especially as it approaches the sea, may be designated a level country. Even in its northern frontier, it is reached only on one point by any of the branches that try to diverge from the Himalayas. A spur from the great culminating range bounds the north-eastern extremity of Assam; and thence taking a southerly direction through the native states of Munnepore and independent Tipperah, forms the eastern frontier of the British district of Chittagong. Continuing from this point its southerly course, it stretches, under the name of the Yoomadoug Mountains, through the province of Arracan to its southernmost point at Cape Negrais, forming the western boundary of the valley of the Irrawaddy. This spur where it touches upon Assam attains an elevation of 14,540 feet above the level of the sea, and there its summit is covered with perennial snow. At the Blue Mountain, in the latitude of Chittagong, it rises to the height of 8000 feet; but, with these exceptions, the general elevation of the ridge ranges between 3000 and 4000 feet. Westward of this ridge, the northern frontier of Bengal is bounded by the Sub-Himalaya Mountains, of no great elevation. Separated from these subordinate ranges by the valley of the Ganges, is the eastern extremity of the tropical zone, crossing the continent of India from west to east, and known as the Vindhya range. In its approach towards Bengal, this mountainous tract expands into several parallel ranges, some of which, stretching into the British districts of Palamow, Ramghur, Chota, Nagpore, and the northern part of Orissa, hem in the presidency on its western frontier. The area thus circumscribed by mountains is, as before observed, a level country. The Ganges, which enters on the western frontier, and runs diagonally across Bengal, gives to the country its peculiar character and aspect. About 200 miles from its mouth it spreads out into numerous branches, forming a large delta composed, where it borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of creeks and rivers named the Sunderbunds, and exhibiting during the annual inundation the appearance of an immense sea. At this time the rice-fields to the extent of some hundreds of miles are submerged, and are navigated by boats of various sizes and shapes, many of them handsome, and fitted both for commerce and for state. The scene presents to a European eye many objects of singular novelty and interest; namely, the fields covered with water to a great depth, with ears of rice floating on the surface; the stupendous dikes, which restrain, without altogether preventing, the excesses of the inundations; and peasants, in all quarters, repairing to the markets, and even to the fields, with their families and their domestic animals, in the fear that the swelling waters may sweep away their habitations, with all that they contain, in the absence of their boats. The many navigable streams which fall into the Ganges intersect the country in every direction, and afford a wonderful facility of internal communication. In most parts boats can approach, by means of lakes, rivulets, and water-courses, to the door of almost every cottage; and even in the driest season there is scarcely any spot twenty miles distant from a navigable river. The lower region of the Ganges is the richest and most productive portion of Bengal, abounding in valuable produce. Another mighty river by which Bengal is intersected is the Brahmapootra, the source of whose remotest tributary is on the opposite side of the same mountains that give rise to the Ganges. These two rivers—which, from the contiguity of their sources, and their resemblance in length of course and bulk, have been termed sisters and rivals—proceed in opposite courses until they are more than 1200 miles asunder; and again approaching each other, intermix their waters before they reach the ocean. The other principal rivers in Bengal are the Gogra, Sone, Gunduck, Coosy, Teesta; the Hooghly, formed by the junction of the Bhagrattee and Jellinghee; and farther to the west, the Damoodah and the Mahanudddy. In a level country such as Bengal, where the soil is composed of yielding and loose materials, the courses of the rivers are continually shifting, from the wearing down of their different banks, and also from the water being turned off, by obstacles in its course, into a different channel. As this channel is gradually widened, the old bed of the river is left dry. The new channel into which the river flows is of course so much land lost, while the old one constitutes an accession to the adjacent estate. Thus one man's property is diminished, while that of another is enlarged or improved. Rules applicable to such contingencies are accordingly in operation, under which the land-tax is subject to increase or diminution in proportion to the quantity of land lost or acquired.

