a small district or portion of territory constituting a distinct state or government, as in Switzerland.

a large and populous commercial city of China, in the province of Quang-tong, situated on the eastern bank of the Pekiang river, which at Canton is somewhat broader than the Thames at London Bridge, and is navigable 300 miles farther into the interior. It has an additional course of 80 miles to the sea, near its junction with which it takes among foreigners the name of Bocca Tigris, or the mouth of the Tigris, from the appearance of one of the islands at its entrance. When viewed from the hills on the north, Canton appears to be little more than an expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large trees; two pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storied tower near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects. These hills rise 1200 feet above the river. Little or no vegetation is seen on them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with graves and tombs, serve as the necropolis of this vast city. Three or four forts are built on the points nearest the northern walls. In the river opposite Canton is the suburb and island of Honam. The part of Canton inclosed by walls is about six miles in circumference, and has a partition wall, running east and west, and dividing the city into two unequal parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and the southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a circuit of nearly ten miles. The houses stretch along the river for four miles, and the banks are everywhere nearly concealed by boats and rafts. The walls of the city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone, and are 20 feet thick, and from 25 to 40 feet high. There is an esplanade on the inside, with pathways leading to the rampart on three sides. The walls were formerly surrounded by a ditch, which is now dry on the northern side, but on the other three, and within the city, it and most of the canals are filled by the tide, and present a revolting mass of filth when the retiring waters expose the bottoms. There are twelve outer gates—four in the partition wall, and two water gates, through which boats pass from east to west across the new city. The gates are all shut at night, and a guard is constantly stationed at them to preserve order. The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long, straight, and very narrow, paved with little round stones, and flagged at the sides of the houses. They are not so dirty as those of some of the other cities in the empire; and considering the habits of the people and the inattention of government to these matters, it may be said to be a well-governed and comparatively cleanly city. The houses are in general small, seldom consisting of more than two stories, the lower story serving as a shop in which goods are exhibited for sale, and the rest of the house, with the court behind, being used as a warehouse. Particular streets are allotted for the supply of strangers; others to particular classes of artisans. The principal street appropriated to Europeans is denominated China Street. Here are to be found the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the merchants are in general extremely attentive and civil. The Chinese are remarkably expert men of business, and of the most assiduous habits. They are always to be seen sitting on their counters, and using every effort to attract the attention of the British seamen who are in the habit of frequenting this quarter of Canton. They have an English name painted on the outside of their shops, besides a number of advertisements composed for them by the sailors in their peculiar idiom. They contrive in this manner to draw the seamen into their shops, and occasionally to impose upon them by their specious manners and command of temper. The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but none of them present features worthy of special remark. There are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and 124 temples, pavilions, halls, and other religious edifices within the city. One of the pagodas called the Kuang-tak, or plain pagoda, was erected by the Mohammedans about ten centuries ago, and rises in an angular tapering tower to the height of 160 feet. The other is an octagonal pagoda of 9 stories, 170 feet in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago. A Buddhist temple at Honam, opposite the foreign factories, and usually known as the Honam Joss-house, is one of the largest in Canton. Its grounds cover about seven acres, surrounded by a wall, and divided into courts, garden-spots, and a burial-ground, where are deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies are burned. There are about 175 priests connected with this establishment, of whom only a small number can read. Besides the Honam temple, there are two others in the old city, belonging to the Buddhists, both of which are likewise well endowed. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000, nine-tenths of whom are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-looking edifices. The areas in front of them are usually occupied by hucksters, beggars, and idlers, who are occasionally driven off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the theatrical performances got up by the priests are acted. The principal hall where the idol sits enshrined is lighted only in front, and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men almost as senseless as the idols they serve.

