, by the ministers assembled in council, and on their own responsibility. The regency cannot be conferred upon one person, and no change in the constitution can be made during the regency. The successor to the throne, or the regent, can only enter upon his duties after having taken an oath, in presence of the assembled chambers, to observe the constitution and the laws, to maintain the independence of the nation and the integrity of its territory. If the successor be under eighteen years of age (which is declared to be the age of majority), the two chambers meet together for the purpose of nominating a regent during the minority. In the case of a vacancy of the throne, the two chambers, deliberating together, nominate provisionally to the regency. They are then dissolved, and within two months the new chambers must assemble, which then provide definitively to the vacancy.

The people are represented in the legislature by the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, the members of which are chosen by the people. The sittings are public; but by the decision of the majority either chamber may form itself into a private committee. No one can at the same time be a member of both chambers, and no member can retain his seat after obtaining a salaried office under the government except on being re-elected. No member can be called in question for any votes or opinions he may have given in the performance of his duties. No member can be prosecuted or arrested during the session, without the consent of the chamber of which he is a member, except in the case of flagrant offence. Each chamber determines the manner of exercising its own powers, and every session nominates its president and vice-presidents, and forms its bureau. No petition can be presented personally; and every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority, except in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the members are required to be favourable; in the case of an equality of votes the proposition is thrown out. The chambers meet annually in the month of November, and ought to sit for at least forty days; but the king has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occasions, and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately. In the latter case a new election must take place within forty days, and a meeting of the chambers within two months. An adjournment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the consent of the chambers.

The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen directly by the people paying a certain amount of direct taxes. The number of deputies is fixed according to the population, and cannot exceed one member for every 40,000 inhabitants; at present they amount to 108. The members represent the nation generally, and not merely the province or division by which they are nominated. To be eligible for a member it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth, or to have received the grand naturalization; to be in the possession of the civil and political rights of the kingdom; to have attained the age of twenty-five years; and to be resident in Belgium. The members not residing in the town where the chamber sits receive during the session an indemnity of 200 florins (£16, 13s. 4d.) each per month. The members are elected for four years, one-half going out every two years, except in the case of a dissolution, when a general election takes place. This chamber has the parliamentary initiative and the preliminary vote in all cases relating to the receipts and expenses of the state, and to the contingent of the army.

The electors of the Chamber of Representatives have also the nomination of the members of the Senate. To be eligible as a senator it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth, or to have received the grand naturalization; to be in the enjoyment of civil and political rights; to be domiciled in Belgium; to be forty years of age; and to pay at least 1000 florins (£84) of direct taxes. In those provinces where the number of those paying 1000 florins of taxes does not amount to one in every 6000 inhabitants, this proportion is made up by those paying the highest amount below that sum. The permanent deputation of the provincial councils annually prepare a list of those who are eligible to the senate. In 1850 the number of these was 726, of whom 405 were paying the prescribed amount of taxes, and 321 were supplementary. At the age of eighteen the heir presumptive to the throne has a seat in the senate, but has no voice in its deliberations till he attain the age of twenty-five. The senators receive no indemnity. They are elected for eight years, one-half going out every four years, except in the case of a dissolution. The senate is composed of half as many members as the chamber of representatives, the number at present being 54.

The amount of direct taxes paid in order to qualify one to be an elector is fixed by the electoral law. The standard varies in different localities, but can never be below 20 florins (£3s. 4d.), nor above 100 florins. At the last general election which took place in 1848, the number of electors, voters, &c., in each of the provinces was as follows:

| Provinces | Electors | Voters | Representatives | Senate | Electors p. 1000 Inhabitants | |-----------------|----------|-------|----------------|--------|-----------------------------| | Antwerp | 8,299 | 5,298 | 10 | 5 | 20-25 | | Brabant | 15,333 | 10,067| 17 | 9 | 22-21 | | West Flanders | 10,339 | 7,354 | 10 | 8 | 16-12 | | East Flanders | 15,088 | 9,669 | 20 | 10 | 19-06 | | Hainault | 12,412 | 8,074 | 18 | 9 | 17-34 | | Liège | 8,090 | 5,200 | 11 | 6 | 15-70 | | Limbourg | 2,918 | 2,275 | 5 | 2 | 16-62 | | Luxembourg | 2,722 | 2,011 | 5 | 2 | 14-90 | | Namur | 3,925 | 2,797 | 6 | 3 | |

A partial election of representatives took place in 1850, viz., for the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, West Flanders, Luxembourg, and Namur. The number of electors, &c., was: The king appoints and dismisses his ministers at pleasure. No member of the royal family can be a minister, nor any but a Belgian, or one who has received the grand naturalization. Ministers have a right of admission to the chambers and to demand a hearing; but have no voice in the deliberations unless they are members. The chambers can at any time demand the presence of the ministers. No act or writing by the king can free a minister from responsibility. The chamber of representatives has the power of accusing the ministers, and of bringing them before the court of cassation, which alone has the right of judging them, in all cases of offences committed in the exercise of their functions. There are six ministers, viz., a minister of foreign affairs, of the interior, of justice, of finance, of war, and of public works.

For civil purposes the provinces are divided into 26 arrondissements, 203 justice-of-peace cantons, and 2528 communes; and for military purposes, into 4 arrondissements, 268 military cantons, and 2198 communes. The following table gives the civil divisions of each province:

| Provinces | Arrondissements | Cantons | Communes | |-----------------|-----------------|---------|----------| | Antwerp | 7 | 57 | | | Brabant | | | | | West Flanders | | | | | East Flanders | | | | | Limbourg | | | | | Luxembourg | | | | | Namur | | | |

In each province is a governor named directly by the king for the purpose of superintending and securing the due execution of the laws, and a provincial council, the members of which are chosen directly by electors having the same qualifications as the electors to the legislative chambers.

The councils are composed of Belgic citizens at least twenty-five years of age, residing in the province, and in the enjoyment of civil and political rights. Members of the chambers, governors, and persons in the employment of the state or province, are excepted. They have an annual session of not more than four weeks; but the king can convene them on extraordinary occasions. Those not residing in the provincial capital receive an indemnity during the session.

In 1836 the number of councillors for each province was fixed according to the population, as follows: for the provinces of Brabant, West Flanders, East Flanders, and Hainault, one to each 10,000 inhabitants; for Antwerp, Liège, Limbourg, and Luxembourg, one to each 7500; and for the province of Belgium, Namur one to each 5000 inhabitants. It was, however, agreed that every canton should have at least one councillor, whatever might be its population, and that the same scale should be applicable to it as to the province in which it was situated. The treaty of 1839 having reduced Luxembourg and Limbourg, the proportion for these was fixed at one to each 5000. The number of councillors in 1850 was 461, as follows: Antwerp 46, Brabant 57, West Flanders 64, East Flanders 73, Hainault 61, Liège 50, Limbourg 33, Luxembourg 34, and Namur 43. The number of electors in each electoral section cannot exceed 600 nor be below 200. The number of ordinary electors was 78,228, and of supplementary 5003.

These councils are of the highest importance to the country. They watch over the interests of their various provinces, prepare the budgets, direct the taxation, and superintend public works. They give a healthy impulse to agriculture, trade, and commerce; direct the construction of roads, canals, and bridges; and extend the benefits of education and religion throughout the country. The communes have the power of appeal to the king if they consider themselves aggrieved by any of the acts of the provincial council, or of the permanent deputation. In the ten years preceding 1851 only two appeals had been made against the provincial council, and thirty against the permanent deputation; and in only two of these had the decisions been altered.

Each provincial council appoints a permanent deputation for conducting business in the interval between the sessions; deputation, particularly in matters requiring immediate attention. It is composed of six members chosen for four years, one-half going out every two years.

Matters exclusively communal are managed by communal councils. The councillors are Belgic citizens in the full councils, enjoyment of civil and political rights, and, except in some special cases, resident in the commune. They are elected for six years, one-half going out every three years. The number of the councillors varies from 7 to 31, in proportion to the population of the commune, varying from under 1000 to upwards of 70,000 inhabitants. All citizens paying taxes varying from 15 francs (nearly 12½) to 42 francs 32 cents (L.I., 13s. 6d.), according to the population, have a vote in the election of communal councillors. Of the 4,338,447 inhabitants in 1848, 194,413 were electors, and 20,849 councillors were elected, of whom ¾ths had been previously elected. Communes with less than 20,000 inhabitants have two aldermen, and those having more than that number have four. There is also in each commune a burgomaster, who, as well as the aldermen, is chosen by the king from among the members of the communal council.

The judicial system of Belgium consists of courts and tribunals of various kinds, as the court of cassation, the courts of appeal, of assize, tribunals of primary instance, of commerce, &c.

For all criminal and political cases, as well as offences of the press, trial by jury is established. The jury is composed of twelve persons chosen by lot from a list of thirty, partly by the public minister and partly by the accused.

Justices of the peace and judges of the tribunals are chosen directly by the king. The councillors of each court of appeal, and the presidents and vice-presidents of the tribunals of primary instance in its district, are chosen by the king from two double lists of candidates, the one presented by the court of appeal, and the other by the provincial council. The councillors of the court of cassation are named by the king from two double lists, the one presented by the senate, and the other by the court of cassation. The judges are appointed for life, and cannot be suspended or deposed but by a judgment. They cannot hold any salaried office under the government, or at least must perform the duties of it gratuitously. The duties of public minister at the court... of cassation are exercised by a procurator-general and two advocates-general; and by a royal procurator with substitutes before each of the tribunals of primary instance and courts of assize and appeal.

The Court of Cassation or annulment sits at Brussels, and is divided into two chambers, the one for civil and the other for criminal matters. It is composed of a president-general, a president of each chamber, and fifteen councillors. It decides upon appeals against judgments pronounced in the other courts and tribunals in contravention of legal forms.

There are three courts of appeal: one at Brussels, for the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, and Hainault; another at Ghent, for the two Flanders; and a third at Liège, for Liège, Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Namur. These decide upon appeals from the decisions of the tribunals of primary instance in civil matters, and affairs of commerce and correctional police.

In the capital of each province is a court of assize, composed of a councillor deputed from one of the courts of appeal, who presides, and of two judges chosen from among the presidents and judges of the primary tribunal where the court is held. Crimes, graver misdemeanours, political offences, and abuses of the press, are judged by the courts of assize.

In each judiciary arrondissement is a tribunal of primary instance, judging in misdemeanours belonging to the correctional police, in civil matters, and in commercial affairs where there is no commercial tribunal, but in cases above 2000 francs (L79) its decision may be brought before the courts of appeal. The number of judges varies from three to ten in each tribunal, amounting in all to 148.

Tribunals of commerce are established by law in several principal towns. They judge definitively in civil matters of not more than 2000 francs, but above that sum their decisions are subject to appeal, as in the tribunals of primary instance. Each is composed of a president, from two to eight judges, and substitutes. The members of the tribunal are chosen by the leading commercial men, amounting in 1850 to 1769. There are thirteen tribunals of commerce, established in the towns of Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain, Mons, Tournay, Bruges, Ostend, Courtray, Ghent, St Nicolas, Liège, Verniers, and Namur.

In several of the manufacturing towns are councils of prud'hommes, composed of master tradesmen and workmen chosen for three years, a part going out annually. The number of members varies from five to nine in each council, except in that of Brussels, which has fifteen members. They decide in all questions and disputes arising between masters and workmen. A special board of two members first attempts to effect a reconciliation between the parties, and if unsuccessful the matter is then brought before the council for decision. Previous to 1843 there were only two of these councils, one at Ghent and the other at Bruges. Since then government has been authorized to establish twenty additional ones, and of these thirteen are now in operation.

In each canton is a justice of the peace, with a registrar and two substitutes. These constitute tribunals of simple police for the trial of offences involving a fine of not more than 200 francs (nearly L8), or imprisonment for not more than eight days. The commissary of police performs the duties of public minister.

Councils of war are held in the chief place of each province, with the exception of Limbourg, which is joined to Liège, and of Luxembourg, which is united with Namur. They decide in crimes and misdemeanours committed in their provinces by the military of a rank not higher than captain. They are composed of seven members, including the president, who ought all to be of the grade of officers.

The military court for the whole of Belgium has its seat at Brussels. It is composed of five members, one of whom is a councillor of the appeal court of Brussels, delegated annually to preside; the rest are general or superior officers chosen by lot every month. It decides on appeals from the Belgium courts of war. All officers of a grade superior to that of captain are amenable to this court.