The position of Bengal brings it within the range of the tropical heats; and the year is distinguished into three seasons, the cold, the hot, and the rainy. The cold season begins in October, when the rains cease. During the succeeding four months the temperature is mild and agreeable, Fahrenheit's thermometer falling frequently to 70°. The spring and the dry season then succeed, and continue for four months, during which the heat continues progressively to increase, until it becomes almost intolerable to the natives themselves, the thermometer in the shade rising to 100°. In the beginning of April, occasional thunder-storms in the middle and south-eastern parts of Bengal, with rain or hail driven by sudden tempests of north-west wind, temper the immoderate heat. In the eastern districts, mild and refreshing showers of rain are still more frequent; but towards the west, in the country contiguous to Bahar, a parching west wind prevails in the day-time during the greater part of the hot season; night, however, bringing a cooling breeze from the opposite quarter. These west winds sometimes gives place to easterly gales which continue for days and weeks. The southerly and northerly winds, which alternately prevail in the Bay of Bengal during the summer and the winter, extend their influence over that part of the flat country which faces the bay, until they are diverted in their progress up the country by mountains corresponding with the course of the Ganges. About the beginning of June, the south-west monsoon, with thunder and lightning that seem to rend the sky, ushers in the periodical rains which refresh the atmosphere and the parched earth. The rains continue for four months, when all the rivers are in flood; and in the latter part of this season, in September, if the rains break up early, the weather is extremely close and sultry, and the inhabitants, especially the Europeans, suffer from sickness. Fogs are frequent during the dry months; and dews continue copious and refreshing, greatly assisting vegetation, as they afford nearly as large a supply of moisture as the loose soil of the country appears to require. These heavy dews are supposed to be no more than sufficient to compensate for the daily evaporation by the sun during the dry season, and so far to contribute to salubrity. The damp of the climate is ascribed to the natural want of any general system of drainage in a level country, to the luxuriant vegetation, and to the denseness of the woods, which obstruct the free circulation of the air, and retain an undue quantity of moisture amid decayed leaves and other putrid vegetable substances. This is found in all countries to be a fertile source of disease; and there is little doubt that the clearing of the forests, and a judicious system of drainage, would be followed in Bengal, as in all other parts, by a decided improvement in the climate.

The soil of so extensive a province varies, of course, in soil and its character and fertility with the physical peculiarities of produce the country. In the level tract interlaced by the Ganges and Brahmapootra, with their numerous branches and tributaries, the soil is alluvial, its basis being composed of sand, on which are annually deposited, by the retiring waters, clay, calcareous matter, and other fertilizing substances. In the tracts which lie beyond the reach of inundation, it is marked by different degrees of productiveness, from the dry and arid rocks of the south-western frontier overrun with brushwood, to the hills of Chittagong and Tenasserim clothed with magnificent forests. Taken as a whole, however, the soil of Bengal, enriched as it is by the combined influence of fierce suns and deluging rains, may be said to be characterized by an amazing fertility. Its productions are those both of the tropical and the temperate climates. Of the grains which contribute to the subsistence of man, rice is of the first importance; it is the great staple of Bengal agriculture, is particularly luxuriant within the tract of inundation, and thrives in all the southern districts. It is sown after the first showers at the end of March down to the setting in of the rainy season, and occupies a period ranging (according to its variety, of which there are three principal deno- minations) from three to five months to ripen. The early crop is sown broadcast; the later crop, after the seed has attained the height of a few inches, is planted with the hand in rows at the distance of about a foot asunder. The rice harvest is succeeded by the cold-weather crops, which are sown in autumn and reaped in spring. They consist chiefly of vetches, gram, barley, peas, mustard, &c. Millet and other small grains, sown at the beginning of the rains and reaped at the end, constitute the food of the poorer classes, and, bearing a very low price, are of importance. Maize is less cultivated in Bengal than in those countries where the climate is more suitable, having no preference above millet to compensate for the greater labour required for its culture. Potatoes have lately been introduced into Bengal, and have succeeded well. They are suited to the climate; and the small potato is little inferior to that raised in England. Esculent plants are found in Bengal in great abundance and variety. The different species of the cucumber are much more numerous than in Europe, and whole fields are covered with them. The water-melon is of incredible size; and its stalk, leaves, and blossoms form a finely variegated matting, with which most of the cottages in the villages are entirely covered.