The residences of the high officers of government are all within the walls, some in the Old, and some in the New City. The residence of the governor-general is in the S.W. corner of the New City, and comprises a large number of buildings for the accommodation of himself and attendants. The collector of customs resides eastward of the governor-general. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in the Old City, and said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. The factories of the different European powers trading here extend a considerable distance along the banks of the river, fronting the city at about a hundred yards from the water. They consist of large and handsome houses, on which are hoisted the respective flags of the different nations. By the Chinese these factories are called hongs; they resemble long courts without a thoroughfare, and generally contain four or five separate houses. They are built on a fine quay; and a broad parade extends along the river in front of the factories, whither the European merchants, and commanders and officers of ships, resort to enjoy the cool of the evening. The British factory far surpasses all others in elegance and extent. It has a large verandah, reaching nearly down to the water's edge, raised on handsome pillars, and paved with marble, and commanding an extensive view along the river banks. There are spacious warehouses in the neighbourhood for the reception of goods, as well as Chinese dwellings, which are let to merchants who visit Canton. For the space of four or five miles opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to each other in such close order that it resembles a floating city; and these marine dwellings are occupied by numerous families, who reside almost constantly on the water. In the middle of the river lie the Chinese junks, which trade to the eastern islands and Batavia, and which are moored head and stern, some of them of the burden of 600, and even of 1000 tons. The various guilds and associations among the people and the merchants from other provinces have each public halls for their own particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than 150. Canton was long the only, and is still the principal seat of the British trade with China. As a place of traffic, it labours under the great disadvantage that from the shallowness of the river most of the vessels cannot ascend farther than about eight miles from the city, and every British merchant-man is obliged to anchor at Whampoa, nine miles from the city; whereas at Shanghai ships can anchor close to the English wharfs. The trade of Canton is retrograding, while that of Shanghai is increasing; and indeed it is not unlikely that the latter will in time supplant Canton in the European trade, as it enjoys the additional advantage of being nearer the tea districts. Canton was no doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the European trade, as being the most distant from the capital Pekin.

Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the hong or security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners. They were commonly men of large property, and were famed for integrity in their transactions. All foreign cargoes passed through the hands of these merchants, and by them also the return cargoes were furnished. They became security for the payment of duties, and it was treason for any other merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners. This severe law, however, has recently been abolished, and foreigners may now deal with any merchant they think fit to employ.

Accounts are kept in tales, mace, candarines, and cash;—ten cash being one candarine, ten candarines one mace, ten mace one tale, which last is converted into English money at 6s. 8d., though it is intrinsically worth only 6s. The coin called cash is of base metal, cast, not coined, and very brittle. It is of small value, and varies in the market from 750 to 1000 cash for a tale. Its chief use is in making small payments among the lower classes. Spanish and other silver coins are current, and are estimated by their weight; every merchant carrying scales and weights with him. All the dollars that pass through the hands of the hong merchants bear their stamp; and when they lose their weight in the course of circulation they are cut in pieces for small change. The duties are paid to government in sycee, or pure silver, which is taken by weight. In delivering a cargo, English weights and scales are used, which are afterwards reduced to Chinese catties and peculs. A pecul weighs 133½ pounds avoirdupois, and a catty 1½ pound. Gold and silver are also weighed by the tale and catty, 100 tales being reckoned equal to 120 ounces 16 pennyweights troy. All goods are sold by weight in China—even articles of food, such as fowls, hogs, and the like.

The foreign trade of Canton is very extensive; but the great article of export is tea, for which the demand in Europe has been increasing for upwards of a century. This article was formerly monopolized by the East India Company; and from their accounts it appears that they imported annually into this country about thirty millions of pounds. But this monopoly was abolished in 1834, and the commerce with China was thrown open to all classes of his majesty's subjects. The other exports are raw silk and silk manufactures, nankeen cloth, cassia, lignea, &c. The principal imports from the United Kingdom are cotton and woollen goods, earthenware, iron, steel, &c. In 1848, 176 British vessels of 73,975 tons, with goods of the value of 8,653,033 dollars left, and 171 of 72,315 tons, with goods to the value of 6,534,597 dollars, entered the port of Canton. The Americans, French, and Dutch, also carry on a considerable trade with Canton.

