This extensive region is situated between Bound-Bengal and Tibet, and between the 26th and 29th degrees aries. of north latitude. To the north it is separated from Tibet by the eastern ridges of the Himalaya range; Assam and Goalpara, with the native state of Cooch Behar, form its boundaries to the south; on the east it is bordered by a tract inhabited by uncivilized mountain tribes; and on the west by the native state of Sikkim. Its length from east to west is 230 miles, its breadth 120, and the area contained within its limits falls little short of 20,000 square miles. A slip of land varying from ten to twenty miles in breadth extends along the base of the mountains from east to west, and separates the hill-country of Bootan from the province of Bengal. With the exception of this narrow tract, the whole of Bootan presents a succession of lofty and rugged Aspect. mountains, abounding in the most picturesque and sublime scenery. "The prospects," says Captain Turner, "between abrupt and lofty prominences were inconceivably grand; hills clothed to their very summits with trees, dark and deep glens, and the high tops of mountains lost in the clouds, constituted altogether a scene of extraordinary magnificence and sublimity."

As might be expected from the physical structure and elevation of this alpine region, numerous rivers are sent forth in a southerly direction, which, forcing their passage through narrow defiles, and precipitated in tremendous cata- racts over frightful precipices, eventually pour their tributary streams into the Brahmapootra. One torrent is mentioned by Turner as issuing from the high grounds in a collected body, but as descending from so great a height that before it reaches the thick shade below it is nearly dissipated, and appears like the steam arising from boiling water. Of the rivers traversing Bootan, the most considerable is the Momas, which in its progress to the Brahmapootra flows under the walls of Tassigong, beyond which place it is unfordable. At the foot of Tassigong Hill it is crossed by a suspension bridge. The other principal rivers are the Matchoo, the Thinchinchoo, the Toorsha, the Manchee, and the Durla.

The more southern portions of the plains of Bootan bordering upon Bengal are under rice cultivation. Between the cultivated tracts and the mountains occurs an intervening space covered with the most luxuriant vegetation, but pervaded by an atmosphere so deleterious to the human constitution that even those most insured to the climate rarely pass through it with impunity. In the hilly part of the country the climate varies according to the difference of elevation. At the time when the inhabitants of Punakha (the winter residence of the rajah) are afraid of exposing themselves to an almost vertical sun, those of Ghasa experience all the rigours of winter, and are chilled by perpetual snows; yet both these places are within sight of each other. On the elevated mountain heights it is cold and moist, and here the clouds are intercepted and descend in rains. The rains, however, in the vicinity of Tassidundon, the capital, are moderate. There are frequent showers, but nothing that can be compared to the tropical rains of Bengal. Owing to the great elevation and steepness of the mountains, dreadful tempests of winds arise among the hollows, which are often attended with fatal effects. A considerable village, situated on the brow of a lofty hill, was nearly destroyed by one of these tempests. In one night a hurricane swept nine houses with their unfortunate inmates down the steep; and though search was afterwards made, not the slightest trace of them was ever found. Three houses remained; and their tenants, unmoved by the dismal fate of their neighbours, still retained their occupation.

The people are industrious, and devote themselves to agriculture, but from the geological structure and physical aspect of the country, the pursuits of husbandry, except in the plains, which are under rice cultivation, are limited to comparatively few spots. In the vicinity of the cottages which are interspersed throughout the mountains, the land is cleared for cultivation, and produces thriving crops of barley, wheat, buckwheat, and others of less importance. Turnips of excellent quality are extensively grown; they are free from fibres, and remarkably sweet. The climate is generally well adapted to the production both of European and Asiatic fruits and vegetables. Potatoes have been introduced, but the cultivation of this valuable root has not been attended with success. The forests abound in a variety of stately trees. Among them are the beech, ash, birch, maple, cypress, and yew; firs and pines cover the mountain heights; and below these, but still at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet, is a zone of vegetation consisting principally of oaks and rhododendrons. Among these mountains, in the vicinity of Marichong, grows the cinnamon tree. Some of the roots and branches were examined by Turner in the course of his journey to Tibet; but the plant being neither in blossom nor bearing fruit, it was impossible to decide whether it was the true cinnamon or an inferior kind of cassia. The leaf, however, corresponded with the description given of the true cinnamon by Linnaeus.