Besides the several bodies of ordinary police, there are police commissioners of police, royal procurators, juges d'instruction, &c. The commissioners of police, and, in the communes where these are wanting, the burgomasters or delegated aldermen, are specially charged with searching out and proving all contraventions of the police laws. The royal procurators are charged with discovering and prosecuting for all offences coming within the jurisdiction of the courts of assize or the correctional tribunals of police. There is at least one juge d'instruction or examining judge in each arrondissement (in Brussels there are three). They are chosen by the king from among the judges of the tribunal, and continue in office for three years. They are specially charged with the collection of evidence, and with bringing the culprit before the tribunal. There is a council-chamber composed of at least three judges, including the juge d'instruction, for the preliminary examination of culprits.

The prisons are of three classes:—1. Houses of municipal Prisons, police; 2. Houses of arrest and justice; and, 3. Central houses of punishment. Of the first class there are 168, containing, in 1850, 10,373 prisoners. In the capital of each province the seat of a court of assize is a house of justice; and in the capital of each arrondissement the seat of a court of primary instance is a house of arrest. In connection with many of these, schools, workshops, and circulating libraries have been established. There are eight central houses of punishment:—1. At Ghent, for compulsory labour; 2. At Vilvorde, for seclusion; 3. At St Bernard (near Antwerp), for correctional imprisonment; 4. Military house of detention at Alost; 5. Female penitentiary at Namur, for those condemned to imprisonment, seclusion, or compulsory labour; 6. Penitentiary of St Hubert (Luxembourg), for young male delinquents condemned to at least six months imprisonment, and for children acquitted as having acted without discernment; 7. A penitentiary at Liège for young females, similar to the preceding; 8. The citadel of Huy, for persons convicted of political offences. Each prison is under the direction of a committee of management, whose services are gratuitous. The superior board of control has the general superintendence of the prisons, and an inspector-general and two comptrollers are charged with their inspection and direction. In each central prison are schools, at which attendance is obligatory on all prisoners under forty, and optional for those above that age. The number attending these schools in 1850 was 3578, or about 68 per cent. of the prisoners.

The prisoners are employed in various kinds of work. Those condemned to compulsory labour receive no remuneration, but those condemned to seclusion or correctional imprisonment receive a part of the produce of their labour, and which, in the case of the latter is frequently applied in mitigation of their punishment. Premiums are also given for good conduct, zeal, and progress in their labours. The total expense of the prison establishments for 1849 was 4,133,703 francs.

The population of Belgium in 1831 was 3,785,814; in 1840, 4,073,162; and in 1850, 4,426,202; distributed as follows:—

| Province | Population | |----------------|------------| | Antwerp | 349,942 | | Brabant | 561,828 | | West Flanders | 608,226 | | East Flanders | 742,973 | | Hainault | 613,179 | | Liège | 375,030 | | Limbourg | 160,090 | | Luxembourg | 160,762 | | Namur | 213,784 |

Total: 3,785,814 The increase for the first period was 760 per cent., and for the second 867 per cent. At the date of the general census in 1846 Belgium contained 86 towns, 2436 rural communes, and 4,337,196 inhabitants. The first-class towns were—Brussels, 123,874 inhabitants; Ghent, 102,977; Antwerp, 88,487; Liège, 75,961. The second-class were—Bruges, 49,308; Louvain, 30,278; Tournay, 30,125; Malines, 29,693. Those having from 20,000 to 25,000 inhabitants were Mons, Verviers, Namur, Courtray, and St Nicolas; from 15,000 to 20,000, Alost, Ypres, and Lokeren; and from 10,000 to 15,000, Turnhout, Ostend, Lierce, Renneix, Thiel, St Trond, Roulers, Poperinge, and Tirlemont.

According to that census the density of the population averaged 147-24 inhabitants per 100 hectares, or 247 acres. The density, however, varied considerably in the different provinces, as will be seen from the following table:

| Province | Population | Extent in Hectares | Proportion of the Average to the Kingdom | |-------------------|------------|--------------------|----------------------------------------| | East Flanders | 793,264 | 299,757 | 1:797 | | Brabant | 691,357 | 328,823 | 1:457 | | West Flanders | 643,004 | 323,448 | 1:350 | | Hainault | 714,708 | 372,205 | 1:304 | | Liège | 452,828 | 259,319 | 1:063 | | Antwerp | 406,354 | 283,311 | 0:974 | | Limbourg | 185,913 | 241,315 | 0:523 | | Namur | 263,503 | 366,181 | 0:489 | | Luxembourg | 186,265 | 441,704 | 0:287 |

The proportion falls below the general average in the provinces of Antwerp, Limbourg, Namur, and Luxembourg, and exceeds it in the other five.

The number of dwelling-houses was 799,848; of which 625,498 were of one story, 146,464 of two stories, and 127,886 of three or more stories; 160,471 were insured, the amount of capital insured being 1,093,030,336 francs. The number of families was 890,566; of which 154,454 inhabited only one apartment, 282,785 two apartments, and 453,327 three or more apartments. The number of married persons in 1846 was 1,322,588; of unmarried, 2,771,975; and of widows, widowers, and divorced, 242,633;—1,242,380 were born in Belgium, 34,600 in France, 12,859 in Germany, 3828 in England, 38,910 in Holland (including Dutch Luxemburg and Limbourg), and 4624 in other countries.

The principal languages spoken in Belgium are French, or Wallon (a dialect of the ancient French), and Flemish or Dutch. French is the language of the upper and educated classes, and is generally understood even in the Flemish parts of the kingdom. In 1846 those speaking French or Wallon amounted to 1,827,141; Flemish or Dutch, 2,471,248; German, 34,060; English, 3824; other languages, 923. The French or Wallon is the prevailing language in the provinces of Hainault, Liège, Luxembourg, and Namur; the Flemish or Dutch in Antwerp, Brabant, the two Flanders, and Limbourg.

Registers of the movement of the population in each commune are kept by the burgomaster or an alderman. The commissioners of the arrondissement inspect annually the various communal registers within their districts, and give notice of any irregularities or inaccuracies, to the permanent deputation of the provincial council; and the royal procurators are specially intrusted with the verification of the acts and registers. These contain the name, age, profession, and place of birth, of each inhabitant of the commune. The births, deaths, and other changes among families, as well as the names of those who enter or leave the commune, are daily registered. A new entry can be made only on the production of a certificate from the administration of the last domicile, or, in the case of a foreigner, on the production of his passport. Each commune is bound to remit monthly to the governor of the province a list of all persons who have settled in or left the commune during the month. The provincial registers are annually sent to the central committee of statistics. Since 1831 valuable improvements have been introduced, so that the register of deaths now indicates not only the age, sex, profession, &c., of the deceased, but also the disease or accident that occasioned death, whether medical treatment had been received, &c.

Since 1840 the bureau of general statistics has annually published a report of the movement of the population, made up from the yearly communal reports. The total number of births during the ten years preceding 1851 was 1,299,681, the annual average being 129,968; of which 66,648 males and 63,320 females. The annual average of legitimate births during that period was 120,303. In 1850 the number is somewhat, and in 1846–7–8 considerably, below the average; and in the other years exceeds it. The illegitimate births during that period were 96,652, averaging one for every 12-45 legitimate births. In the province of Luxembourg they are only one in 38-52; and in that of Brabant one in 6-83. In comparing the results of these years, the proportion of illegitimate births to legitimate has been annually increasing from 7-16 per cent. in 1841, to 9-11 in 1849, and 9-42 in 1850. The proportion of male to female births is 102-5 males to 100 females. The greatest number of births is in the months of February and March, and in the six months from November to April; the least in July and August. The still-born are as one to every 23-87 births; of males one in 21, and of females one in 27.

The deaths in that decennial period were 1,040,497; of these 314,313 were unmarried males, and 304,465 unmarried females; 136,492 married males, and 119,555 married females; 66,205 widowers, and 99,467 widows. The year 1849 presents the greatest number of deaths in this period, arising from the cholera, which alone carried off 23,027 victims. In the years 1846–7–8, the deaths are also considerable, from epidemic diseases which were then prevalent in the country; in 1847, indeed, the deaths were to the births as 101-75 to 100, while in the years 1841–4–50, the births exceeded the deaths by 30 per cent. The average number of deaths to 100 births during the ten years was 80. In the provinces of West and East Flanders the deaths are above the average, being in the former 97-6, and in the latter 91-5; the others are below the average, except Limbourg, which is equal to it, Namur, the lowest, being 60-7. The great mortality in the Flanders is ascribed to the greater prevalence there of the above-mentioned epidemics; the excess of deaths was 20-625 over the 100 births. The greatest number of deaths are in the half-year from November to April, mostly in January, February, March, and April; the least in August, September, October, and November. Of the deaths during this period, 6-46 per cent. were not more than one month old, 18-77 not exceeding one year, 26-16 not more than two years, and 48-98 not exceeding 25. Between 25 and 50 the deaths were only 16-83 per cent.; from 50 to 60 only 7-53; from 60 to 70, 10-10; from 70 to 80, 10-68; from 80 to 90, 5-23; and from 90 upwards, 6-65. To the end of the second year, the deaths in males exceed those in females as 18-52 to 15; from that age to 45, the females exceed the males as 17-27 to 15; from 45 to 55, the males exceed the females as 2-14 to 2; and from 55 upwards, the females exceed the males as 12-08 to 10. The number of suicides in the ten years was 2428.

The proportion of marriages to legitimate births is one to Marriages 4:15. The number of marriages during the above decennial period was 289,676.

Naturalization is of two kinds, the one conferring on the foreigner all the civil and political rights belonging to a Belgian, with certain exceptions specified by law, such as eligibility for a seat in the legislative chambers: to obtain these the grand naturalization is requisite. The registration fee for the former is 500 francs; for the latter, 1000.

In order to arrive at a somewhat correct notion of the crime. state of crime in the country, we shall take the annual average of the number of persons brought before the various courts of assize for several periods. For the five years preceding 1831, the annual average of persons accused was 766; being 200 crimes against person, and 566 against property. From 1831 to 1839 the average was 677; being 184 against person, and 393 against property; showing, notwithstanding the increase of the population, a considerable decrease in the amount of crime. From 1839 to 1845 the average was 438; being 117 against person, and 321 against property. The decrease in this case is more apparent than real, arising principally from the lighter offences being referred to the tribunals of correction; as also from the annexation of part of the provinces of Limbourg and Luxembourg to Holland, in terms of the treaty of 1839. In the next three years there was a deficiency of the crops and of employment, occasioning a state of distress such as had not been known for a long time previously in the kingdom. Under these circumstances the offences against property considerably increased. The average during that period was 575, being 101 against person, and 474 against property. Happily this increase of crime ceased with the producing cause, so that the number of accused in 1849 little exceeds the average of the period preceding that crisis, being 451, —113 against person, and 338 against property. Of these, 104 were acquitted, 41 condemned to death, and 34 to compulsory labour for life.

For the ten years preceding 1850 the number accused of crimes was 4570; of these 1332 were acquitted, 311 condemned to death, 377 to compulsory labour for life, 904 to compulsory labour for a period, 1068 to seclusion, and the rest to correctional punishments. The propriety of capital punishments is here a much contested point, and the royal clemency is exerted in all except the most aggravated cases. Of the 311 persons capitally condemned, only 23 were executed. Of the 4570 accused, 3802 were males and 768 females; 1343 were under 25 years of age, 1970 between 25 and 40, and 1249 of 40 and upwards: 64 per cent. had received no education, and only 3 per cent. any education beyond mere reading and writing. Comparing the number of the accused with the population, after deducting children under 10 years of age, we find the proportion among males to be one in 4272, and among females one in 21,430.

In 1849 the accused before the correctional tribunals amounted to 32,509; of these 17,383 were misdemeanours, 1107 minor crimes, and 14,019 contraventions of police or special laws;—5018 were acquitted, 15,336 sentenced to imprisonment, and 12,148 fined: 2096 had been previously convicted. The number brought before the tribunals of police was 38,081; of these 4489 were acquitted, 257 referred to a higher tribunal, 25,818 fined, and 7517 imprisoned.

A criminal appearing a second time before a court is condemned to the punishment immediately above that fixed by law for his crime; and if guilty of a misdemeanour punishable correctionally, he is condemned to the maximum punishment allowed by law for that offence. The number of those brought before the courts of assize for the ten years preceding 1850, and who had been previously condemned, was 1434, or about 31 per cent. of the accused for that period.

Full liberty is guaranteed to all in the exercise of the public or private rites of their worship; nor does the state interfere in any way in matters of religion, except where the public safety may be concerned or the laws infringed. The population of Belgium in 1846 was 4,337,196; of these 4,326,873 were Roman Catholics, 6578 Protestants, 1336 Jews, and 790 belonged to the Anglican Church. The incomes of the ministers of each of these sects are derived from the public treasury. The amount thus paid by the state in 1850 was, to the Catholics, 3,628,130 francs (L143,636), to the Protestants, 45,099 francs (L1785), to the Jews, 9500 francs (L376), and to the Anglicans, Belgium 10,300 francs (L407).