Although situated in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the climate of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to that of most places situated between the tropics. The thermometer, during the months of July and August, averages from 80° to 88°; and in January and February from 50° to 60°. The highest recorded observation in 1831 was 94° in July, and the lowest 29° in January. In shallow vessels, ice sometimes forms at Canton a line or two in thickness. A fall of snow, nearly two inches deep, occurred at Canton in February 1835, and remained on the ground three hours,—a circumstance so unusual that the citizens hardly knew its proper name. Fogs are common during February. Canton. and March. Most of the rain falls during May and June, but it is nothing in comparison of a rainy season in Calcutta. July, August, and September, are the regular monsoon months, the wind coming from the S.W., with frequent showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the northerly winds commence with some interruptions at first, but from October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear, and the air invigorating. Few large cities are more healthy than Canton; no epidemics nor malaria prevail there, though much of the town is built upon piles.

Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant at Canton, and in general are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is a singular fact, that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in its natural state, or in the form of butter or cheese. Among the delicacies of a Chinese market are to be seen horse-flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, owls, and edible birds' nests. The business at Canton is generally transacted in a jargon of broken English, the Chinese being extremely ready in acquiring such a smattering of English words as to render themselves intelligible; and the lower classes of them are frequently hired as servants by the Europeans.

The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of the Cape of Good Hope began in 1517, when Emmanuel, king of Portugal, sent a fleet of eight ships, with an ambassador, who was conveyed to Pekin, and who obtained the sanction of the emperor to establish a trade at Canton. It was in 1596, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first attempted with two ships to open an intercourse with China; but they were lost in the outward voyage. About 1634 several English ships visited Canton; but a misunderstanding having occurred with the Chinese authorities by the treachery of the Portuguese, a rupture and a battle took place, and it was with difficulty that this misunderstanding was rectified. China was again visited in 1673 by an English ship that was refused admission into Japan. In 1677 a factory was established at Amoy; but in 1680 the factory was destroyed by an irruption of the Tartars, and it was not till 1685 that the emperor permitted any trade with the Europeans. Upon the union of the two East India Companies in London, an imperial edict was issued, restricting the European commerce to the port of Canton. Tea was first imported about the year 1667. This is one of the five Chinese ports opened to Europeans by the treaty of 1842. See CHINA.

Canton, John, an ingenious natural philosopher, born at Stroud in Gloucestershire, in 1718. Among those with whom he became acquainted in early life was Dr Henry Miles of Tooting, a member of the Royal Society, and of approved eminence in natural science and philosophy. This gentleman perceiving that Mr Canton possessed abilities too promising to be confined within the narrow limits of a country town, prevailed on his father to permit him to go to London. Accordingly he arrived at the metropolis in March 1737, and resided with Dr Miles at Tooting till the 6th of May following, when he articled himself for the term of five years as a clerk to Mr Samuel Watkins, master of the academy in Spital Square. In this situation, his ingenuity, diligence, and conduct were so conspicuous, that, on the expiration of his clerkship in May 1742 he was taken into partnership with Mr Watkins for three years. He afterwards succeeded that gentleman in Spital Square, and there continued during the remainder of his life. In 1744 he married Penelope, the eldest daughter of Mr Thomas Collbrooke.

Towards the end of 1745, electricity, which seems early to have engaged Canton's notice, received a very important improvement by the discovery of the Leyden phial. This event turned the thoughts of most of the philosophers of Europe to that branch of natural philosophy; and Canton, who was one of the first to repeat and to pursue the experiment, found his assiduity and attention rewarded by many valuable discoveries. Towards the end of 1749 he was concerned with his friend Benjamin Robbins in making experiments in order to determine to what height rockets may be made to ascend, and at what distance their light may be seen. In 1750 was read at the Royal Society Canton's "Method of making Artificial Magnets, without the use of, and yet far superior to, any natural ones." This paper procured him the honour of being elected a member of the society, and the award of their gold medal. The same year he was complimented with the degree of M.A. by the University of Aberdeen; and in 1751 was chosen one of the council of the Royal Society.

