or, as it is called by the natives Brunei, an island forming part of the great East Indian Archipelago, and, next to New Holland, which may be considered as a species of continent, the largest in the known world. It reaches from about 7° north to 4° south latitude, and from 109° to 118° east longitude. Its length may be estimated at 750 miles, its greatest breadth at 600, and its average breadth at 350. Its area has been calculated by Baron Melville of Carnarvon at 12,745 geographical square leagues.
It exhibits the usual insular structure, a mass of lofty mountains in the centre, sloping gradually down to level and alluvial tracts along the sea shore. It is in every part intersected by fine rivers, many of them navigable to a considerable distance from the sea. The interior of Borneo is covered with immense forests, filled with wild animals, particularly orang-utans. A great part of the coast is marshy, so that it is in portions only that it displays the exuberance of tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian islands, Borneo ranks lowest as to civilization and improvement. Nothing, perhaps, has tended so powerfully to check its progress as the solid and unbroken form of its coasts, destitute of those large bays or inland seas which have always proved the nursery of commerce.
The Portuguese discovered Borneo in 1526, though, from the superior wealth promised by the Spice Islands, it attracted comparatively little attention. Yet they, as well as the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English, formed establishments on different parts of the coast; but the small force defending them, and the fierce animosity of the natives, made their tenure generally of very short duration. The physical structure of Borneo, the vast forests, mountains, and jungles of the interior, obstruct communication between the different parts of its coast, as completely as if an extent of sea had intervened. It is thus split into a number of petty districts, entirely detached from each other, and which cannot be satisfactorily described, unless in detail.
Borneo Proper occupies the northern coast, and is reckoned a state of great antiquity. The soil is comparatively fertile, supplying rice sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants, as well as most of the camphor for which the island is celebrated. The city, called also Borneo, is built upon alluvial ground, about ten miles above the mouth of the river of the same name. It is compared to Venice; canals are conducted through every street, and all business is conducted in boats, usually raised by wheels. The houses are built upon posts, and surmounted by ladders. The river is navigable for vessels considerably above the town; but there is a bar at its entrance, over which there is scarcely a depth of navigable feet at high water. The sultan is treated with these marks of peculiar respect which in this part of the world usually indicate an ancient dynasty; but the chiefs or pangerans exercise great power in the state. The commerce of this city and district is almost entirely engrossed by the Chinese, who bring annually from Amou four or five junks, of about 500 tons burden. As the neighbourhood abounds in excellent timber, they frequently build their junks here, and carry them away loaded with the commodities of the country. Since the settlement of Sarawak by Sir James Brooke, in the neighbourhood of this state, it has some communication with the English.
On the eastern coast of Borneo, Mangodava and Pappal are populous, fertile, and well-watered districts. Mallocoo possesses these advantages in a still superior degree, and grows also a large quantity of rattans. Tiroom produces sago in abundance, and birds' nests more copiously than any other part of the Eastern Archipelago. None of these states, however, are much frequented by or known to Europeans. The chief state on the eastern coast is Passir, situated about fifty miles up a river of the same name. This district is very low and flat; and, were it not cooled by the sea breezes, would be intolerably unhealthy. The town is said not to contain above 300 wooden houses, which are built along the river. The sultan has a palace and wooden fort along the northern bank. The people of Passir have an extremely bad reputation as to their conduct in mercantile transactions. They use false weights and measures, manufacture counterfeit articles, and embrace, in short, every opportunity of cheating that offers. The English East India Company made an attempt, in 1772, to establish a factory here, but it did not succeed.
Banjar Massin is the principal state on the southern coast of Borneo; and, like the others, it owes its prosperity to a large river, on the banks of which it is situated. This river is five or six fathoms deep; but, unfortunately, the bar does not allow above twelve or thirteen feet of water, and requires the aid of the tide to produce even that depth. Ships, however, may anchor in the port of Tombangou or Torabornio, near the mouth of the river, where they are well supplied with water and provisions. See Banjar Massin. The sultan resides at Martapura, about three days' journey up the river, to which place he is attached by the circumstance of its being an uncommonly fine hunting station. The district of Banjar produces gold and diamonds, both of superior quality to those found in other parts of the island. Pepper is so abundant that, in a commercial view, it may be considered as the staple commodity. The iron is very excellent, and peculiarly fit for steel; though Dr Leyden asserts that the inhabitants do not themselves understand the art of manufacturing it.