The Roman Catholic religion embraces upwards of 99 per cent. of the entire population. The kingdom is divided into six dioceses, the archbishopric of Malines, and the bishoprics of Bruges, Ghent, Liège, Namur, and Tournay. The archbishopric has three vicars-general, and a chapter of twelve canons; and each of the bishoprics, two vicars-general, and a chapter of eight canons. In each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary. There was formerly one rectory in each justice of peace canton, but the number of the latter having been reduced, the rectories now outnumber the cantons by 25, and amount in all to 229, being 86 of the first class and 143 of the second. Chapels of ease are established throughout the country where necessary; those amounted in 1851 to 2640. The number of public chapels established as secondary chapels of ease, &c., at first unendowed, but of which the chaplains are now placed on the same footing as vicars, was 148, and of vicariates 1555. The salaries of each of the several kinds of ecclesiastics are as follows:—Of the archbishop, 21,000 francs (L831); of the bishops, 14,700 francs (L582); vicars-general of the archbishop, 3600 francs (L142); of the bishops, 3200 francs (L126); canons of the archbishop, 2400 francs (L95); of the bishops, 2000 francs (L79), rectors of the first class, 2047 francs (L81), of the second class, 1365 francs (L54); officiates in the chapels of ease, 787 francs (L31); chaplains and vicars, 500 francs (L20). These incomes, however, may be augmented by the church or communes. The amount contributed for that purpose by the communes in 1849 was 520,845 francs (L20,617). This, however, includes the sum given by the urban communes to the support of the ecclesiastical edifices; the sum given by the rural communes for that purpose is mentioned afterwards. These do not include the chaplains of prisons nor of the army. Those of the army are divided into three classes, the first receiving a salary of from 2000 to 3000 francs, the second from 800 to 1000 francs, and the third from 400 to 600 francs.

The temporal affairs of the churches are managed by a vestry-board composed of a council, and a board of wardens. In parishes having 5000 inhabitants and upwards, the council is composed of nine members, and in other cases of five. It is renewed every six years, a part going out every three years. The new members are chosen by the remaining councillors. The ecclesiastical officiate in the church and the burgomaster of the commune are entitled to a seat. The council holds four ordinary assemblies annually. The board of wardens is composed of three members of the council and the officiating clergyman. One of the members goes out annually. This board acts under the council, and meets once a month.

The total number of students attending the diocesan seminaries in 1846 was 740. Scholarships of 423 francs (L16,14s.), and half scholarships of 211 francs (L8,7s.), are annually given by the state to certain of the students upon the presentation of the chief of the diocese. There are 66 of these scholarships, and 217 half scholarships. The state also contributes to the salaries of the professors by an annual grant of 8000 francs (L317) to each of the seminaries, except that of Liège, the grant to which has been withdrawn since 1849, as it has sufficient funds otherwise. The provinces are bound to provide and maintain suitable buildings for these seminaries.

The amount contributed to the support of religious edifices by the provinces in 1849 was 253,193 francs (L10,022), and by the rural communes, 155,252 francs (L6145). Numerous donations and legacies have been given by private individuals for ecclesiastical purposes, amounting, for the twenty years preceding 1851, to 6066, and comprehending houses, lands, money, &c. The acceptance of these, if above 3000 francs in value, requires to be sanctioned by the government, and by the permanent council if not exceeding that sum. The total value of these, including two of the value of 100,000 francs (L3958) to the Protestant church, was 16,306,481 francs (L645,465).

There are a number of religious houses in Belgium for males and females whose lives are spent in pious contemplation, teaching, and visiting the sick. The number of these houses in 1846 was, for males, 137, and for females, 642; the number of persons in the former was 2051, and 9917 in the latter.

The Protestant-evangelical church is under a synod composed of the clergymen of the body, and a representative from each of the churches. It sits in Brussels once a-year, when each member is required to be present, or to delegate his powers to another member. Included in the sum of L1785 already mentioned as given by the state to Protestant pastors, are certain sums granted to the families of such clergymen. Each child is allowed the sum of 25 florins (L2) till attaining the age of twenty-one years. A bursary of 25 florins is given to each child attending a Latin school, or receiving private lessons in that language; one of 50 florins to each attending a university or atheneum; and one of 200 florins to each studying theology. In 1850 twenty-three children were receiving the first-mentioned allowance, one a school, and one an academy bursary.

The Anglican church has six pastors and as many chapels, in Belgium,—two in Brussels and one in each of the towns of Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, and Spa.

The Jews have a central synagogue at Brussels, three branch synagogues of the first class at Antwerp, Ghent, and Liege, and one of the second class at Arlon. The civil and religious affairs are conducted by a consistory of nine members, six of whom are appointed by the central, and one by each of the three first-class synagogues. The grand Rabbi, who is at the head of this body in Belgium, is ex officio a member of the consistory. They meet once a month, and two of the members go out annually.

The Belgian government has shown itself thoroughly alive to the great importance of a general diffusion of education among the people. Numerous public schools and literary and scientific institutions are established throughout the country, supported out of the communal, provincial, or government funds. Different classes of inspectors are appointed to visit and report upon the state of education in their various districts. Prizes, scholarships, and other rewards are bestowed upon those that distinguish themselves most in the prosecution of their studies. Religious and moral instruction is under the direction of the sect to which the majority of the pupils belong; but those connected with other sects may be exempted from attendance on this course. Normal schools have also been established for the purpose of securing trained and efficient teachers. Meetings of the teachers and inspectors are frequently held for conversing upon the various methods of teaching, and other matters connected with education. Caisses de prévoyance are also established to afford aid to aged or infirm teachers, and their widows and families. The schools are open to all, and gratuitous instruction is provided for those who may not otherwise have the means of acquiring it. Yet, with all these advantages, it cannot be denied that there are still many among the lower classes growing up in ignorance and crime. Indeed, it seems undeniable that the providing of the means of instruction is not alone sufficient to secure an educated population. In the industrial localities the parents are generally anxious to get their children admitted as soon as possible into workshops and manufactories, and in rural districts they are engaged in the tending of cattle or in field labour. In some localities efforts have been made to counteract this evil,—the people have been addressed from the pulpit on the advantages of education; the parents have been conversed with upon the same subject, and, in some cases, the participation in public charities has been made subservient to sending their children to school. Some idea of the state of education in the country may be gathered from the annual draughts for the militia. In 1850 the number drawn was 38,328; of 21 of these the state of education was unknown; 13,965 had received no education; 2945 could read only; 9295 could only read and write, and 12,102 had received a more advanced education. Contrasting the period from 1843 to 1847, with the years 1849 and 1850, we find that in the former 41 per cent. were without instruction, 8 could read only, 27 could read and write only, and 24 were more advanced. In the latter period there is a considerable improvement; 38 per cent. were without instruction, 7 could read only, 25 could read and write only, and 30 were more advanced. In entering rather fully into the state of education in this country, we do so both from the great importance of the subject in itself, and from a conviction of the beneficial results that must eventually follow from it.

The educational institutions may be divided into four classes, viz., primary, middle, superior, and special. In 1846, the number of children receiving primary instruction at the schools was 441,172; and at home 5632; the number of those receiving middle or superior instruction at the atheneums, colleges, universities, &c., was 24,636; and at home 1050, showing a total of 472,490 receiving instruction at that period, or one in every 9:18 of the population. Since that time the number has been much increased.

The primary schools are under the surveillance of the communal authorities and government inspectors; the imparting schools; of moral and religious instruction is superintended by delegates from the religious bodies. Each province has a general inspector of the primary schools, who is appointed by the king, and inspects at least once a-year all the communal schools in his district, on which he makes an annual report. Under him are the cantonal inspectors, who are bound to visit the schools in their districts at least twice a-year. They are appointed by the state on the advice of the provincial government, and continue in office for three years. The provincial inspectors assemble annually in a central commission under the presidency of the minister of the interior. The bishops and consistories of the religions supported by the state may be represented by delegates at this commission, but these have only a deliberative voice in the proceedings. Ministers of religion and delegates of church dignitaries have the right of, at any time, inspecting the primary schools. The diocesans and consistories annually communicate to the minister of the interior a detailed account of the state of moral and religious instruction in the schools under their care. For the schools connected with the Roman Catholic communion there are two classes of inspectors; the diocesan inspectors, of whom there is one for each province, and the ecclesiastical cantonal inspectors. The Protestant schools are inspected by a delegate of the consistories, having the title of inspector-general. The Jewish schools have also an inspector-general delegated by the consistory.

The cantonal inspector calls a meeting of the teachers in his district at least once every three months, to discuss the merits of the different modes of teaching employed, the state of primary education, and the best means of advancing it. Educational libraries have recently been formed in connection with each of these districts.

A law passed in 1842 enacted that there should be at least one primary school in every commune except in certain cases where primary education is already sufficiently provided for by private schools, or where one school may serve for several neighbouring communes. The communes may also adopt one or more private schools possessing the legal qualifications, to occupy the place of the communal school. The total number of primary schools, public and private, in the end of 1848, was 5747, of which 1008 were exclusively for boys, 1202 exclusively for girls, and 3537 for both sexes. Of these 2626 were communal schools, 913 private adopted schools, 88 private schools under inspection, and 294 boarding schools. The scholars receiving primary instruction at that time were 462,606, and in the end of 1849 were 493,773; being an increase of more than 200,000 since the end of 1839; and in the proportion of 11:2 per cent. of the population. The branches taught in the primary schools are reading, writing, and the elements of arithmetic; the rudiments of the language spoken in the locality,—French, Flemish or German; moral and religious instruction; and the legal system of weights and measures, in most schools taught practically. In many of the schools gymnastics, music, and the elements of drawing, the outlines of history and geography, and the rudiments of the natural sciences, are also taught. Competitions take place annually, under the direction of the permanent deputation, between the scholars in the superior division of a certain number of the primary schools. The number of scholars from each school is fixed by the deputation, one-half chosen by the teacher and the other half by lot. The jury of examiners is presided over by the inspector of the district or his substitute.

The communes are obliged to afford gratuitous instruction to all the children within their bounds whose parents are in poor circumstances, and may not otherwise have the means of educating them. For that purpose there is a register in each province, open annually during the month of July, to receive the names of all the children claiming gratuitous instruction for the next scholastic year, which extends from the beginning of October to the end of August. This register is submitted to the communal council, which decides what children are entitled to gratuitous instruction, and this decision is then communicated to the permanent deputation of the provincial council. Claimants for gratuitous instruction are required to be between seven and fourteen years of age, not to have been vaccinated, or had the smallpox. The number of children receiving gratuitous instruction at the end of 1848 was 219,731.

The schoolmaster is appointed by the communal council, which has also the power of suspending him for a period not exceeding three months,—the government decrees as to his re-instatement or dismissal. He ought to have attended, for at least two years, the classes of a normal school. This condition may, however, be dispensed with, if presented to the government. In the case of a vacancy, the communal council is bound to fill it up within forty days, except in cases where the government may sanction a longer delay. On the expiration of that period, the nomination is proceeded with by the government. The male and female teachers employed in the communal schools in 1848 were 2786, besides 296 assistants.

The minimum salary of a teacher, as fixed by law, is 200 francs, or nearly L.S. Besides this, they have generally an allowance for the gratuitous instruction of poor children, a free house with, particularly in the rural districts, a garden, and in many cases the school fees. The fees vary considerably, according to the locality and other circumstances; they are in all cases fixed by the communal council. The average income of the teachers exceeds 600 francs. Some teachers considerably augment their incomes by the performance of other duties unconnected with their office, as those of communal secretary, &c. Rewards are bestowed on those who distinguish themselves most in the performance of their duties. These are of three kinds,—a gratuity of 50 francs, a gift, and honourable mention.

In each province there is a caisse de prévoyance for the purpose of affording pecuniary aid to aged and infirm teachers, their widows, and children. All teachers and assistants in the communal primary schools are obliged to become members of this institution. The widow of a teacher who has been engaged for twelve years is entitled to a pension, and also the children of such teacher till the completion of their sixteenth year. These caisses are under the direction of the governor of the province, the members of the permanent deputation of the provincial council, provincial treasurer, and the provincial inspector of primary schools, whose services are gratuitous. They are supported by an annual payment of three per cent. upon the income of each member, by grants from the province and the state, and by particular donations and legacies. Besides these primary schools properly so called, there are in many localities other establishments where primary instruction is communicated, as the infant, adult, manufacturing schools, &c.