In 1752 Canton was so fortunate as to be the first person in England who, by attracting the electric fire from the clouds during a thunder-storm, verified Dr Franklin's hypothesis of the identity of lightning and electricity. Next year his paper entitled "Electrical Experiments, with an attempt to account for their several phenomena," was read at the Royal Society. In the same paper he mentioned his having discovered, by a great number of experiments, that some clouds were in a positive, and some in a negative, state of electricity. Dr Franklin, much about the same time, made a similar discovery in America. This circumstance, together with Canton's constant defence of the doctor's hypothesis, induced that philosopher immediately on his arrival in England to pay him a visit, and gave rise to a friendship which ever afterwards continued without interruption. In the Lady's Diary for 1756, Canton answered the prize question that had been proposed in the preceding year. The question was, "How can we call the shooting of stars be best accounted for; what is the substance of this phenomenon; and in what state of the atmosphere doth it most frequently show itself?" and the solution, though anonymous, proved so satisfactory to his friend Mr Thomas Simpson, who then conducted that work, that he sent Canton the prize, accompanied with a note, in which he said he was sure that he was not mistaken in the author of it, as no one besides, that he knew of, could have answered the question. Canton's next communication to the public was a letter in the Gentleman's Magazine for September 1759, on the electrical properties of the tourmalin, in which the peculiarities of that stone are stated in a very concise and elegant manner. On the 13th December, in the same year, was read at the Royal Society a paper of his entitled "An attempt to account for the regular diurnal variation of the Horizontal Magnetic Needle; and also for its irregular variation at the time of an Aurora Borealis." A complete year's observations of the diurnal variations of the needle are annexed to this paper. On the 5th November 1761, he communicated to the Royal Society an account of the Transit of Venus, 6th June 1761, observed in Spital Square. His next communication to the Society was a letter addressed to Dr Franklin, and read in February 1762, containing some remarks on Mr Delaval's electrical experiments. On the 16th December in the same year he published a paper entitled "Experiments to prove that water is not incompressible." These experiments are a complete refutation of the famous Florentine experiments, which so many philosophers have mentioned as a proof of the incompressibility of water. On St Andrew's day 1763, he was for the third time elected one of the council of the Royal Society; and on the 8th November in the following year were read before that learned body his further "Experiments and observations on the compressibility of water and some other fluids." The establishment of this fact, in opposition to the received opinion, formed on the hasty decision of the Florentine Academy, was thought to be deserving of the society's gold medal. It was accordingly moved for in the council of 1764; and after several invidious delays, which terminated much to his honour, it was presented to him on the 30th November 1766. His next communication to the Royal Society was made in December 1768, entitled "An easy method of making a phosphorus that will imbibe and emit light like the Bolognian stone; with experiments and observations." The dean and chapter of St Paul's having, in a letter to the president, dated 5th March 1769, requested the opinions of the Royal Society relative to the best and most effectual method of fixing electrical conductors to preserve that cathedral from damage by lightning, Canton was one of the committee appointed to take the letter into consideration, and to report upon it. The gentlemen joined with him in this business were Dr Watson, Dr Franklin, Mr Delaval, and Mr Wilson. Their report was made on the 8th of June following, and the method recommended by them was carried into execution. The last paper of Canton's which was read before the Royal Society was on the 21st December 1769, contained "Experiments to prove that the Luminousness of the Sea arises from the putrefaction of its animal substances." Besides these, he wrote a number of papers both in earlier and in later life, which appeared in several publications, and particularly in the Gentleman's Magazine.

The close and sedentary life of Canton, arising from an unremitting attention to the duties of his profession, and to the prosecution of his philosophical inquiries and experiments, probably contributed to shorten his days. He died of a dropsy in the chest, on the 22d of March 1772.