Succadana, or, as Dr Leyden calls it, Sambas, was once the most powerful state on the western coast of Borneo. The Dutch began to show there in 1604, but they soon afterwards attached themselves to preference to Sarawak. In 1623 they abandoned their factory at Succadana. In 1738 they united with the sultan of Pontianak in an expedition against this place, which they took and entirely destroyed. It appears to have been since rebuilt, but is entirely in the hands of the Malays, and scarcely ever visited by Europeans. Pontianak is a state of very recent origin, but it now exceeds in wealth and power all others upon the western coast of Borneo. This distinction it owes to the wisdom of the Arab prince by whom it was founded. He renounced from the first the pernicious policy, almost universal in these petty states, of embarking in trade, and monopolizing its principal articles. He confined himself to his proper functions of dispensing justice and securing protection to all, of whatever country or religion, who resorted to his dominions. Under this salutary policy Pontianak soon rose to be the greatest emporium in those seas. It is situated on a large river, formerly called Lama, and the country behind produces diamonds the most abundantly of any district in Borneo. The Dutch established a factory here in 1776, and maintained ever after a good understanding with the sultan. In 1813, after the British forces had taken possession of Batavia, that prince, dreading an attack from Sambas, solicited the protection of a British garrison, which was immediately sent; and he afterwards assisted our troops in the reduction of Sambas. Pontianak, situated a little to the north of Pontianak, is the best market for opium upon this coast. The city lies nine leagues up the river, the entrance of which is obstructed by a bar and by the growth of reeds. This is probably the same district called Matan by Dr Leyden, who says that the king possesses the finest diamond in the world; for such a high price was offered by the Dutch, which he refused to sell.
Sambas is situated about thirty miles up the river of the same name. Like most other towns in Borneo, it is built of timber and bamboos, and raised by stakes above the swampy foundation. Sambas has always been a powerful state, but for some time past has devoted itself so entirely to piracy as to render its existence scarcely compatible with that of its civilized neighbours. Upon this principle the British, in 1812, undertook an expedition against it; but they were repulsed with great loss in the attack, and suffered still more from the malignant influence of the climate. In the following year, however, a new expedition was undertaken under Colonel Watson, who, on the 3d of July, carried the fort by storm, and obliged the rajah to retire into the interior of his dominions.
Besides Sambas and Pontianak, the Dutch government claims possession of all the coast to the river Roti on the east, including the whole of the southern half of the island. With the exception of a few years, the possession of this extensive country has been in the hands of the Dutch since 1787, but they have done very little either to promote the civilization of the natives, or to develop the resources of the island. They reckon the population of the residences of Sambas and Pontianak, their possessions on the west, at 300,000, and by census made in 1836, 1837, and 1838, they calculate the population Borneo.
In their dependencies on the south and the east, including Banjarmassin, Mandawa, Sampet, Rooti, &c., at 736,600; in the islands along the coast at 22,000; making the total population of the states dependent on the Dutch government 1,348,700.
On a general view of the state of culture and civilization in Borneo, Mr Hamilton estimates the population at 3,000,000, which we should suppose to be rather above than under the truth. The interior is entirely occupied by a native race, called variously, according to the parts of the island which they inhabit, Dyak, Idaan, and Tiroon. Those who subsist by fishing are commonly called Blajoo. The appellations of Hornbogen and Maroota have also been applied to these races. The whole may be considered as one, almost savage race, and nearly similar to that which occupies the interior of Sumatra. Some, indeed, cultivate the ground, some display considerable industry in fishing, and a few employ themselves in collecting gold; but their institutions in general indicate the very rudest state of human society. It has been strongly asserted that they devour the flesh of their enemies; an assertion not noticed by Dr Leyden, and which has in many instances been made without foundation. All accounts agree, however, as to the existence of another truly savage custom, by which every man is debarred from the privilege of matrimony till he has, with his own hand, cut off the head of an enemy. Those, therefore, who are desirous of entering into that state form themselves into what they call head-hunting expeditions. They make an inroad into the territories of a neighbouring tribe, and, if their strength appear sufficient, endeavour to effect their object by force; if otherwise, they conceal themselves behind thickets, till an unfortunate individual passes, whom they can make their prey. Some are also said to imitate human victims on the altars of their divinities.