The infant schools are for children between two and six years of age. There were 516 of these in 1848, 204 being communal or adopted, and 312 private. The scholars amounted to 25,393, of whom 13,183 were males, 15,410 females; of these 16,926 were admitted gratuitously. Some of these institutions are reported as being in a high state of efficiency, but in most of them there is much room for improvement, arising from the want of funds, and from the teachers in many cases possessing neither the knowledge nor the talents necessary for their duties.

The expense of these schools in 1846, 1847, and 1848, was 243,962 francs (L.9653), of which 65,636 francs were derived from charities, 96,109 from the communes, 10,530 from the provinces, 33,787 from the state, and 32,865 from the fees.

The adult schools in 1848 amounted to 1110, of which 41 were day schools, 336 evening schools, and 733 Sunday schools; schools 442 were under inspection. The number of scholars was 184,343, of whom 111,213 were receiving gratuitous instruction. The branches taught in these are generally the same with those in the communal primary schools. The inspected adult schools are supported in the same way as the infant schools, the expenses for 1848 being 44,382 francs (L.1765).

There are primary schools annexed to prisons, hospitals, and depots of mendicants; and reform schools. The scholars attending these at 31st December 1848 amounted to 60,86. The manufacturing schools in their present state can scarcely be viewed as educational institutions. Although the means of education are provided, little time is devoted to that object, being almost entirely taken up in manual labour.

Considerable sums are given by government for providing food, clothing, and other necessaries to the poor children attending the primary and infant schools,—for the four years preceding 1849 these amounted to 72,400 francs (L.2850).

The expenses of public primary education fall in the first instance on the commune; and in case of insufficiency of funds, education of the province, and finally the state, come to its assistance. Each commune, however, must contribute a sum at least equal to two per cent. upon its direct taxation before being entitled to claim any assistance from the province or state. The total expenditure for public primary education was, in 1846, 3,837,197 francs; in 1847, 4,137,229; and in 1848, 4,376,675 francs, or L.173,243. Of this last 304,500 francs were public or private donations; 783,830 school fees; 1,563,918 contributed by the communes; 512,370 by the provinces; and 1,189,057 by the state. The expenditure for that year was as follows:—

| Item | Amount | |-------------------------------------------|--------------| | The central commission and provincial inspection | 101,420 | | Cantonal inspection | 78,181 | | Conferences of the teachers | 15,137 | | Ordinary expenses of instruction | 2,758,892 | | Construction and repairing of school-houses | 614,097 | | Grants to caisses de prévoyance scholarships, &c. | 156,790 | | Infant, adult, and manufacturing schools, &c. | 439,817 | | Normal and superior primary schools | 303,741 |

The last item of this list does not properly belong to what are now considered as primary schools, the normal schools being placed among the special schools, and the superior primary schools having since that time been classed with the middle schools. Comparing the amount expended in primary education with the population, we find that in 1846 it was 0'884 francs for each inhabitant, in 1847 it was 0'953, and in 1848, 1'005.

The middle schools are divided into two classes, those supported by the government, and those maintained by the provinces or communes. The former are of two kinds, the royal atheneums, called also the middle superior schools, and the middle inferior schools, or the middle schools properly so called, including the former superior primary as well as the government industrial and commercial schools.

The superior primary schools have only very recently been classed among the middle schools, and are included in the general statistics of primary education, already given as at that time belonging to that branch. These schools, 22 in number, were established in the principal towns, and in 1849 had 29,926 pupils. The branches taught included land-measuring and other branches of practical geometry, the rudiments of the natural sciences, the elements of history and geography, drawing, music, and gymnastics, with in some cases the German and English languages, and book-keeping. The educational staff consisted of a rector, with one or more teachers and assistants; the first nominated by the king, and the last two by the minister of the interior.

The government has the general management of the state middle schools, in which it is assisted by a local board of administration for each school, composed of the burgomaster and Belgium, aldermen, and of from four to six members nominated by the government from a list of candidates presented for that purpose by the communal council, with a secretary. The services of the board are gratuitous;—an election takes place every three years, but the same members may be re-elected. They have the general direction of the institution, the preparation of the budgets, making up the annual reports, and presiding at the distribution of the prizes, &c. Members of the board may at any time visit and examine the classes.

Inspection. These, like the primary schools, are also subjected to a regular system of inspection. The literary and scientific branches are under the superintendence of two inspectors and an inspector-general, nominated by the king. To one of the inspectors is especially confided the mathematical and natural sciences, and to the other the humanities; the other branches, as history, geography, and the commercial sciences, may be committed to either of the inspectors or to the inspector-general. Once a-year, at least, each of the atheneums are visited by the inspector-general and both the other inspectors, and the other establishments by one of them. The time and duration of each tour of inspection is fixed by the minister of the interior, who also gives special instructions concerning it, on the advice of the conseil de perfectionnement. The inspector has to examine and report upon the state and discipline of each establishment, the methods employed in teaching, the progress made by the pupils, and the merit and zeal of the teachers. These reports are annually sent by the inspector-general to the minister.

The conseil de perfectionnement of middle instruction is composed of from eight to ten members, presided over by the minister of the interior or his deputy, and meets at least four times a-year. It advises upon the programmes of the studies, examines the books used in teaching or given as prizes, proposes directions to be given to the inspectors and examines their reports, and deliberates on subjects connected with the advancement of middle instruction.

A general competition takes place annually between the scholars of the atheneums and colleges receiving grants from government; in which, however, scholars from other establishments may be admitted to take a part on request being presented to the minister of the interior to that effect. They are examined by a jury, nominated by the minister of the interior, and divided into two sections, the one for the humanities and the other for the mathematical sciences. The examinations are both written and oral; and the rewards are of three kinds, prizes, accessits, and honourable mention.

The educational staff consists of a prefect of studies in the atheneums and a rector in the middle schools, professors, regents, and masters. Since 1st June 1833, no one can be appointed a professor or prefect in the atheneums or communal colleges without having the diploma of a professor agrégé of superior middle instruction. The rectors and regents of the middle schools ought to have a diploma of a professor agrégé of middle instruction. A master or superintendent must have a certificate of having attended a university, or the diploma of a primary teacher. These conditions are not required of professors of living languages, of writing, music, or gymnastics. Doctors in philosophy, science, and some others are excepted; government may also grant exceptions in particular cases. The prefects, professors, rectors, and regents are nominated by the king, and the masters and teachers by the minister of the interior. The diploma of a professor agrégé of either degree is bestowed by a special jury after a searching examination. It is given without regard to the place where the candidate has studied. The prefects and rectors reside on the premises, and have the general direction and management of the institutions over which they are placed, the maintenance of order and discipline, and the superintendence of the professors and teachers. Each has to report annually to the minister as to the state and condition of the institution under his care; to register the conduct and progress of the scholars, both from his own observations and from the monthly reports of the professors or teachers, as well as the talents and proficiency of the professors, and the method of teaching followed. They alone can correspond with or report to the board of administration. Every three years a report upon the state of middle education is presented by the government to the legislature.

The salaries of the prefects, rectors, professors, and regents are partly fixed and partly fluctuating; the former being fixed by the government, and the latter arising from the division of Belgium, the fees, after defraying some necessary expenses, among them in certain proportions. All are obliged to become members of the central conseil de présageurs, who are not already members of a similar institution. The rate of payment for those whose income does not exceed 1500 francs is 3 per cent., from 1500 to 3000 it is 2½ per cent., and 4 per cent. for all above 3000 francs. Ministers of religion are invited to give or superintend the religious instruction, and to communicate their observations to the conseil de perfectionnement.

There are ten royal atheneums in Belgium, two in Hain-Athaeult, and one in each of the other provinces, viz., in the towns of Antwerp, Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, Mons, Tournay, Liège, Hasselt, Arlon, and Namur. In each of these there are two courses, the one for the humanities and the other for a professional education. The humanity course includes religion, principles of rhetoric and poetry, the Greek, Latin, French, Flemish, German, and English languages, elementary mathematics and physics, geography, and history, with the constitution of the country, drawing, vocal music, and gymnastics. The professional course includes religion, rhetoric, the French, Flemish, German, and English languages; mathematics, including analytical and descriptive geometry, and spherical trigonometry, and as applicable to arts, manufactures, and commerce; the elements of physics, mechanics, chemistry, natural history, and astronomy; book-keeping, the rudiments of commercial law and political economy; geography and history, particularly of Belgium; drawing, vocal music, and gymnastics. This course is divided into two sections, the lower and upper. The lower division, independently of a preparatory class, comprehends three classes, each extending over one year. The upper division has three sections, the commercial, industrial, and scientific, each divided into two classes, and extending over two years. To be admitted into the preparatory classes, the pupil must be at least ten years of age, and at least eleven for the regular classes. The entrance examination for the former comprehends reading, writing correctly to dictation, the legal system of weights and measures, the first four rules of arithmetic, and the elements of the French language; and for the latter are added grammatical and logical analysis and fractions. They also undergo examinations in passing from one class to another.

The government annually allocates the sum of 300,000 francs to the atheneums, in sums varying from 25,000 to 35,000 to each; and 200,000 to the middle schools according to their necessities, the minimum being 2000 francs. The town or commune in which the atheneums or middle schools are situated, has to provide and maintain suitable buildings and furniture, and in the case of atheneums to contribute annually to the extent of one-third of its expenditure. The commune may also in case of necessity be called upon to contribute to the middle school, but not to an extent exceeding one-third of the expense. The fees are fixed by the government on the advice of the board of administration, as well as the conditions of gratuities or reduced admissions.

In the middle schools the branches taught are the French Middle language, with the Flemish or German in the localities where schools, these are read, arithmetic, the elements of algebra and geometry, with land surveying, and other branches of practical geometry, writing, book-keeping, and the elements of commercial law, the rudiments of the natural sciences, geography, history, drawing, vocal music, and gymnastics. These courses are arranged so as not to occupy more than two years, or three at the most. To some is annexed a preparatory section.

The provincial or communal establishments take the name Provincial of colleges, or provincial or communal middle schools. Some colleges, &c. of these receive government grants, and others are supported entirely by the province or commune. They ought to be based upon the same principles, and teach the same branches as the royal atheneums and middle schools. The administration is in the hands of the province or commune by which the institution has been founded, as well as the nomination of the professors and the other employees. Subsidies by government to these institutions are given, subject to the following conditions, that the programme of studies, the books used, the rules, budgets, and accounts be submitted to the approval of government.

In the end of 1848 there were 8 atheneums, 16 communal colleges, and 12 commercial and industrial schools endowed by the state. Most of these have libraries, museums of natural history, and chemical laboratories. The atheneums and colleges Belgium had then 4438 scholars, of whom 2595 were attending the humanity courses, 163 had bursaries, and 336 were receiving gratuitous instruction. There were 51 endowed colleges; of these 28 were Episcopal colleges and seminaries, and two exclusively communal. Since then two additional atheneums have been established, and a number of government middle schools, so that there are at present (1853) 10 of the former and 47 of the latter.

The superior instruction establishments are the four universities, two belonging to the state, at Ghent and Liège, the Catholic university at Louvain, and the free university at Brussels.

Each of the state universities has faculties of philosophy and literature, science, law, and medicine, including archaeology, modern and oriental literature, anthropology, aesthetics, statistics, physical and ethnographical geography, political economy, higher mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, physics, mineralogy, geology, zoology, botany, &c. The professors are ordinary or extraordinary, the former having a fixed salary of 6000 francs, and the latter of 4000 francs. The government, however, has the power of augmenting the salaries of the ordinary professors to the extent of from 1000 to 3000 francs. In each university there are 8 professors in philosophy, 9 in the sciences, 7 in law, and 8 in medicine. One or two additional professors may be added to each of the faculties in case of necessity. The professors are nominated by the king, and cannot exercise any other profession without the consent of the government. No one can be a professor without having a degree of doctor, or being a licentiate of that branch of education he is appointed to teach. Government may however dispense with these conditions in the case of men of superior merit.

Attached to each university are a number of agrégés named by the king. Their title is honorary, and they are chosen from among those students who have most distinguished themselves at the public competitions or final examinations, from professors of middle instruction who have been at least fifteen years engaged in teaching, or from members of the civil or military body of engineers. They are nominally attached to one of the faculties, but are not prohibited from exercising any of the liberal professions, and may give private lessons or repetitions of the courses taught in the university. In the case of any of the professors being unable to perform his duties, a substitute is chosen from among the agrégés attached to that faculty. They may be appointed to give lessons or repetitions, in the university, of any of the courses already taught there, under the direction of the professor of that branch, or to give new courses. They receive no salary except when engaged in teaching in the university.