The universal and vast consumption of vegetable oils which takes place in Bengal is supplied by the extensive cultivation of mustard, linseed, sesamum, and palma-christi, in addition to the produce obtained from the cocoa-nut. The sesamum comes to maturity during the rains, or soon after them, the others during the cold season. Among the most important of the commercial crops are tobacco, sugar, the opium poppy, indigo, cotton, and silk, most of which require land solely appropriated to their peculiar culture; of late years coffee has been successfully cultivated. Tobacco, which was unknown in India before the discovery of America, is now produced everywhere. The sugar-cane has flourished in Bengal from the remotest times; there is scarcely a district in which its cultivation is not pursued with success, and there seems to be no limit to its production, except the demand for it. It is cheaply and frugally manufactured; and as it now enters the British market on equal terms with West India sugar, it forms an important article of export. The manufacture of indigo appears to have been known and practised in Bengal from an early period; and from the East Europe was supplied with this dye until the superior produce of America engrossed the markets. European skill has, however, succeeded in reviving this branch of trade in Bengal, and the indigo now exported from this presidency amounts to five-sixths of the supply obtained from the whole world. Cotton is raised in abundance, but the produce scarcely exceeds the consumption; and the demand of the British and China markets for the cotton wool of India is almost wholly supplied from the western side of the country. Silk is an ancient product of India; the silkworm, it is said, being originally introduced from China. Formerly the raw material was brought from India to Greece and Italy, whence Europe was chiefly supplied. Bengal still carries on a trade in this valuable article; and although the quality is scarcely equal to the finest Italian silk, the annual export from Calcutta exceeds in value half a million sterling. A coarse species of silk is procured from the wild silkworm, which is found in the countries bordering on Bengal, and in several districts included within it. It is rendered useful in the fabrication of inferior silks, though bearing no comparison to the produce of the domesticated insect. The cultivation of the poppy is entirely regulated and controlled by the government. Annual contracts are made with the farmers to sow certain quantities of land with the plant, and to deliver the produce to the government in the form of opium at a fixed price. The sowings commence in November, and the crop arrives at maturity by the end of February. The revenue realized by the government from the sale of opium produced in Bengal alone amounts to between two and three millions sterling per annum.

The orchard is a great object of cultivation with the peasant in Bengal; and it attaches him to his native soil, from the almost superstitious predilection which he feels for the trees planted by his ancestor. The seasons, however, from the long continuance of the rains, which occupy the greater part of the summer, are not particularly favourable for bringing fruit to maturity; yet the orange, lime, shaddock, citron, tamarind, and other fruits, may be reckoned among the productions of Bengal. Orchards of mango, a tree thriving with little care, and yielding a fruit esteemed one of the best among those of India, diversify the plains. In size and foliage this tree resembles the Spanish chestnut; its fruit is extremely delicious, and is said to surpass in flavour the large yellow peach of Venice. Another fruit-tree is the cocoa-nut, valuable not only on account of the nut, from which a superior oil is largely extracted, but in consideration also of its timber, which is peculiarly fitted for the construction of water-pipes and other useful purposes. Even the husk which envelopes the fruit furnishes a fibre from which the best cordage is manufactured. The mulberry is extensively planted in consideration of its leaves, which afford the food of the silkworm. Assam abounds with the genuine tea plant; and the bassia thrives in various localities, especially in the hilly districts. Its produce is esculent and nutritious, and its flowers yield an intoxicating spirit. From its seeds is expressed an oil which is sometimes used as a substitute for butter. There are also valuable forest trees, among which may be noticed the teak, equal to the oak for purposes of ship-building, the sal and the banyan. There is also the bamboo, which, being hollow, light, and strong, is serviceable in supplying the peasant with materials for his buildings, as well as for the manufacture of baskets, mats, and other articles of like character, to which, when split, its flexible fibre is well adapted.

From the alluvial character of the greater portion of the minerals of Bengal, no great amount of mineral wealth is to be expected. In the hilly tracts, however, both in the eastern and western parts of the country, two of the most useful products which the mineral kingdom can boast, coal and iron ore, exist in abundance. Gold, in the form of dust, is found in a few places, but not in quantities sufficient to encourage to any extent the search for it.