The inhabitants of the towns along the coast consist chiefly of that race so universally diffused throughout the Indian islands under the name of Malays. This name, to a European ear, has usually suggested every extreme of perfidy and atrocity. We have perused, however, a very different estimate of their character, formed by an intelligent gentleman, who spent several years in this part of India. He describes them as honest, frank, simple, and even gentle in their manners, decidedly superior, in a moral view, to the degenerate Hindoo. The sanguinary deeds which have exposed them to so much reproach he ascribes to a proud and almost chivalrous sense of honour, which makes them regard blows, or any similar personal insult, as an offence only to be expiated by blood. The coarse and unfeeling treatment which they often experience from Dutch and Chinese masters drives them to these dreadful extremities. Piracy, however, is a vice of which this race cannot be acquitted; and the western coast of Borneo, situated on the great naval route to China, may be viewed as the grand field for its exercise. To a poor and hardy race, who see half the wealth of Asia passing along their shores, the temptation is almost irresistible. Like the Arabs, they have formed for themselves a code of morality, in which plunder is expunged from the list of vices. Yet, though individually brave, they possess no skill or discipline which could render them formidable to the crew of a European vessel. The cowardice of the Lascars, by whom Indian trading vessels are usually navigated, is the only circumstance which has made our trade suffer so severely from their ravages.
Next to the two classes above enumerated, the most numerous are the Chinese. These are considered as the most valuable subjects whom an uncivilized state can receive into its bosom. The difficulty of finding subsistence in their own country has led them to emigrate in vast numbers into Borneo. Nothing, perhaps, except the law which prohibits females from leaving the empire could have prevented this almost unoccupied island from being entirely filled with a Chinese population. From this circumstance, however, the Chinese colonists are composed entirely of men in the vigour of life, and of the most enterprising and industrious character. Their chief settlement is at Sambas, on the western coast, where the numbers cannot be estimated at less than 36,000, composing a sort of independent state. Their almost sole occupation is that of extracting the gold which abounds upon this coast. It is found in alluvial soil, and is purified by the simple process of passing a stream of water over the ore. The processes employed for this purpose are daily improving; and the annual yield is calculated at about half a million sterling.
The commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its extent and natural capacities, is by no means inconsiderable. Gold is its principal export. Mr Milburn estimates the annual quantity exported at 200 peculs, or 26,000 lb. avoirdupois, which would coin into upwards of 900,000 guineas. Like some other commodities, it is divided, by a grotesque scale, into three kinds, called the head, the belly, and the feet; the first being the best, and the two others gradually diminishing in value. Camphire is exported to the extent of thirty peculs (3960 lb.), all to China, where it is more esteemed than that of Sumatra. The singular Chinese luxuries of biche-de-mer or sea-slug, and edible bird-nests, are found in Borneo, as over all the Indian Archipelago. Pepper to a considerable amount, canes and rattans of various descriptions, sago, and a little tin, complete the list of exports. The chief import is opium to a very great extent, with piece-goods, hardware, coarse cutlery, arms, and toys. By far the greater proportion of the trade is in the hands of the Chinese.
The enterprise of one man, James Brooke, has within the last few years directed increased attention to this interesting region.
In 1838 Mr Brooke fitted out with his own funds a schooner of 142 tons, for the purpose of exploring the shores of Borneo. He had previously sailed in the Chinese seas, and was deeply impressed with the importance of the magnificent islands to the S.E. of the Straits of Malacca, and conceived the design of reclaiming them from the piratical tribes whose prahus infest the surrounding waters. His first object was to obtain more accurate knowledge of the geography and condition of the islands. He arrived at Sarawak on the N.W. coast of Borneo, in August 1839, and was well received by Rajah Muda Hassim, the uncle of the then reigning sultan of Borneo, and under him the governor of Sarawak. Hassim was then engaged in a war with his rebellious subjects. After remaining some time at Sarawak, making himself acquainted with the country, Mr Brooke sailed for Singapore, but soon returned. The civil war still raging, Muda Hassim solicited his assistance, offering him the government of Sarawak if he succeeded in putting down the rebellion. Mr Brooke joined the rajah, and having compelled the rebels to surrender, he was then formally instituted rajah of Sarawak, with the usual native ceremonies.
This appointment was ratified by the sultan, and the amount of revenue to be paid by Mr Brooke, as rajah of Sarawak, to the sultan of Borneo, settled at 2500 dollars annually.