The universities are under the management of a rector, a secretary, deans of faculty, the senatus academicus, and the board of assessors. The rector is nominated by the king for three years, and has the direction of all academic matters. He enrols the students, superintends their conduct, and receives the oath of the professors and agrégés. The secretary is appointed annually by the king from a list of two candidates nominated by the senatus academicus. He minutes the meetings of the senatus and assessors, prepares the programmes, conducts the correspondence, and is keeper of the seal and archives. The deans of the faculties are chosen annually by the professors of each faculty, and have the right of convoking the professors of their faculty. The senatus and the board of assessors are convoked by the rector; the former composed of the professors under the presidency of the rector, and the latter of the rector, secretary, and the deans of faculty.

Attached to each of the universities is an administrator-inspector nominated by the king to see that the funds allocated to the university are properly expended, that the library, museums, &c., are properly taken care of, and that the various functionaries are performing their duties. He has a salary of 8000 francs.

Each student pays annually for enrolment 15 francs, the amount of which is equally divided among the rector, secretary, and the porters, one-third to each. The student then takes out a ticket for the branches of the course in which he intends to take his examinations. For philosophy and literature, and law, the annual ticket costs 250 francs, and 200 francs for the other faculties. The government may, upon the advice of the faculty, grant tickets for special courses, the cost of which is fixed according to circumstances. The sums received for the tickets are divided among the professors and agrégés who have given the courses.

There are two vacations in the academic year—the one from the beginning of August to the beginning of October, and the other from the Thursday preceding Easter to the second Tuesday thereafter.

The instructions are given in the French language. The minister of the interior, at least once a-year, calls a meeting of eight of the professors (one for each faculty) to deliberate upon the means of improving the superior education.

Subsidies are accorded by government to the universities for the libraries, botanical gardens, cabinets, &c.; but the towns of Liège and Ghent are bound to maintain the buildings. A report upon the state of the universities is presented to the chambers every three years.

The free university of Brussels has faculties of philosophy and University literature, of science, of law, and of medicine, courses in which are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and agrégés. Each student pays annually 15 francs for enrolment, and a fee of 200 francs for the courses in any of the faculties. The fee for single classes is generally 50 francs. An annual subsidy of 10,000 francs is allocated to the university by the provincial council of Brabant, and the permanent deputation has the right of annually presenting ten youths of the province for gratuitous instruction. An annual subsidy of 3000 francs is also allocated annually by the communal council of Brussels. It is governed by an administrative council, composed partly of permanent members and partly of members chosen annually by the professors of the four faculties and the former students of the university. This council is presided over by the burgomaster of Brussels, who has a casting vote in its proceedings. It chooses from among its members an administrator-inspector, whose services are gratuitous. The rector is also chosen by the council from among the professors.

The Catholic university of Louvain is governed by a grand Catholic rector nominated and revocable by the episcopal body; a vice-rector is also nominated by the episcopal body on the advice of Louvain the grand rector. The rector nominates the secretary and other functionaries of the university, and lays annually before the episcopal body a detailed report of the state of the university. The senatus academicus is composed of the professors of the faculties under the presidency of the grand rector. The rectorial council is composed of the vice-rector, the secretary, and the deans of the faculties. The faculties are philosophy and literature, the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, law, medicine, and theology. The courses of the five faculties are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and lecturers nominated by the episcopal body on the presentation of the rector. The enrolment fee for the first year is 10 francs, and 5 francs annually thereafter. The annual fee for courses in the faculties varies from 150 to 250 francs, except the theological courses, which are gratuitous. It has an extensive library, cabinets of mineralogy, zoology, &c., and a botanical garden. The number of students attending the university of Ghent at the end of 1850 was 351; Liège, 504; Brussels, 346; and Louvain, 774.

A competition takes place annually between the scholars of superior instruction. Competitors are required to be not above twenty-five years of age, except in the case of medical and law students, who may compete if not above twenty-seven years. The examining jury for each faculty is composed of five members, with an equal number of assistants. Four of the members are nominated by the universities, and the fifth by the government. At these competitions two gold medals are given in each of the faculties. To enable students in poor circumstances but of superior parts to receive a university education, bursaries of 400 francs each are annually given by the state on the advice of the jury of examination. The number of these may amount to sixty. Six bursaries of 1000 francs each may be annually given by the government to those who have taken their degree of doctor with the greatest distinction, to enable them to study in other countries. Two are for doctors in law and in philosophy and literature, and four for doctors in science and medicine. They are given for two years. Besides these there are connected with the universities a number of private bursaries of ancient creation, the management and bestowal of which are in the hands of particular persons or corporations in terms of the acts of foundation.

In each of the faculties there are two degrees—of candidate and doctor, besides the degree of doctor in political and administrative science, of candidate in pharmacy, of apothecary, and of candidate-notary. No one can be examined for being a candidate in philosophy and literature, or in science, without having attended one of the universities for one year; nor can any one be examined for the title of candidate in law without being one in philosophy and literature; and no one as candidate in medicine without being one in the natural sciences. No one can be a doctor in any branch without being first a candidate in that branch; and doctors in medicine have besides to attend, for at least two years, courses of clinical medicine, surgery, and midwifery. No one can practise as advocate, physician, surgeon, accoucheur, or oculist, without having taken degree of doctor. Each of these has to undergo strict examinations on all the branches connected with their professions by juries of examiners. Candidates in pharmacy must undergo an examination upon botany and vegetable physiology, organic and inorganic chemistry, and the elements of physics; previous to which they are examined in Latin, French, the elements of algebra and geometry, and the history of the country. They must, previous to receiving the title of apothecary, show that they have been practically engaged for two years, and been examined in theoretical and practical pharmacy, and in the preparation of drugs.

The jurors of examination are formed by the government, and the members are chosen equally from the professors of the government, and of private institutions. The degrees are conferred on the student without reference to the place where he has studied. The examinations are both written and oral. The certificates and diplomas take notice of the appearance made by the student—whether in a satisfactory manner, with distinction, with great distinction, or with the greatest distinction.

There are two sessions of the juries annually, the one beginning on the Monday before Easter, and the other on the first Monday of August. The fees of the different examinations vary from 20 to 150 francs (from L5s. 10d. to L5s. 18s. 9d.), as follows:—the entrance examination of a university student, and the preparatory examination of a candidate in pharmacy, 20 francs; the examination of a candidate, or doctor in philosophy and literature, or the sciences, a candidate in pharmacy, an apothecary, or a doctor in political science, 50 francs; of a candidate in medicine, or each of the three examinations of a doctor of medicine, 80 francs; of a candidate in law, the first examination of a doctor of law, or the examination of a notary candidate, 100 francs; the second examination of a doctor of law, or the examination of a doctor in political science, 150 francs.

There are two government normal schools for primary teachers, one at Lièrre, and the other at Nivelles; the former having thirteen and the latter fourteen professors, with each a rector and a demonstrating gardener. The rectors and professors are appointed by the king. The course extends over three years, and includes, besides the ordinary branches, history, geography, commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, rudiments of the natural sciences, theory and practice of agriculture, horticulture, and arboriculture, hygiene as applicable to children and schools, education theoretical and practical, drawing, music, and gymnastics. During the last year of their attendance they are exercised in teaching in the primary schools of the town. They are also instructed in the keeping of registers, making up of reports, &c. The number of scholars attending at Lièrre was 57, and Nivelles 124. Of these 48 received diplomas that year. The expense of these schools to the state for the three years preceding 1849 was 236,663 francs (L9,913). There are also seven episcopal normal schools in which the branches taught are similar to the above, except that the ceremonies of the Catholic church are more particularly inculcated. The chief diocesan nominates the rectors and professors. The course lasts for four years. The number of scholars in 1850 was 296.

Bursaries of 200 francs each are annually given by government to assist poor students attending the normal schools who give proofs of their aptitude. These may be continued to them after leaving school, during their noviciate as assistants or teachers.

Each province has one or more institutions for the training of female teachers, and bursaries are provided for young females desirous of entering such institutions. The number of scholars at the end of 1850 was 114.

Students of promise who have taken diplomas at either of the government primary normal schools may be admitted to the normal school of middle instruction at Nivelles. The number of students to be admitted is annually fixed by the minister. The course is for one year, and includes the French language, mathematics, land-measuring, the elements of physics, mechanics, and chemistry, and pedagogy. The diploma of professor agrégé of middle instruction is given after two searching examinations by a jury of seven members. It mentions the manner in which he passed his examinations. The fees for the two examinations amount to 70 francs.

For training teachers for the superior middle institutions, there are the normal school of the humanities at Lièrre, and the normal school of the sciences at Ghent. The number to be admitted is determined annually by the minister. They must be young men, between 18 and 23 years of age, of superior talents, qualifying them to perform creditably the duties of professor. Previous to admission they have to produce certificates of character, and to be examined both orally and by writing by a jury of five members; and the number to be admitted is taken from among those that stand highest by the examinations. The branches taught in the school at Lièrre extend over three years, and include the Latin, Greek, French, and English languages; antiquities, ancient and modern history and literature; geography, ancient, modern, and physical; philosophy, the principles of general grammar, and pedagogy. They undergo an examination annually; and on passing their final examination, they receive a diploma of professor agrégé of superior middle instruction for the humanities. Where the branches of the normal school are the same with those taught in the university, the scholars generally attend there. The rector has a salary of 6000 francs, and the professors unconnected with the university from 3000 to 5000 francs. Each student has to pay a fee of 500 francs, but fifteen bursaries of 500 francs each are given for one year to the poorer students, and which may be continued for a longer period on the advice of the rector. The recipients become bound to act as professors in one of the middle schools for five years.

The branches taught in the normal school of sciences at Ghent also extend over three years, and include the higher departments of mathematics, physics, mechanics, chemistry, natural history, &c. The degree of professor agrégé of middle superior instruction for the sciences is conferred on those passing the final examinations. There are five bursaries of 500 francs in connection with this school.

Attached to the university of Ghent is a school for civil engineers. The preparatory course extends over two years, and comprises the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences necessary to the subsequent courses. The special course is divided into two sections, the one for engineers of roads and bridges, and the other for architectural engineers. This course continues for two or three years, and the pupils undergo strict examinations both on entering and leaving. During the summer they are generally sent to visit, or to assist in the various public works that may be going on. The third course, which lasts for three years, is for industrial engineers or persons engaged in arts or manufactures. They are instructed in the application of the various sciences to the arts and manufactures, or trade, particularly to the mechanical arts.

Similar to the above is the mining school attached to the Mining university of Lièrre. The first course is preparatory to the school. The special course includes all the branches necessary to a mining engineer. The third course is for those desirous of obtaining a knowledge of mining, minerals, &c., more particularly as connected with the arts and manufactures. This last course extends over four years.

There is a military school at Brussels for training officers Military for the army. Candidates for admission must be between six-schools, teen and twenty years of age, except in the case of persons in the army, having entered it before the age of twenty, and been at least two years in active service, who are admitted till twenty-five. They are admitted by public competition. The courses are divided into two sections; the one, which extends over two years, is preparatory to the second, which also extends over two years, and is divided into special branches qualifying for the infantry, cavalry, or marines. For the first two years students pay for their education and maintenance 800 francs annually. Those from the army receive their pay during their attendance. The king gives annually twelve bursaries, which may be divided into half bursaries. On entering the second section, they become bound to serve for six years, cease to pay for their maintenance, and receive commissions as sub-lieutenants. They are examined annually, and Belgium, the last year by a jury of military officers appointed by the king.

A school has been established in Lierre for the purpose of educating the sons of the military for subalterns. They are admitted from ten to fourteen years of age, and are bound to serve in the army till their twenty-fourth year. Those, however, who on attaining their fifteenth year are considered unfit for the service are dismissed, but if meritorious they may remain till their sixteenth year, and be provided with situations. Besides the ordinary branches of education, they are taught drawing, geometry, music, dancing, fencing, swimming, gymnastics, and military exercises. The course extends over five years, and the pupils generally enter the army about the age of sixteen. They are placed in the army according to their proficiency, some as sub-officers and corporals, others as common soldiers. The pupils in 1850 were 480.

Each regiment has a regimentsary school for training young men in the army for subalterns; and a number of evening schools for affording the means of education to the soldiery. The regimentsary schools are under the superintendence of the brigade majors of the territorial divisions, who examine the schools in their districts at least once a year, and report to the minister. Attendance at one of these schools is obligatory on all subalterns and corporals whose education is not complete, according to their position. The scholars in 1848 were 3857. Special courses are also given to those who intend to compete for admission to the military school. The success of these courses is evident from one-third, and sometimes one-half, of those admitted to that school being from the army. A riding school was established in 1847 for instructing officers of the cavalry, artillery, and staff, in the art of riding, as well as those destined for instructing the troops of horse. The former attend for one and the latter for two years. Attached to the riding school is a school of farriery.

