This term is supposed to be derived from Cairo (whence also the French Cairan, a Turkey carpet), and from the Latin tapes, tapestry, corresponding to the Italian carpetta, and the Dutch karpet. It is legitimately applied to an article of manufacture used for covering the floors of chambers, or spreading on the ground, although, while it was a novelty in Europe, tables also were covered with it.

Carpets and rugs were manufactured at a very remote period in Egypt, India, and China; but those of Persia and Turkey are the most celebrated. They were originally used for sitting and reclining upon, as may still be observed in Eastern countries, where they constitute the entire furniture of the people. In Egypt they were first applied to religious purposes by the priests of Heliopolis, and were also used to garnish the palaces of the Pharaohs. It was also a custom of antiquity to place them under the couches of guests at banquets. Sardinian carpets are mentioned by Plato the comic poet, as being disposed in this manner—"beneath the ivory feet of purple-cushioned couches." The carpets of the Homeric age were generally white or plain cloths; but they were also sometimes produced with various colours and embroidered designs. At the supper of Iphicrates, purple carpets were spread on the floor; and at the magnificent banquet of Ptolemy Philadelphus (an account of which is given by Callixenus of Rhodes) we learn that underneath 200 golden couches "were strewed purple carpets of the finest wool, with the carpet pattern on both sides;" and there were handsomely embroidered rugs, very beautifully elaborated with figures. Besides this, he adds, "thin Persian cloths covered all the centre space where the guests walked, having most accurate representations of animals embroidered on them:" (Athenæus, v. 26.) The Babylonians, who were very skilful in weaving cloths of divers colours (Pliny, viii. 48), delineated upon their carpets entire groups of human figures, together with such fabulous animals as the dragon, the sphynx, and the griffin. These were numbered among the luxuries of Heliogabalus. On the tomb of Cyrus was spread a purple Babylonian carpet, and another covered the bed whereon his body was placed (Arrian, vi. 29). These carpets were exported in considerable quantities to Greece and Rome, where they were highly esteemed. Carthage was also noted by Herinnipus, Antiphanes, and others, for its magnificent carpets.

Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson gives us an account of an ancient carpet-rug of Egyptian manufacture. "This rug," he tells us, "is made like many cloths of the present day, with woollen threads, on linen strings. In the centre is the figure of a boy in white, with a goose above, the hieroglyphic of a 'child,' upon a green ground, around which is a border composed of red and blue lines," &c. (Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii., pp. 141-2.) He further informs us that there are in the Turin Museum some specimens of worked worsted upon linen, "in which the linen threads of the weft had been picked out, and coloured worsted sewed on the warp." In these two examples we have evidence of the existence, at a very early time, of a system of tapestry-weaving. The ancient carpet manufacture of the Asiatic countries may resolve itself under the appellation of needle-work. Of this, the present process of carpet-weaving in Persia and Turkey, and the tapestry manufacture of France, may be considered as fitting examples. The tapestry, as is well known, consists of woollen or other threads sewed on the strings of the warp, by means of small shuttle-needles. The Persian carpet is formed by knotting into the warp tuft after tuft of woollen yarn, over each row of which a wool shot is passed, the fingers being here employed instead of the shuttle-needles, as the fabric is of a coarser description. In both methods the principle is the same. Both are formed in looms of very simple construction, the warp threads are arranged in parallel order, whether upright or horizontal, and the fabric and pattern are produced by coloured threads, hand-wrought upon the warp. This may be designated the hand-wrought or needle-work method, which only makes one stitch or loop at a time, in contradistinction to the machine-wrought process, the result of mechanical appliances, whereby a thousand stitches are effected at once. Herein lies the essential difference between the ancient and modern, the simple and complex carpet-manufacture.

In Persia there are entire tribes and families whose only occupation is that of carpet-weaving. These dispose of their productions at the bazaars to native merchants, who remove them to Smyrna or Constantinople, where they meet with European purchasers. The trade in real Persian carpets is, however, very limited, owing to their small size. They are seldom larger than hearth-rugs, long and narrow. Very many of them, moreover, are considerably tarnished by exposure in bazaars, if they have not indeed been already used. To render them more saleable they are cleaned. This is done by cropping the surface, which in some cases is shaved quite close to the knot, hence a great proportion of those brought to this country have not their original richness and depth of pile. Felted carpets or nurmuds are also made in Persia, but do not constitute an export commodity. Sir Henry Bethune, late Persian ambassador, had in his possession a very singular specimen of this felt carpeting, in which coloured tufts of worsted had been inserted during the process of manufacture, producing a regular pattern when finished.