Notwithstanding the great diversity of climate, the uninclosed character of the country, and the difficult fastnesses in which it abounds, there is no great variety nor large number of wild animals. Thickets of dense vegetation extend along the base of the mountains, and afford shelter to the elephant, tiger, buffalo, and deer. But in the hills of Bootan wild animals are extremely rare; and Turner mentions, as an extraordinary circumstance, that he one day saw a multitude of monkeys playing their gambols by the road side. They are of a tall and handsome kind, with black faces surrounded by a streak of white hair, and have very long slender limbs. They are held sacred by the Bootans as well as by the Hindus. The only domestic animal of which is indigenous to Bootan, and is used as a domestic animal, is called tangun, from Tangustan, the general appellation of that assemblage of mountains which constitutes the territory of Bootan. It is peculiar to this tract, not being found in any of the neighbouring countries of Assam, Nepal, Tibet, or Bengal, and unites in an eminent degree the two qualities of strength and beauty, being remarkable for symmetry and just proportions. The Tangun horse is usually about thirteen hands high, short-bodied, clean-limbed, and deep in the chest, yet extremely active. Being constantly accustomed to struggle against acclivities, there is a surprising energy and vigour in all his movements; and this indomitable spirit is supposed by Europeans to proceed from a headstrong and ungovernable temper, while in reality it is only an excess of eagerness in the performance of any allotted task. The colour of this horse usually inclines to yellow, although those of one colour are rarely to be found.

The Bootans are not a warlike people, and the military resources of the country are altogether on an insignificant scale. Beyond the guards necessary for the defence of the various castles, there is nothing like a standing military force in the country. An insuperable difficulty to the maintenance of such a force would, indeed, be presented in the inadequacy of supplies, and the great distance from which they must be drawn.

In so barren and rude a country the manufacturing industry of its people must necessarily be at a low ebb, and the few articles produced are all destined for home consumption. They consist of coarse blankets and cotton clothes, made by the villagers inhabiting the southern tract bordering upon British territory. Leather, from the hide of the buffalo, imperfectly tanned, is principally used for the soles of snow-boots. Circular bowls are neatly turned from various woods. A small quantity of paper is made from the plant described as the Daphne papryfera; and, if to these be added the straight sword worn by the men, iron spear and arrowheads, and a few copper caldrons fabricated from the metal obtained in the country, the list of the manufactures of Bootan may be considered nearly complete.

The inhabitants of this elevated tract are of active habits and of a herculean make, many of them being six feet high, and are entirely different from the feeble and timid natives of Bengal. A general resemblance of features pervades the whole race of these hardy mountaineers. They are fairer than their Bengal neighbours, and have generally broader faces, with high cheek-bones. They have invariably black hair, which it is their fashion to cut close to the head. The eye, which is a remarkable feature in their face, is small and black, with long pointed corners, as if stretched and extended by artificial means. Their eye-lashes are so thin as to be scarcely perceptible. Their face is rather flat, narrowing from the cheekbones to the chin, and broadest below the eyes,—a physiognomy which somewhat resembles that of the Tartars, though it is far more strongly marked among the Chinese. They have very small beards, and generally reach an advanced age before they have the appearance of any; in this also resembling the Tartars. They are social and cheerful in their manners. The women and the men mix freely together; and they are frequently seen sitting under the cavities of the rocks or other sheltered places, chatting together in great good humour, and occasionally indulging in obstreperous laughter. They generally exhibit a picture of rosy health; the women in particular, with their jet black hair, and clear, brisk, black eyes, are a rudeness which, according to Turner, the most florid English rustic would in vain attempt to rival. Yet they are far from being cleanly in their habits; nor are their manners and amusements of a refined cast. Their mode of living is simple; their food consisting of fruits, vegetables, and roots. Tea is as common a refreshment as in China, but the mode of preparation is by an admixture of water, flour, butter, and salt. A spirit is extracted from rice, wheat, barley, and other grains.

The supreme ruler of Bootan is called the Deb Raja. He resides at Tassidundon, and possesses unlimited sway over his subjects. The people follow the religion of Buddha; and the priests form a distinct class, and are bound by the most rigid vows of celibacy. They are dispersed throughout the country in monasteries, and other buildings appropriated to their use. The Deb Raja has always manifested the strongest inclination to extend his territories by encroaching on those of his neighbours. In 1772 he suddenly invaded the principality of Cooch Behar, a dependency of Bengal; but its rajah having applied to the British for aid, a force under Captain Jones was despatched to Cooch Behar, by means of which the invaders were expelled and pursued into their own territories. Upon meeting with these reverses, the Booteans implored the assistance of the Tibetan authorities; in compliance with the request of the Teshoo Lama, then regent of Tibet, a cessation of hostilities ensued, and in 1774 a treaty of peace was concluded between the East India Company and the ruler of Bootan. In 1783 Captain Turner was deputed to Bootan, with a view of promoting commercial intercourse, but his mission was not regarded as successful. From this period little intercourse took place with Bootan, until the occupation of Assam by the British in 1826. It was then discovered that the Booteans had usurped several tracts of low land lying at the foot of the mountains, called dooras or passes, and for these they then agreed to pay a small tribute; but failing in their obligations, and availing themselves of the command of the passes to commit depredations in the British territories, Captain Pemberton arrived in Bootan in 1837, commissioned to adjust the points of difference. His negotiation was productive of no definite result; and every other means of obtaining redress and security proving unsuccessful, the dooras were wrested from the Booteans, and placed under British management. (v. t.)