There is also a school of pyrotechny, under the direction of a superior officer of artillery, with a certain number of officers and subalterns. Eight well-educated young men are sent from each regiment of artillery to attend this school. The course continues for two years, and comprehends arithmetic, practical geometry, drawing, theoretical and practical pyrotechny and chemistry.

Schools of navigation have been established at Antwerp and Ostend for furnishing properly educated masters for merchant vessels. Instruction is given gratuitously in navigation and the branches connected with it, as arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, nautical astronomy, &c., with the elements of commercial law, as applicable to merchant vessels, the English language, and the manoeuvring, rigging, and trimming a vessel, both theoretically and practically. Certificates of qualifications as masters or mates are given by a jury of examiners.

The Royal Institution of Messines is for the education of daughters of military men who have died or been disabled in the service of their country. They are admitted from seven to fourteen years of age, and remain till their eighteenth year. They are instructed in branches necessary to qualify them as governesses, domestic servants, &c. Situations are provided for them on leaving. Some of them are trained as teachers for infant-schools, and for this purpose an infant-school has lately been formed in connection with the institution. The number in 1851 was 230.

A school of agriculture is established at Tirlemont, to which scholars are admitted from fifteen to twenty-two years of age, after passing an entrance examination. The course extends over three years, and includes the elements of mathematics, physics, mechanics, mineralogy, geology, botany, chemistry, zoology, agriculture, land-measuring, rural architecture, and veterinary science. There is a farm of 115 hectares in connection with the school. The annual fee is 400 francs. There are seven other similar establishments throughout the country, to some of which bursaries are attached; a practical school of horticulture and arboriculture at Vilvorde; and a theoretical and practical school of horticulture at Gentbrugge (East Flanders). There is also a government school of agriculture and veterinary science, in connection with which there are several bursaries.

It has lately been proposed to establish at Antwerp a kind of commercial university for special instruction in the commercial sciences. It is expected that this will be in operation next year (1854).

The academies and schools of design, painting, sculpture, &c., are divided into three branches. 1. The royal academies of the fine arts, in which painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, are taught in the most efficient manner; 2. Academies of design established in the principal towns, and giving instructions in designing, architecture, and the principles of geometry and perspective drawing; 3. Schools of design established in all the larger towns for instructing young persons and artisans in the elements of designing and architecture. In 1850 there were 41 such academies and schools in the kingdom, having 164 professors, and 7450 pupils.

The Royal Academy of the Fine Arts at Antwerp is principally intended to afford gratuitous instruction in painting, fine arts, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, and to propagate and encourage a taste for the fine arts. The programme of studies includes portrait, historical, and landscape painting, sculpture, civil and naval architecture, geometry, drawing, engraving, &c., with lectures on anatomy, perspective, history of architecture, &c. In 1850 there were 1049 scholars. A competition in one of the branches of the fine arts is annually held in Antwerp, the laureate at which receives a pension of 2500 francs annually for four years, to enable him to perfect himself in his art in Germany, France, and Italy. The second prize is a gold medal of 300 francs. The Royal Academy of the Fine Arts at Brussels, is an institution similar to that at Antwerp. Instruction is gratuitous, and the vacancies are filled up by competition. The students in 1850 amounted to 761.

The Royal Musical Conservatory at Brussels is under the Musical director of the minister of the interior, aided by a commission consisting of seven members nominated by the king, with the burgomaster of Brussels as honorary president. The instruction is gratuitous, and includes vocal and instrumental music, composition, and the Italian language. There are thirty professors, and the number of scholars in 1850 was 299. There are six bursaries of 250 francs, and ten of 125 francs, in connection with this institution. There is a similar establishment at Liège, with (in 1850) 300 scholars. There is also one at Ghent unconnected with the government; scholars (1850) 308. Music, both vocal and instrumental, is much cultivated in Belgium, and musical schools and societies are established in almost all the principal towns, and throughout the country. In the end of 1851, there were 461 instrumental music societies, with 12,397 members, and 228 vocal, with 7062 members. A competition in musical composition takes place every two years at Brussels, the laureate receiving a pension of 2500 francs for four years, to enable him to study in France, Germany, and Italy. The second prize is a gold medal of the value of 300 francs.

Belgium possesses a great number of learned societies, as Royal Medical Academy, the Royal Academy of Science, academies of Literature, and Art, &c.

There is a government inspector-general of science, literature, and art, who has the general superintendence of that department, under the minister of the interior. He visits the exhibitions of the fine arts, and informs the government of such works as merit a place in the National Museum, and of young artists whose talents and proficiency render them worthy of notice. Under him are two administrative boards, the one for literature and science, and the other for the fine arts.

The Royal Medical Academy has its seat at Brussels. It is divided into six sections, each composed of six titular and three assistant members; and has twenty-four corresponding and an indefinite number of honorary members. Each of the sections has certain branches of medical science assigned to it. A meeting is held every month except August, and a general meeting once a-year. The academy answers any questions that may be proposed to it by the government, upon matters connected with public hygiene, and makes researches in all subjects connected with or tending to advance medical science. Its proceedings are published annually. A certain number of gold medals are given annually by the academy for the best essays on prescribed subjects. It receives an annual grant of 20,000 francs from the state.

The Royal Academy of Science, Literature, and Art, also has its seat at Brussels. It is divided into three classes, for the sciences, literature, and the fine arts; the first two are each subdivided into two sections, and the last into branches for painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and music. Each class is composed of thirty members, fifty foreign associates, and not more than ten native correspondents. The ac- The Royal Observatory for astronomical and meteorological observations is under the management of a director and four assistants. It has published an annual since 1834. With the view of precisely determining the measure of time, a small lunette meridian has been constructed in each of the cities of Antwerp, Ostend, Bruges, Ghent, and Liege; and grand meridians are placed on the walls of edifices in numerous other towns. In the observatory are instruments specially provided by government for the use of young men desirous of making meteorological or astronomical observations. Premiums and medals are given to Belgians for useful discoveries, inventions, or improvements in instruments, &c.

The Royal Museum of Brussels, for the reception of objects in natural history belonging to the state, is open to the public on Sundays, Mondays, and Thursdays. There is also a museum of industry containing models and plans of machines used in arts, manufactures, and agriculture. Annexed to this museum is a school where instruction is given gratuitously in the construction of such machines. It possesses also a chemical laboratory, library, &c. There is also a royal museum of war instruments at Brussels, open to the public on Sundays and holidays. The royal museum of painting and sculpture is under the direction of a commission, composed of a president and six members nominated by the king, and charged with the collection of works of ancient and modern masters for the museum. It is open to the public on Sundays, Mondays, and Thursdays. A triennial exhibition of works of living artists, Belgian and foreign, in painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and lithography, is held at Brussels. The exhibition of 1851 contained 1479 works by 792 artists, of whom 314 were foreign. There are similar exhibitions held in Antwerp, Ghent, Liege, Bruges, &c. The geographical establishment at Brussels has a considerable collection of books and maps, a garden, herbarium, collection of rocks, lava, fossils, &c.

Besides the libraries belonging to different societies, associations, &c., there were in 1849 nineteen public libraries in Belgium. The principal of these is the royal library of Brussels. It then contained about 180,000 volumes, 19,668 manuscripts, 30,000 engravings, and 14,000 medals and coins. The average annual increase is upwards of 3000 volumes. This is the only library that receives copies of copyright works. The public library of Ghent is connected with the university. It has 60,000 volumes and 600 manuscripts, besides pamphlets, &c. The average annual increase for the last ten years has been 650 volumes and 5 manuscripts. The Liege public library has 58,000 volumes, about 26,000 pamphlets, and 430 manuscripts; annual increase about 700. The public library of the Louvain university is the most ancient in Belgium, and is particularly rich in works of ancient history, theology, and literature, including Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Oriental. In 1846 it had upwards of 60,000 volumes and 319 manuscripts. The library of Tournay has 26,230 volumes and 200 manuscripts; Antwerp, 20,000 volumes; Namur 17,000; Mons 15,000; Bruges (10,500); Ypres 9000; and the rest a smaller number. These libraries are open daily for consultation, and in almost all of them volumes may be lent out at the discretion of the conservators. Not this occasioned any serious loss. Since 1838 about 10,000 volumes have been lent out of the library at Brussels, and of these only two or three significant volumes have been lost. From 1848 to 1850, 19,905 volumes had been lent out of the library at Ghent, of which only 20 were lost or destroyed, which were replaced at the expense of the borrowers. The number of works consulted in the rooms of this library, from 1st October 1849 to 1st July 1850, was 12,772; and 3494 were lent out.

The archives of Belgium contain a great number of interesting and valuable documents connected with the history of the country. These are carefully preserved, classified, and inventoried. The general archives of the kingdom at Brussels, Belgium, contain upwards of 100,000 documents, and the archives of Antwerp upwards of 70,000. Those of the provinces of West and East Flanders, Hainault, Liege, and Namur, are ancient and important. The archives of the city of Bruges, at one time the grand commercial entrepot of Europe, contain a number of valuable papers bearing upon the events of which this city was the theatre in the middle ages. Unfortunately they do not go further back than 1280, the previous documents having been all destroyed by an extensive fire in that year.

In 1848, 202 journals were published in Belgium. Of these Periodicals appeared seven times, 20 six times, 20 three times, 12 twice, and 132 less than twice a week; 137 were in the French language, 59 in Flemish, 1 in English, 1 in German, and 1 in Polish; 122 were political, 37 literary or scientific, and 33 exclusively devoted to advertisements. The stamp duty having been abolished in 1848, it is impossible to give the number since that period, but it has been much increased. The total number of newspapers stamped during the first quarter of 1848 was 2,781,458, producing a duty of 105,605 francs. The number of literary and scientific reviews and magazines in 1850 was 93.

The benevolent and charitable institutions of Belgium are numerous, Hospitals, and open to all. The duty of supporting these falls in the first instance upon the commune, afterwards upon the province, and finally, in case of necessity, upon the state. They are divided into three classes: 1. Those affording assistance or an asylum to the poor in the case of age, infirmity, disease, want of work, &c., including dispensaries, foundling and maternity hospitals, deaf-mute, and blind institutions, &c. 2. Those more particularly destined to the prevention and suppression of vagabondage and beggary, as the depots of mendicity and the reform schools. 3. Those specially intended to foster a spirit of independence and foresight among the working classes, as savings-banks, assurance and mutual assistance societies. Every town of importance, and many of the rural communes have hospitals for the aged, infirm, and invalids. Asylums for incurables are also numerous, but much less so than the former. Poor hospitals have been established in the rural communes of the two Flanders, where the inmates contribute by work to their own maintenance. They form small agricultural colonies of old people and children, mutually aiding and assisting each other. The products of the farms are generally equal to their maintenance. There are fourteen such establishments in West Flanders, with (1851) 1032 inmates; and fourteen in East Flanders.

Foundling hospitals are established in Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Ostend, &c. The children generally remain only for a short time in the hospitals. They are permitted out to inhabitants of the rural communes till about twelve years, at which period the wardship of the hospital terminates. Inspectors are appointed to visit the children quarterly, to report upon their physical condition, and that they are attending schools, &c. The number (1850) was 7574. There are maternity hospitals at Brussels, Louvain, Ghent, Liege, Bruges, Nieuport, and Tournay, in several of which courses of midwifery are given. Maternity societies for aiding females with money, medicine, &c. are formed in many of the towns. In 1846 there were 58 lunatic asylums, 18 public and 40 private, having in all 3143 patients. A colony of lunatics has been formed in the commune of Gheelis, province of Antwerp, where, under the direction of a permanent committee, the insane pensioned out among the farmers, and generally employed in agricultural labour. In 1851 there amounted to 931.

In 1850 the number of the deaf and dumb was 1746, of whom 132 were from birth and 370 by disease or accident; of the blind was 3392, 258 from birth, and the rest by disease or accident. In 1850 the deaf and dumb in seven of the provinces (East Flanders and Hainault not given) amounted to 1235, and the blind to 1793. There are in all ten institutions for these, in Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, &c. There are ophthalmic institutions in Brussels, Mons, and Liege.