The lands in Bengal, prior to the entrance of the British, were under the management and control of rajahs and zemindars, who collected the rents from the immediate occupiers and cultivators, and were held responsible for the payment of a fixed yearly sum into the treasury of the nabob. The titles of the different classes of occupiers were not very exactly defined; and in the anarchy which prevailed in the country, rights of every description were often violated. When the British obtained possession of Bengal, a difference of opinion arose respecting the character of the zemindars and the rights of the tenantry; one party asserting that the zemindar was the true landlord, in whom alone was vested the proprietary right; the other contending that the cultivators were the real proprietors, and that the zemindar was merely the collector of the revenue for the behoof of the sovereign, who, according to the Eastern maxims of policy, was the proprietor of all the lands in the country. Without entering into a controversy, which at this period can be attended with no practical results, it seems certain, and is indeed admitted on all hands, that the lands were assessed in a certain rate for the public tax; and that as long as this tax was regularly paid, the occupiers of land were secured in the possession of their properties, which they mortgaged for debts, and quietly transmitted to their heirs through a series of generations. It was not, however, to each individual occupier, but to the zemindar, that government looked for the immediate payment of the tax, which he again col- lected from the under-tenants, called the ryots or cultivators; and whether we admit the zemindars to be proprietors, or merely government stewards, it seems clear that the tax was a sort of quit-rent, and that its regular payment was the tenure by which both zemindar and cultivator held their properties. Between the acquisition of the Dewanay in 1765 and the year 1793, various expedients were resorted to by the British government in the collection of the land revenue; and during that period the relation between the zemindar and the cultivator remained undisturbed. In the year last mentioned, however, Lord Cornwallis introduced into the lower provinces the permanent settlement, whereby the state pledged itself not to increase the public demand on the land at any future period. The arrangement was made not with the cultivators, whose rights were virtually disregarded, but with the zemindars as the proprietors of the land; and there can be little doubt that the settlement was based upon erroneous principles. This is the more extraordinary, as in the discussions which took place previous to the settlement a sound and just view of the subject seems to have prevailed. It was admitted, that the cultivator had a right to the soil so long as he paid the public assessment, which was held to have been fixed beyond the power of the zemindar. It was acknowledged that the zemindar had no right of absolute property in the land itself, and there was no proof "of the existence of such right discernible in his relative situation under the Mogul government in its best form." Yet the Bengal government proceeded to recognise the zemindars as the actual proprietors of the land, and to transfer to their keeping, and surrender to their mercy, the rights of all other persons,—rights far more generally admitted and respected than the right of the zemindar to collect and pay over the revenue of government. The right of the ryot appears, as has been expressed, to be "the greatest right in the country," and "a right which never seems to die." The zemindars have in many cases been in a state of constant change, but the right of the ryot is believed to be inalienable. He may quit his land for any period of time, and the cultivation may be assumed by others; but if he or his heir return and reclaim the land, he has only to come to a compromise with the party in possession for the value of the crop on the ground, and his inheritance is restored to him immediately.

The permanent zeminary settlement was a favourite plan of Lord Cornwallis, and undoubtedly originated in benevolent intentions. Its effects, however, have not been such as its projectors anticipated. It was felt and declared to be "the duty of the ruling power to protect all classes of the people, and more particularly those who from their situations are most helpless;" but the interests of all parties, except of the zemindars, were unfortunately sacrificed.

By the permanent arrangement the amount of the payment to government, which had previously been variable, was fixed in perpetuity. But while the government thus excluded itself from any prospective increase of revenue, by limiting its own demand upon the zemindar, it did not protect the cultivator from oppression, by limiting the demand of the zemindar upon him. A provision was indeed made that puttahs or leases should be granted; but this was, in fact, annihilating the rights of the superior class of cultivators who had an hereditary title to their land, and reducing them to the condition of the inferior class who possessed no hereditary right of occupancy. The zemindar was elevated from the situation of a revenue agent to that of a landlord. He was enjoined to grant leases, but he might demand whatever terms he pleased, and obtain the best that he was able. He even acquired a power to dispose of rights far more ancient, and in the eyes of the people more venerable, than his own; and might, to use the words of the home government, "oust even the hereditary ryots from the possession of their lands, when the latter refused to accede to any terms of rent which might be demanded of them, however exorbitant."