The wise and vigorous rule of the new rajah was soon visible in the increasing prosperity of his subjects. They were, however, cruelly harassed by the numerous pirates by whom they were surrounded. At the conclusion of the Chinese war in March 1843, H.M.S. Dido, under Captain Keppel, cruising in the straits of Malacca, inflicted a severe chastisement on the pirates. In February 1845 Captain Bethune arrived at Sarawak with despatches from the British government, appointing Mr Brooke Her Britannic Majesty's regent in Borneo. In 1847 it was resolved by the British government to take possession of the small island of
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1 In 1844 the Hon. Capt. Erskine Murray, with two vessels, entered on a trading expedition to Tanganon, the capital of the Sultan of Coti, which lies on the west coast of Borneo, on the river of the same name. The first large town, Semerindon, near the mouth of the river, is inhabited entirely by Bugis, the most bloodthirsty nation of all the tribes of the Archipelago. Passing this, he reached Tanganon, and in the course of his negotiations for opening a trade he discovered that the sultan was betraying him, and making preparations for the seizure of the ships and destruction of the crews. With difficulty the two vessels made their escape from the batteries on the shore, and from the numerous war and gun boats which followed; and in the encounters during the retreat, Captain Murray himself was killed. Borneo. Labuan, lying to the north of the town of Borneo, and the N.W. of the island, and which had been ceded by the sultan to Great Britain. This was occupied with the view of forming a convenient naval station between the East Indies and China. Sir James Brooke was appointed governor of this colony, and took possession on the 2d October 1848. Endeavours were made to induce the sultan to co-operate in the suppression of piracy, but he was either insincere or unable to induce his subjects to relinquish their cruel practices.
In August 1845 Admiral Sir Thomas Cochrane, with a considerable force, came to demand reparation for the detention of two British subjects. He proceeded against a strong body of pirates who occupied a fortified position at the head of Maludu Bay, and totally destroyed their works and the town. This lesson, however, had no lasting effect on the sultan of Borneo; he resolved to take vengeance on his two uncles, Muda Hassim and Bundureen, who advocated the abandonment of piracy. He treacherously attacked them both during the night in their own houses, and murdered them and their families.
Sir Thomas Cochrane in the Spiteful, accompanied by Sir James Brooke, ascended the river to Borneo to demand an explanation from the sultan, and after destroying the forts and batteries on the river took possession of the town, which was found entirely deserted.
The people, however, soon returned, but the sultan fled into the interior. After remaining eleven days in the city without being able to compel a satisfactory arrangement, Sir T. Cochrane, with the view of procuring at least a temporary security to those who were favourable to the British, left a proclamation to be delivered to the sultan on his return, showing how completely he and his people were at the mercy of the British; offering to live with him at peace, but, at the same time, threatening him with condign punishment should he again evince hostility to Great Britain.
All these lessons seem to have been lost on the piratical Dyaks, but a much more severe chastisement awaited them. When Rear-Admiral Sir F. A. Collier was stationed at Sarawak in August 1849, information was received that a very large piratical flotilla, consisting of upwards of 100 prahus, averaging 35 men each, had passed the entrance of the Balai from the Sarebas, with the intention of attacking Saraki, a town on the Rejang. The admiral and Sir James Brooke concerted a plan for intercepting them in their progress, which was completely successful; the piratical flotilla was almost entirely destroyed, about 500 men killed, and a larger number are supposed to have perished in the jungle.
Sir James Brooke, while acting as governor of the British colony of Labuan, retains his dignity and rights as rajah of Sarawak, from which he considers himself entitled to draw such revenue as is consistent with the prosperity of his domains. He holds the monopoly of antimony in his own hands, and his income from all sources is about £6,000 a-year; but this, as he says in a letter to his friend J. C. Templer, even in addition to his private fortune, is small when opposed to the numerous calls upon it, and is all laid out to advance the good of the country.
The inhabitants of his province of Sarawak he calculates at 12,000 in the town, and from 12,000 to 15,000 in the country, besides from 3000 to 4000 Malays along the coast.