To prevent the misery, and frequently the crime, arising from the want of employment among the working classes, charity workshops have been established in Ghent, Liege, and other towns. These are accessible to all workmen without examination, and in poor circumstances. The able-bodied are paid according to their work, and the aged and infirm according to their necessities. The workshops of apprenticeship and improvement are intended not only to supply work to the unemployed, but principally to initiate the people in the exercise of new or improved branches of industry, and to instruct the young men in some trade or profession by which they may be able to gain an honest maintenance. They have been found of great benefit to many of the poorer classes who would otherwise have been brought up as vagrants and beggars. The apprentice- ship generally lasts from four to six months. Although the means of obtaining a primary education is provided in connection with these establishments, yet their time is too much devoted to manual labor to derive much profit from the latter. Many thousands are employed in these workshops. Similar to these are the manufacturing schools, intended principally for girls, where they are employed in the manufacture of lace, &c. These are supported partly by the state and partly by the province and communes.

There are five depôts of mendicity or workhouses in the kingdom, at Bruges, Hoogstraten, Mons, Reekheim, and the Cambre (commune of Ixelles). In December 1850 they contained 3478 persons. The average daily expense of each is 50 centimes (4½d.). A normal school was founded in Ruyssede, in 1848, for the training of mendicants under eighteen years of age. It contains (1851) 500 members, employed in cultivation on a large farm of 128 hectares. At a short distance is a similar institution for girls.

In each town there is a bureau de bienfaisance, for assisting the poor with money, food, clothing, &c., and, where there are no hospitals, providing them with medical attendance and medicines. It also contributes to the maintenance and education of poor children, foundlings, deaf-mutes, and lunatics. In 1850, 205,516 families, consisting of 901,566 persons, were aided by these charities, and the amount expended was 6,331,240 frs. This, however, cannot be taken as a criterion of the true condition of the people, as many who do not require it take advantage of the society for receiving gratuitous education or medical attendance.

Twenty-two towns in Belgium are provided with Morts de pétits charitable institutions, which lend money to the poor, upon the security of pledges. Each Mort de pétits is directed by a board of five members nominated by the communal council. In 1850, 1,307,711 articles were deposited or renewed, 1,253,698 retired, and 51,857 sold; the money lent amounted to 7,775,608 frs.

A savings-bank is established in the principal town of each province, by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry. The number of depositors in these in 1851 was 23,302, and the amount deposited was 17,024,396 frs. They have also been established in all the manufacturing towns, and in many of the rural communes. Caisses de prévoyance, both general and for special classes of workmen, are also numerous. Mutual assistance societies to succour the members in sickness, pay funeral expenses, and aid their families, are numerous. An report presented to the Chambers in 1851, shows that the number of these was 211, having 24,367 members.

Since 1830 the agricultural state of the country has been much improved. A superior council of agriculture, composed of two delegates nominated annually from each of the provincial commissions of agriculture, and a president, vice-president, and secretary, appointed by the minister of the interior, is specially charged with the promotion and superintendence of the agricultural interests of the country. In each of the provinces is an agricultural commission of practical men, nominated by the king, one from each of the agricultural districts in the province, and a veterinarian surgeon, to encourage the introduction of improvements in the different branches of agriculture, and report annually to the government upon the state of agriculture in their provinces. Each district has an agricultural committee which meets twice a year. Every five years a grand agricultural exhibition of horses, cattle, agricultural implements, and produce, is held in Brussels, at which numerous gold and silver medals, &c., are given as prizes. Local exhibitions are also held frequently in the various districts. In each of the agricultural districts there is at least one veterinary surgeon for superintending and reporting to the governor of the province upon epidemics and other diseases among cattle. No one can practise as a veterinary surgeon without having obtained a diploma after an examination by jury in the various branches of that art. Inspections are given by government to agriculturists who lose more than in crops, cattle, &c., to an extent varying from one-third to one-tenth of the loss.

The agriculturists above twelve years of age, including female servants, form one-fourth of the entire population. Females are extensively engaged in agricultural work, being in 1846 to the males as 61 to 100. In 1846 the number of horses was 194,537, of cattle 1,203,891, sheep 682,508, swine 495,565, goats 110,060. To improve the breeds of horses a government seed of about 40 stallions has been formed at Tervuren. These are annually sent out to stations in the different provinces.

The cultivated land of Belgium amounts to 2,603,036 hectares, or 6,432,477 acres, of which 1,423,453 hectares are in the hands of the proprietors, and 1,173,583 are let to tenants. In West Flanders 85 per cent. are tenants; in Luxembourg three-fourths are in the hands of the proprietors; and in the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, and East Flanders, three-fourths are let to tenants. It is divided into numerous and mostly small patches (nearly 600,000). Of these 43 per cent. do not exceed 50 acres, or about 1 acre and a quarter, 12 above 50 acres and not exceeding one hectare, or 2 acres and a half, 29 not exceeding 5 hectares, 7-17 not exceeding 10 hectares, and less than 8 of greater extent. The Belgians, particularly in Flanders, are adverse to the introduction of improvement, in their agricultural operations, and their implements are generally rude and clumsy. Their lands are however cultivated with great care and are very productive. The proportion to 1000 hectares of the various kinds of land in 1846 was:

| Producing Cereal and Farinaceous crops | 337-34 | |---------------------------------------|--------| | Leguminous plants | 25-22 | | Leguminous fruits | 28-38 | | Alimentary roots | 50-66 | | Fodder | 59-83 | | Prairie land | 139-19 | | Fallow | 31-08 | | Garden | 19-17 | | Wood | 186-58 | | Uncultivated or only periodically | 124-55 |

Of the cereal and farinaceous crops rye is the most extensively cultivated, and forms an important article of food for the working classes. Wheat and oats are also extensively cultivated, the former particularly in the provinces of Hainault, Brabant, and West Flanders. Comparative little barley is grown.

The industrial plants, such as chicory, tobacco, rape and other oleaginous plants, hemp, flax, madder, leeset, beest, &c. Of these the most extensively cultivated is flax, principally in the two Flanders and Hainault. Tobacco is much more extensively grown a few years ago; at present it is now almost entirely confined to the two Flanders and Hainault. The chicory plant is principally raised in Hainault. The cultivation of beet for the extraction of sugar is continually increasing, and numerous establishments have been formed for its preparation.

The leguminous plants, peas, beans, and tares, are used principally as fodder for cattle: the most common are beans.

The best-root is even more extensively cultivated as fodder than as an industrial plant, particularly in the provinces of West Flanders, Liège, Hainault, and Brabant. Turnips are next to the potatoes, and are extensively cultivated of the alimentary roots. In 1845 the extent of ground occupied in potatoes was 115,652 hectares. The disease that has affected this article of food, though it has diminished the amount produced, has much enlarged the extent of its cultivation, being now probably from 30,000 to 40,000 hectares more than in 1845. It has risen much in price, so that from being one of the principal articles of food for all classes it has become one of the most expensive. The fallow ground, formerly considerable, is now only of small extent, being principally sown in fodder crops. Clover is the principal fodder crop. The prairies are partly used as pasture, and partly mown. Draining and clearing the terrains, are now actively carried on under the direction of government.

Belgium is rich in various kinds of minerals, as coal, iron, cala. Minerals mine, &c., and is a valuable source of employment to many thousands of its inhabitants.

Under the minister of the interior the mines are superintended by a corps of mining engineers, composed of an inspector-general, chief and ordinary engineers, sub and aspirant engineers. Each of the six mining districts has an ordinary engineer, and each of the two divisions a chief engineer. A sub-engineer is appointed over a certain number of mines. Vacancies in the higher orders of the corps are filled up from among those who have served at least three years in the next lower grade. The council of engineers gives advice on all questions submitted to them connected with the administration and working of the mines.

Belgium is almost traversed from west to east by beds of coal. These may be divided into two great basins. The western basin is the most important, and has an estimated extent of 90,051 hectares, or about 222,400 acres; 75,725 in the province of Hainault, and 14,325 in Namur. The extent of the eastern bed is estimated at 44,062 hectares,—41,745 in the province of Liège, and 2317 in Namur. All varieties, from anthracite to the richest gas-coal, are found. In 1850 there were 153 mines in Hainault, 40 in Namur, 116 in Liège, and a small one in Luxembourg. The number of persons employed was 36,002 men, 4045 women, 6559 boys, and 2963 girls; 5,220,588 tons of coals were extracted, valued at 46,471,303 frs.; the capital of working was 40,310,616 frs. The coal is principally consumed in the country; 1,439,473 tons were exported, 197,269 to Holland, 14,410 to Prussia, and 764 to other countries.

The chief districts are the arrondissement of Charleroi, and the provinces of Namur, Liège, and Luxembourg. Besides the iron mines in Charleroi, Hainault contains a copper mine, commenced in 1849, calamine and blende in the communes of Solre-St-Gery and of Barbencon. Iron is also found in small quantities in the arrondissements of Mons and Tournay. In Namur the iron ore is rich and plentiful, and constitutes the principal mineral wealth of the province. The beds of pyrites are daily becoming of greater importance as the mining is carried to a greater depth. Veins of lead and zinc are Belgium, also wrought to a considerable extent, as is also a bed of oolitic oligist at Uccin. The iron mines of Luxembourg are much inferior to those of Namur. The principal are those of Durbuy, Ruette, Grandcourt, Halanzy, and Musson. At Coethen, in the province of Liège, a prolongation of the bed of oolitic oligist at Uccin is wrought, and at Angleur an important bed of limonite. The ferruginous basins of Thoux and La Reid are of the greatest importance, both as public works, and from the quantity of ore that they furnish. Lead and zinc are found here almost always in the same bed. Alumiferous ochre is common in several parts of the province. The manganese mines at Hainin have been abandoned. In 1850 the different metallic mines yielded 7308 tons of blende, 62,193 of calamine, 3834 of lead, 4084 pyrites, and 472,833 tons of (baudled) iron. Comparing the average annual produce from 1841 to 1845, with that from 1846 to 1850, we find a considerable increase in each; in calamine of 23,757, lead 2858, pyrites 2871, and iron 261,080 tons. The mining of blende only commenced in 1845, in which year it amounted to 264 tons. The number of workmen employed in these mines was 5895.

Marble is abundant in many parts of Belgium, and the black marbles, as those of Dinant and Gochene, may rival the finest productions of other countries. There are numerous quarries of various kinds, of freestone, granite, limestone, slate, &c. The principal quarrying districts are Namur and Hainault. They gave employment (1846) to 7892 persons.

In 1850 the stationary steam-engines in the kingdom were 2040, of 51,055 horse-power, being double that of 1838. Most of these (30,969 horse-power) are employed in working the mines. Low-pressure engines are rapidly disappearing. Of these there were 289 in 1844, and only 89 in 1850. The number of steam-vessels (1850) was only 13, having a total of 1000 horse-power; and of locomotive engines on the different government railroads 170, of 10,703 horse-power.

The total value of manufactures imported in 1850 was 38,645,000 fr., and exported 102,162,000, being an increase of 35 per cent. since 1841. The number of persons employed in the various manufactures in 1846 was 314,842, being 207,784 adult males, 40,673 adult females, 36,356 boys under sixteen years of age, and 30,029 girls.

The number of works in 1850 for the preparation of iron was 351, steel 2, lead 8, copper 20, zinc 19, alum 2, glass 35; 13,223 workmen were engaged, and the value of the produce was 51,261,457 fr. There is a decrease of 37 per cent. on the average of the three years preceding 1848, as compared with the three subsequent, in the iron manufacture. During the former period the demand for iron was great, and the prices were augmented by the number of railways constructing in Belgium and other countries.