The local government had anticipated, that the reciprocal wants of the zemindars and cultivators would compel them to enter into just and equitable arrangements; but these flattering expectations were not realized, and it is almost impossible not to feel some surprise that they should have deceived the good and able men by whom they were indulged. The reciprocity, as Lord Hastings observed, is by no means clear. It indeed resembles some other projects of alleged reciprocal advantage, of which it has been said that the reciprocity is all on one side. The zemindar wants cultivators; but, in the language of Lord Hastings, "he wants them upon his own terms; and he knows that if he can get rid of the hereditary proprietors who claim a right to terms independent of what he may vouchsafe to give, he will obtain the means of substituting men of his own; and such is the redundancy of the cultivating class, that there will never be a difficulty of procuring ryots ready to engage on terms only just sufficient to secure bare maintenance to the engager." The existence of such a state of things justified his lordship in affirming that, "if it were the intention of our regulations to deprive every class but the large proprietors, who engaged with government, of any share in the profits of the land, that effect has been fully accomplished in Bengal." This was not indeed the intention of the originators of the permanent zeminary settlement, but it has unhappily been the result of their measures.

Cotton piece goods form the staple manufacture of Bengal; though the use of Indian fabrics of this description in Europe has almost entirely ceased, while even in India the commerce demand for them has been in a great degree superseded by the cheaper goods of Great Britain. The district of Dacca, in the eastern quarter of Bengal, has long been famed for the manufacture of plain muslins, distinguished by various names according to the fineness and the closeness of their texture, as well as for flowered, striped, or chequered muslins of the most beautiful and exquisite fabrics. Several kinds more closely woven are manufactured on the western side of the delta of the Ganges; but those of a more rigid texture do not seem to be limited to particular districts: coarse turbans and handkerchiefs are also made in almost every province. Under the general appellation of calicoes, are included various species of cloth, which are still distinguished by their Indian designations. Mooshedabad and its neighbourhood is the chief seat of the silk manufacture.

The internal trade of Bengal consists chiefly in the exportation from the grain districts of corn and rice in exchange for salt. The supply of this article in Bengal is provided partly by manufacture conducted on account of the government, partly by importation, and to a small extent by private manufacture under a system of excise. The duty on all imported salt is at the rate of five shillings on 82 lb., or about three farthings per lb.; and the same rate of duty is levied on the home manufacture of the article, the prime cost of which amounts to about one farthing per lb. The wholesale price of salt at Calcutta may therefore be estimated at one penny the pound. Its supply is no longer a monopoly; for though the manufacture and sale have not been relinquished by the government, yet the public participate in its provision, under a combined system of customs and excise. The net revenue derived from salt by the government within the presidency of Bengal exceeds a million and a half sterling per annum.

Salt is a very ancient source of revenue in the East; but a feeling against its manufacture being carried on by the government has been for some time on the increase. During the parliamentary session of 1853, a clause was proposed to be inserted in the India bill, then in its progress through parliament, forbidding the manufacture after the 1st May 1856; and though opposed by the ministry, it was in the House of Commons carried. By the House of Lords it was however rejected, it being deemed unsafe thus suddenly to diminish the resources of India by so large an amount as that of the revenue produced by the trade as at present conducted. The facilities afforded for the introduction of English salt have for several years past caused a great increase of the imported article, the quantity received in Calcutta in the official year 1850-51 being double that of previous years.

The internal trade of Bengal is greatly aided by the navigable communications which intersect the country in every direction. The boats used in this navigation vary in form and construction, being each adapted to the nature of the rivers which they generally traverse. Steam navigation has been introduced upon the Ganges with success; and the macadamized trunk road from Calcutta to Delhi has afforded facility of communication with the capital to various parts of the presidency; but there can be little doubt that in the course of a few years the rivers and roads of Bengal will alike become subsidiary to the great arteries of communication which, in the form of railways, are now commencing to intersect the country. The line from Calcutta to Burdwan is advancing rapidly to completion; from this point it will be continued in a northerly direction to Rajmahal on the Ganges, whence it will traverse the heart of the presidency in a north-westerly direction to Allahabad.

Bengal carries on an extensive commerce with Britain. The exports consist chiefly of all the staple articles of the country, such as cotton, silk, sugar, rum, and indigo. The imports are metals of all sorts, wrought and unwrought; Bengal woollen and cotton manufactures of various kinds, which can be sent from Britain and sold cheaper than the home manufactures of the same description; naval and military stores; gold and silver bullion; and almost every article of British manufacture. An extensive trade is carried on to China and the countries and islands to the east. The exports are chiefly opium, saltpetre, gunpowder, cotton, and cotton piece goods.