"Sarawak," says Sir James Brooke, "extends from Tanjong Datu to the entrance of the Samarahan river, a distance along the coast of about 150 miles E.S.E., with an average breadth of about fifty miles. It is bounded on the westward by the Sarabas territory—to the southward by a range of mountains which separate it from the Pontianak territory of Sedony. Within this space there are several rivers and islands besides the river of Sarawak. There are two navigable entrances to this river, and numerous smaller branches for boats, both to the westward and eastward; the two principal entrances combine at about twelve miles from the sea, and the river flows for twenty miles into the interior, in a southerly and westerly direction, when it again forms two branches—one running to the right, the other to the left hand, as far as the mountains range. Besides these facilities for water communication, there exist three other branches from the easternmost entrance, called Moratas, one of which joins the Samarahan river, and the two others flow from different parts of the mountain range. The country is diversified by detached hills, and the main range has an elevation of about 3000 feet. The soil of this territory is generally described as low and woody at the entrance of the rivers, except a few high mountains; but in the interior, undulating in parts, and presenting fine level plains. The climate may be pronounced healthy and cool, though during the six months from September to March a great quantity of rain falls; the thermometer stands generally about 78°, never above 85°. The more serious maladies of tropical climates are very unfrequent; the only complaints to which we have been subject are rheumatism, colds, and agues. The soil and productions of this country are of the richest description, and it is not too much to say, that within the same given space, there are not to be found the most valuable and extraordinary riches in any land in the world. The soil of the plains is moist and rich, and calculated for the growth of rice, for which purpose it was formerly cleared, and used until the distractions of the country commenced. From the known industry of the Dyaks, and their partiality to rice cultivation, there can be little doubt that it would become an article of extensive export, provided security were given to the cultivator, and a proper remuneration for his produce. The lower grounds, besides rice, are admirably calculated for the culture of tapioca, sugar, and produce cases, rattans, and forest timber of the finest description for ship-building, and other useful purposes. The Chinese export considerable quantities of timber from Samas and Pontianak, particularly of the kind called Balae by the natives, or the lion wood of the Europeans; and at Sarawak it is to be had in far greater quantity, and nearer the place of sale. The undulating ground differs in soil, some portions of it being a yellowish clay, while the rest is a rich mould; these grounds, generally speaking, as well as the slopes of the higher mountains, are admirably calculated for the growth of nutmegs, coffee, pepper, and all the more valuable vegetable productions of the tropics. Besides the above enumerated articles are birds' nests, bees' wax, and several kinds of scented woods in the Pontianak province, which are all collected by the Dyaks, and would be collected in far greater quantity, provided the Dyaks were allowed to sell them.
Of the principal riches of the country, there are diamonds, gold, tin, iron, and antimony ore; and when the country is explored by men of science, it may be expected that its mineral wealth will be found more abundant. The quantity of gold yearly procured at Samas is moderately stated at half a million sterling. The most intelligent Chinese are of opinion that the quantity got here exceeds the quantity at Sumatra; and there is no good reason to suppose it would fall short of it, when once sufficient Chinese population is settled in the country. Antimony ore is a still more commodious, which is to be procured in any quantity. Tin is said to be plentiful, and the Chinese propose working it.
In describing the inhabitants I feel sure that their sufferings and miseries will command the interest and sympathy of every person of humanity, and that the claims of the virtuous and most unhappy Dyaks will meet the same attention as those of the Africans. And these claims have this advantage, that much can be done without the vast expenditure of lives and money which the extermination of the African coast yearly cost, and that the people would readily appreciate the good that was conferred upon them, and rapidly rise in the scale of civilization. The inhabitants may be divided into three different classes, viz., the Malays, the Chinese, and the Dyaks; of the two former little need be said, as they are so well known. The Malays are not numerous, and, generally speaking, with the exception of the Borneo jangrans, are well inclined to aid me as far as lies in their power. The Chinese are about four hundred in number, and the only impediment to their immigrating is their poverty, and the present high price of provisions. The Chinese are industrious, but greedy, supple, and oppressive; they are divided into firms or companies, and a rival company to the one at present at Sarawak offers to bring three thousand men in a few months, provided they can get permission to do so. The Dyaks, by far the most interesting portion of the inhabitants, are confined almost entirely to the mountainous country, where they have fastnesses to which they fly on the slightest alarm. These people are mild, industrious, and so scrupulously honest, that a single case of theft has not come under my observation. They are also when surrounded by objects easily appropriated, and tempting from their simplicity. In their domestic lives they are amiable, and addicted to many of the charming vices of a wild state; they marry but one wife, and their women are always quoted amongst the Malays as remarkable for chastity, nor are they degraded as in many communities.
The head-hunting, or taking the heads of their enemies, is a feature by no means new or extraordinary, and like the scalping of the North American Indian, is a trophy of victory and prowess. Amongst the hill Dyaks this custom is confined entirely to the heads of enemies, and is the effect, not the cause of war; their wars are by no means bloody, and are never carried on but by small companies, who enter on the enemies' ground, and lie in ambush for parties or individuals of their foes. The exaggerated accounts of some travellers have been drawn from the more savage and predatory tribes of the coast; but these tribes have forsaken their original customs, and have joined piracy to their former practice of taking heads, and they are not different from other pirates who destroy as well as plunder.