Notwithstanding many vicissitudes, flax is the most ancient, and still forms one of the most important branches of industry in the country. In 1846, 29,872 hectares of land were occupied in the cultivation of flax, and 1712 in that of hemp; the various manufactures of these gave employment to 60,023 persons, viz.:—18,563 men, 7348 women, 3852 boys, and 20,793 girls. In 1850 the value of the exports and imports was as follows:

| Imported | Exported | |----------|----------| | Raw flax | 5,825,000 fr. | 17,138,000 fr. | | Hemp | 676,000 | 26,000 | | Flax and hemp yarns | 896,000 | 5,027,000 | | Cloths | 191,000 | 10,082,000 |

Total | 7,588,000 | 32,973,000 |

Cotton also forms an important branch of industry, and is at present in a more flourishing condition than at any former period. In 1846 it employed 75,522 men, 3129 women, 2494 boys, and 1305 girls. In 1850 the exports and imports were as follows:

| Imported | Exported | |----------|----------| | Raw cotton | 16,504,000 fr. | 4,587,000 fr. | | Cotton yarn | 289,000 | 455,000 | | Cotton cloths | 3,448,000 | 8,595,000 |

Total | 20,241,000 | 13,637,000 |

The manufacture of woollens forms also an important branch of industry. The wool for this purpose is principally imported from Prussia, Saxony, &c., the native produce being small in quantity and chiefly used in hosiery. It employed (1846) 10,134 men, 3000 women, 2076 boys, and 1237 girls. Imports and exports (1850):

| Imported | Exported | |----------|----------| | Wool | 16,941,000 fr. | 1,642,000 fr. | | Woollen yarn | 3,419,000 | 1,320,000 | | Cloths | 8,388,000 | 16,309,000 |

Total | 28,738,000 | 19,271,000 |

The manufacture of silk gave (1846) employment to 655 persons; value of imports (1850) 11,333,000 fr., exports 637,000 fr. Although the cultivation of the mulberry tree for the breeding of silkworms has been carried on since 1825, it has yet made little progress. The Belgium lace, ribbon, and hosiery manufactures employed 1494 males, 675 females, 501 boys, and 337 girls. Imports and exports in 1850:

| Imports | Exported | |---------|----------| | Lace | 883,000 fr. | 41,000 fr. | | Ribbons | 483,000 | 58,000 | | Hosiery | 298,000 | 513,000 |

Total | 1,684,000 | 612,000 |

The excisable manufactures are beer, vinegar, &c. The number of breweries in the kingdom in 1850 was 2899, employing 6766 persons, and of vinegar works 84, employing 105 persons. The amount of excise received from these establishments was 6,436,931 fr. Distilleries 587, workmen 1647, excise 3,859,741 fr. Salt works 318, workmen 495, excise 4,416,372 fr. Refineries of foreign sugar 50; manufactories of best-root sugar 28, excise 3,169,509 fr. In 1846 2122 hectares of land were occupied in best-root sugar, and 4190 persons were employed in its manufacture. The principal of the other branches of industry, with the number of persons employed in each, as shown by the general census of 1846, are as follows:—The manufacture of bricks is particularly in the provinces of Liège and Hainault, employs 6780 persons. The manufacture of bricks and tiles, the chief seat of which is in the province of Antwerp, employs 3293 persons. The manufacture of fire-bricks was introduced in 1836, and has since been making great progress. The manufacture of porcelain and earthenware goods employs 1573 persons; glass and crystal works 3683; paper-making 2169; printing 2025. The maritime fishing employs 267 boats of 5800 tons, and 1224 men. An extensive manufactory of fire-arms at Liège employs 1782. The less extensive manufactures are oil, soap, chemicals, leather, ropes, &c. The number of failures in 1849 was 132, in 1850, 113, and in 1851 to 15th August 83. Eleven vessels of 3333 tons were built in Belgium during 1850.

In 1851 Belgium possessed 149 trading vessels, of the aggregate Commerce, burden of 39,577 tons.

The value of the imports and exports for the years 1849, 1850, and 1851, was as follows:

| Year | Imports | Exported | |------|---------|----------| | 1849 | 465,249,000 fr. | 374,776,000 fr. | | 1850 | 423,117,000 | 411,202,000 | | 1851 | 418,555,325 | 401,176,052 |

In 1851 the imports by Belgian vessels were valued at 44,702,097 fr.; by foreign 124,735,164 fr.; and by land and river 249,117,054 fr. Exports by Belgian vessels 24,107,306 fr.; by foreign 61,258,815 fr.; and by land and river 295,741,931 fr. The laden Belgic vessels entering were 402 of 70,261 tons, and foreign 1,691, of 229,771 tons. The laden Belgic vessels leaving were 351 of 62,999 tons, and foreign 1168 of 161,314 tons. The number entering in ballast was 149 of 17,434 tons; 1359 vessels entered the port of Antwerp, 448 Ostend, 234 Ghent, and 101 Newport. The imports are principally from France, England, Holland, and the United States, and the exports principally to France, Holland, Prussia, and England.

The imports are divided into three classes, those for direct consumption in the country, those in transit, and those brought into warehouses to be either consumed in the country on paying the duties, or exported. The value of goods imported for consumption, and of the productions of the country exported was for the above three years as follows:

| Year | Imported | Exported | |------|---------|----------| | 1849 | 206,777,000 fr. | 179,054,000 fr. | | 1850 | 211,923,000 | 210,633,000 | | 1851 | 218,085,070 | 200,129,028 |

These are divided into three branches: 1. Premières matières, articles consumed in the state in which they are found, as coals, &c.; 2. Articles of food; and 3. Manufactures. The imports and exports of 1851 so divided, give—

| Premières matières | Food | Manufactures | |-------------------|------|--------------| | 93,663,110 fr. | 84,362,885 | 40,050,675 |

The value of the goods in transit for the years 1850 and 1851 was—

| Direct | By warehouse | |--------|-------------| | 1850 | 175,553,000 fr. | 25,700,000 fr. | | 1851 | 175,104,292 | 25,942,134 |

Of the latter the value exported by Belgic vessels was 7,046,655 fr. by foreign 28,712,479, and by land and canal 165,287,292 fr. Although there is a slight decrease in 1851 as compared with 1850, in comparing 1850 with 1841 we find an increase of 259 per cent. The value of goods in warehouse at 1st January 1851 was 26,626,000 fr.; entered during that year 65,006,000; taken out for consumption 39,292,000; for export 23,942; and 25,480,000 were in bond at the end of that year.

The first five months of 1853, as compared with the same period Belgium.

of 1852, show a considerable decrease in the importation of many of the principal articles of trade, as coffee, cottons, rice, tobacco, &c. On the other hand, however, the increase in the articles of exportation is even more marked. In the latter there is an increase of 270,000 fr. in portable arms, 16,264 tons in pig iron, 882 tons in wrought iron, 640 tons in nails, and 463 tons in iron used in machines. The exportation of bar iron and rails during the first six months of 1853 amounted to 8447 tons. During the whole of 1852 it was only 7325 tons, and during 1851 only 6917 tons. The increase in the linen and cotton manufacture, and in sugar, is also very considerable. A company has been formed for the establishment of a direct steam communication between Antwerp and New York, which will undoubtedly give a great stimulus to trade in Belgium. It is expected to be in operation by May 1854, except during the first year will have two departures monthly from each side of the Atlantic.

There are nineteen chambers of commerce and manufacture established in the principal towns, the members of which are nominated by the king from a triple list of candidates presented to him by the chambers. The members of each vary in number from nine to twenty-one, one-third going out annually. They present to the government or legislative chambers their views as to the best means of increasing the commercial and industrial prosperity of the country, report annually upon the state of their districts, and give useful information or direction to the provincial or civic authorities under their administration.

Belgium possesses a great number of commercial and financial associations. In 1851 there were no fewer than 191 legally authorized joint-stock companies for carrying on public works, or enterprises, having a united capital of 880,347,298 fr. Of these 12 were assurance companies, 12 private banking companies, and 14 railway companies. It has eight commercial exchanges, under the direction of government, namely, in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Mons, Terneuzen, and Louvain. In 1822 the General Society for the Encouragement of National Industry was founded at Brussels under a royal charter for 27 years, and which has since been extended to 1875. It has a capital of 30,000,000 florins, divided into 300,000 shares of 50 florins, bearing interest at 5 per cent. The administrative body consists of a governor, nominated by the king, six directors, a secretary, and a treasurer. It discounts bills, receives money at interest, grants loans and advances on titles and other deposits, &c. The national bank, instituted by charter granted in 1850 for twenty-five years, has its seat at Brussels, and has branches in all the provincial capitals and several other towns. Its capital is 25,000,000 fr., in shares of 1000 fr. each. It pays a dividend of 5 per cent. upon the shares, and one-third at least of the profits, exceeding 6 per cent., goes to form a sinking fund. The administration consists of a governor nominated by the king, six directors, and a council of seven. The banking operations are superintended by a government commissary; a report upon the state is presented to the government every month. The surplus funds are deposited in this bank. The bank of Belgium, chartered in 1835 for twenty-five years, but which has been extended to 1875, has a capital of 30,000,000 fr. Its seat is at Brussels. The bank of Flanders is established in Ghent.

The weights and measures of Belgium are the same as those of France. Gold, silver, and copper coins are struck at the royal mint in Brussels. The gold coins are ten and twenty-five franc pieces; the silver are of the value of 1, ½, 1, 2, and 2½ francs; and the copper of 1, 2, 5, and 10 centimes.

After England, there is no country in Europe where, in proportion to its extent, the roads are more numerous or better kept than in Belgium. They are of three kinds—those maintained by the state, and those by the provinces and communes. The total length of Roads, &c., is 12,477 leagues, or 3855 English miles. The length of the navigable rivers and canals has already been given; the income for the ten years preceding 1851 was 25,642,467 fr., and the expenditure 11,556,282 fr.

A bill was passed in 1834 authorizing the establishment of a system of railroads, of which Malines was to form the centre. One line extends eastward from Malines to the frontiers of Prussia, passing Louvain, Liège, and Verviers, another north to Antwerp, a third west to Ostend, passing Terneuzen, Ghent, and Bruges, and a fourth south to Brussels and the frontiers of France. Another bill in 1837 authorized a line from Ghent to the French frontiers and Tournay, passing Courtrai and branching towards Namur, Limbourg, and Luxembourg. The government railways are wrought on account of the government, and are under special administration. The line from Brussels to Malines was opened on 5th May 1835, and was the first railway in operation on the Continent. The total length of the various lines of railway in operation in the beginning of 1851 was 172 leagues of 5000 metres, or 535 English miles, as per following table:

| Double Lines | Single Lines | Total | |--------------|-------------|-------| | Metres | Metres | Metres| | Government | 452,788 | 171,831| 624,619| | Conceded | 94,443 | 141,835| 236,778| | | 547,731 | 313,666| 861,397|

The amount expended by government in the construction of railways to the end of 1850 was 167,333,412 fr., or L6,623,614. The expense of working these railways in 1850 was 9,195,315 fr., and the receipts 14,847,540 fr.

In 1849 a system of postage was introduced into Belgium similar to that in this country. All letters not exceeding 10 grammes in weight (4 oz.), destined for places not more than 30 kilometres (18 miles) distant, pay a postage of 10 centimes (¼d.), and to any greater distance within the kingdom 20 centimes. This postage increases with the weight.

The first electric telegraph, which was that between Brussels and Antwerp, was introduced into the country in 1846 by an English company. A law passed in 1850 has authorized the government to purchase this, as also to establish telegraphs on all the lines of railway.

For the account of the Belgian army and civic guard, see ARMY.

The following table shows the annual income and expenditure finances for the seven years preceding 1851:

| Year | Income | Expenditure | |------|--------|-------------| | 1844 | 198,810,508 fr. | 195,185,657 fr. | | 1845 | 129,855,951 | 134,389,349 | | 1846 | 114,094,043 | 122,752,999 | | 1847 | 113,228,663 | 127,572,974 | | 1848 | 146,117,886 | 135,669,595 | | 1849 | 113,871,437 | 112,267,069 | | 1850 | 132,877,187 | 118,730,904 |

The excess of the expenditure over the revenue since the independence of Belgium to the end of 1850 is 16,129,896 fr.

The budgets for 1852 and 1853 are as under:

| Revenue | Expenditure | |---------|-------------| | 1852 | 1853 | | Land-tax | 18,359,750 fr. | 18,359,750 fr. | | Personal taxes | 9,240,000 | 9,355,000 | | Tax on patents | 3,201,000 | 3,255,000 | | Rent of mines | 207,900 | 207,900 | | Customs duties | 12,275,000 | 13,000,000 | | Excise duties | 20,470,000 | 23,220,000 | | Stamp duties | 21,695,000 | 23,495,000 | | Domains, forests, &c. | 4,485,000 | 4,300,000 | | Post-Office | 3,200,000 | 3,400,000 | | Railways, &c. | 16,040,000 | 17,375,000 | | Packet-boats | 200,000 | 200,000 | | Arrears received | 6,936,000 | 6,861,000 | | Total | 117,310,250 | 123,224,250 |

Public debt... | 36,713,397 fr. | 38,119,299 fr. | Pensions | 3,497,922 | 3,365,922 | Ministry of Justice | 12,853,454 | 11,981,558 | Foreign Affairs | 2,181,931 | 2,161,840 | Interior | 7,588,460 | 7,568,555 | Public Works | 29,787,000 | 39,937,000 | War | 17,018,088 | 17,018,088 | Finances | 11,228,114 | 11,241,945 | Deficiencies & repayments | 2,278,718 | 2,023,000 | Railways and canals | 26,708,000 | 26,708,000 | Total | 146,941,797 | 132,708,216 |

The public debt on 1st May 1853 amounted to 643,488,563 fr., of which the sum of 237,035,832 fr. was the share falling to Belgium of the public debt of the kingdom of the Netherlands.