The wild animals are such as are commonly found in Hindustan, namely, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the bear, the tiger, the leopard, the wild boar, the jackal, and the buffalo, with apes, monkeys, &c., which swarm in all the woods, and sometimes plunder the fruit shops of a village; for, being considered sacred animals, they are never disturbed by the natives. The elephant is tamed for domestic uses, and is found extremely valuable in the military service. The Ganges and its numerous tributary streams abound in a variety of excellent fish; and during the periodical rains, when reservoirs and phils overflow, and the rivers rising into every creek, fish are to be had for the mere catching, and then become the food of the poorest classes. It also abounds in a peculiar species of crocodile.

The area and population of the several districts and territorial divisions comprised within the presidency are given in the table below.

| District | Area, Sq. miles | Pop. | District | Area, Sq. miles | Pop. | |----------|----------------|------|----------|----------------|------| | Jessore | 3,512 | 331,744 | Birbhum | 4,730 | 1,040,876 | | Twenty-four Parganas | 1,186 | 288,000 | Dacca | 1,960 | 600,000 | | Bardwan | 2,924 | 1,854,152 | Furrenpore and Deccan Jalapore | 2,052 | 855,000 | | Hooghly | 2,089 | 1,520,840 | Mymensing | 4,712 | 1,487,000 | | Nudda | 2,942 | 298,736 | Sylhet, including Jyntia | 8,424 | 350,000 | | Baneora | 1,476 | 450,000 | Jyntia | 8,424 | 350,000 | | Barasat | 1,424 | 522,000 | Backergunge, including Deccan | 3,794 | 733,800 | | Bhangulpore | 5,806 | 2,000,000 | Shabarpoore | 3,721 | 1,600,000 | | Dinajpur | 3,820 | 1,200,000 | Shahabad | 1,828 | 1,200,000 | | Monghyr | 2,558 | 800,000 | Patna | 5,094 | 2,500,000 | | Poornesh | 3,578 | 1,600,000 | Bahar | 2,560 | 1,700,000 | | Tirhoot | 7,402 | 2,400,000 | Sarun, with Champaram | 2,560 | 1,700,000 | | Malda | 1,000 | 431,000 | Chittagong | 2,560 | 1,000,000 | | Cuttack | 3,061 | 1,000,000 | Tipperan and Bulloch | 4,850 | 806,950 | | Pooree | 1,768 | 556,395 | The Sunderbunds from Saugor Island on the west, to the Ramna Channel on the east | 6,500 | Unknown | | Balasore | 1,576 | 666,328 | Conna Hills | 729 | 10,935 |

The following are the principal towns, with their population: Calcutta, 413,182; Dacca, 60,617; Moorsbedabad, 146,963; Burdwan, 53,900.

Small villages containing from 100 to 500 inhabitants are very numerous; forming, in many parts of the country, a continuous town for many miles along the banks of the rivers, and presenting to the inland navigator, as he passes along, the cheerful bustle of a crowded population. The genuine Bengali towns are not arranged into streets, but into divisions of east, west, north, south, and centre. The Hindus, Mahometans, and others not professing either of those creeds, reside each in their own quarter. A Bengal hut has a pent roof constructed of two sloping sides, which meet in a ridge, forming the segment of a circle, so that they have the appearance of a boat turned upside down. The Bengali has one hut for himself and another for his cattle. The framework in general consists entirely of bamboos. The door is the only opening in the hut.

The elevated tracts in Bengal are inhabited by a race of a different origin from the people of the plains. In the northern mountains, beyond the limits of the province, the natives appear to be of a Tartar origin, by which race also the northern parts of Bengal are peopled. The high country which Bengal includes on the west is peopled by several races of mountaineers, who are supposed to be the aborigines of the country, being distinguished by religion, character, language, and manners, as well as by features, from the Hindu natives. Some of them have scarcely emerged from a state of barbarity. In the mixed population of Bengal the Hindus and Mahometans are easily seen to be distinct classes, as among the latter the Mogul, the Afghan, and their immediate descendants, may be distinguished from the naturalized Mussulman. The character of the Bengali has never been held in high esteem. That he is pusillanimous cannot be denied; that he is deficient in a regard for truth and honesty must be readily admitted; but at the same time it ought not