"The hill Dyaks, such as I have briefly described them, are a most interesting race, and present more facilities for the amelioration of their condition than any other people. In general, however, they are sunk in misery, and too frequently exposed to famine; but, when only moderately oppressed, I have seen tribes who brought to mind the simplicity, if not the happiness, of primitive society. The number of these people in the country of Sarawak may generally be stated at ten thousand, but, with the slightest protection, numbers who have retired beyond the reach of their cruel oppressors, would return to their former habitations. Their freedom from all prejudice, and their scanty knowledge of religion, would render their conversion to Christianity an easy task, provided they are rescued from their present suffering and degraded state; but, until this be done, it will be vain to preach a faith to them the first principles of which are only visible on the side of our own. Never, indeed, were people more oppressed, or more wretched; those who are far removed from witnessing their sufferings and their patience may consider my sympathy and enthusiasm exaggerated, but I cannot help expressing it. The Dyaks are always considered an inferior race, and a heavy penalty is imposed on them for committing any offence against a Malay; to kill a Malay under any circumstances of aggression, would subject them to death, or even worse punishment; to strike or scuffle with a Mahometan, though he be caught in the act of stealing their property, would likewise be a grave offence; even an accidental injury by a Dyak could only be expiated by the confiscation of all, or nearly all, his property to the Malay. On the other hand, a Malay killing a Dyak is rarely punished, except by the imposition of small fines, and the only inconvenience he suffers is being unable to visit that particular tribe, from a just fear of retaliation. The direct tax paid by the Dyaks to their local rulers is trifling in amount, but they suffer afterwards from all sorts of exactions, carried on by means of the most flagrant artifices or violence, by which they are often reduced to famine and starvation."
Sir James Brooke, in his generous and romantic enterprise, has had to contend with obstacles of appalling magnitude,—the barbarism of the inhabitants; chiefs whose power was exercised in cruel oppression and extortion over the down-trodden natives; rajahs who dreaded his power and influence; the jealousy of the neighbouring Dutch settlement; the envy of unsuccessful traders; and, above all, the dreadful scourge of extensive piracy. Nothing but an indomitable courage, and an earnest zeal for the welfare and prosperity of the people and government intrusted to his care, could have sustained him, and carried him forward in his successful career. But in such a contest it was not to be expected that his enemies would refrain from attempts, open or concealed, to counteract his benevolent exertions if they interfered with their selfish designs. Attacks were made upon him in the Straits Times newspaper, and repeated in England, charging him with cruelties perpetrated on the natives; and, on the 10th of July 1851, a motion was brought forward in the House of Commons for a commission of inquiry into the proceedings of Sir James Brooke on the coast of Borneo, which was followed by an elaborate debate. The motion was rejected, and the conduct of Sir James virtually approved by a majority of 230 to 19. These attacks were renewed in the summer of 1853, when the government was persuaded to issue instructions to the governor-general of India, directing him to issue a commission to inquire how far the position which Sir James Brooke holds in Sarawak is advantageous to the commercial interests of Great Britain.
In the island of Labuan, next to the monster evil of piracy which scourges the Eastern Archipelago, one of the greatest difficulties the colony has to contend with is the panic which arose in consequence of the sickness which prevailed in the first year of the settlement. The improved sanitary condition of the island by the removal of a portion of the jungle, and a partial drainage in the vicinity of the habitations, has abated this apprehension, and the climate of Labuan, as compared with other tropical countries, may be considered as salubrious as any other. The population in 1851 was 1885. Of these 800 were a migratory population of Malay labourers; the fixed population was 585. Of these the deaths were 29, being 4·2 of the mortality of the year. This per-cent-age is unduly increased by including the Chinese, who, from their gross and dissipated habits, always exhibit a large mortality.
The island possesses considerable coal-fields, which are worked by the Eastern Archipelago Company, but in a way so unscientific—that is, by only quarrying the outcrops—as to prove both dilatory and expensive. In 1851 they exported 5032 tons. The examination that has been made of these coal measures has established their extent and value to be fully equal to the expectation formed of them. The large seam alone cannot contain less than 700,000 tons lying above tide-level.
The local revenue of 1850 only amounted to L1,798, and the total expenditure to L4,140. No public work of any great extent has been carried on; the chief outlay has been made in cutting down the forest, and making drains on the plain and near the site of the town, with the view of improving the sanitary condition of the island. (Leyden's Description of Borneo, in the Asiatic Journal; Hamilton's Gazetteer; Milburn's Oriental Commerce; Temminck's L'Inde Archipelagique: Letters of Sir James Brooke, by J. C. Templar; and Reports on the State of H.M. Colonies.)