The greater part of those Turkey carpets imported into England are manufactured at Ushak or Ouchak, in the province of Aidin, about six days' journey from Smyrna, and rugs principally at Kulah or Koulia, an adjacent village. In the provinces of Hoodavendigniar, Adana, and Nish, numerous households are employed in their production, as also in the districts of Bozah, the city of Aleppo, and the villages of Trebizond. Here and there, throughout Carmania, such carpets are also made. The Turcomans of Tripoli, the women of Candia, and the peasantry of Tunis and Algiers, are likewise engaged in their fabrication. In none of these places, however, does any large manufactory exist; the carpets are the work of families and households. These carpets are woven in one piece, and there is this notable peculiarity in their manufacture, that the same pattern is never again exactly reproduced; no two carpets are quite alike. The patterns are very remarkable, and their origin is unknown even to Mussulmans. The Turkey carpet pattern represents inlaid jewelled work, which accords with Eastern tales of jewels and diamonds. If this were rightly understood, it would prevent such speculations as those of Mr Redgrave in his Great Exhibition Report on Design, where he remarks, that "the Turkish carpets are generally designed with a flat border of flowers of the natural size, and with a centre of larger forms conventionalized in some cases even to the extent of obscuring the forms—a fault to be avoided." This is doubtless a very ingenious mode of accounting for the curious forms of a Turkey carpet; but these, however fantastic, are never obscured, nor are there any flowers, flat or otherwise, in the borders or elsewhere. The great beauty of these carpets lies in the equal balance of colour, of dull neutral shades, somewhat sombre in effect.

Generally throughout British India the carpet manufacture is carried on. At Benares and Mooshedabad are produced velvet carpets with gold embroidery. A very elaborate carpet, sent from Cashmere to the Great Exhibition by Maharajah Goobal Singh, was composed entirely of silk, and excited great admiration. In every square foot of this carpet, we are informed, there were at least 10,000 ties or knots. Silk embroidered hookah carpets are made at Lahore, Mooltan, Khurpoor, Tanjore, and Bengal; cotton carpets, or satrunges, at Rungpore, Agra, and Sassaram; printed cotton carpets at Ahmedabad; printed floocloth at Mooltan. Woollen carpets are far more extensively manufactured; some of which come from Ellore, Mirzapore, and Goruckpore, but the principal manufacture is at Masulipatam, 292 miles north from Madras. There the capital and enterprise of this country have lent their aid to the rather tardy movements of the natives, and this article is now in general demand. Of late years linen warp has been introduced instead of cotton, and the fabric is thereby much improved. The designs of the Indian carpets have more regularity than those of Turkey, and the colours are mostly warm negatives, enlivened with brilliant hues interspersed. For the introduction of Masulipatam carpets, as of many others into the trade of this country, we are indebted to the firm of Watson, Bell, & Co., whose Indian connection is our sole means of obtaining these beautiful fabrics.

The total value of Persian, Turkey, and Indian carpets imported into England, may be computed at about L20,000 per annum.

Oriental carpets were first introduced into Spain by the Moors; and at a later date the Venetians imported them into Italy, and supplied western Europe with this luxurious manufacture. We have frequent mention of them during the middle ages, and their costliness and magnificence are celebrated in the illuminated pages of fabliaux and romances. They were spread in the presence-chambers of royalty, before the high altars of chapels and cathedrals, in the bowers of "ladies faire," and on the summer grass. Many articles of furniture were also covered with them—beds, couches, tables, and regal faldestools; but here it becomes difficult to distinguish between carpet and tapestry, both being used promiscuously. Tapestry of Baldekin or Baldachine (from Baladak, ancient name of Baghdad), was a carpet inwrought with gold and silver threads. Such were carried on poles, and uplifted as a canopy over the host, and over great personages in procession. The troubadours had carpets of gold embroidery which they laid upon the grass beneath them. Hearth-rugs and throne carpets, gorgeously embazoned with heraldic centre-pieces, were the handiwork of high-born dames during the romance period. To some of these were attached fringes, but such were more usually composed of the fag-ends of the warp, like those of Persia, India, and Turkey. A black velvet carpet, "fringed with silver and gold, and lined with taflata," is enumerated in the inventory of Archbishop Parke's household furniture in 1577. Rushes were strewn on the floor of Queen Mary's presence-cham- Carpet.

Turkey carpet. Long prior to this, however, Eastern carpets had been introduced. In the reign of Edward VI. we read that before communion-tables were placed—

"Chequered matting appears to have been very generally used about the fifteenth century." In Lydgate's metrical life of St Edmund (MS. Harl. No. 2278), is a representation of the room wherein that saint was born; the floor is covered with chequered matting, and a fringed hearth-rug of Gothic design is before the fireplace. Carpets composed entirely of leather strips interlaced together may be seen in our antiquarian museums. A sample of this description was lately prepared for the inspection of the new houses of parliament, and offered as a covering for their halls and passages, but was rejected.

In the reign of Henry IV. the carpet manufacture appears to have been introduced from Persia into France. Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., established the manufactory at Beauvais in 1664, which is now in the hands of the French government, and produces very artistic specimens. A variety of these, "in Turkish, Peruvian, and Chinese styles," was exhibited at London in 1851. The national manufactory of Gobelins, which likewise sent its beautiful carpets and tapestry to the Great Exhibition, was established shortly after that of Beauvais. It was purchased in 1677 by Colbert from the Gobelin family, whose progenitors, a century ago (Gilles and Jean Gobelin), brought their art, as was supposed, from Flanders. An attempt was made, in the time of Henry VIII., by William Sheldon, to start this manufacture in England; but under the patronage of James I. it was more successfully established, with the superintendence of Sir Francis Crane, at Mortlake in Surrey, where both carpets and tapestry were produced. Toward this object the sum of L2676 sterling was contributed by its royal patron, and French weavers were brought over to assist. But it does not appear that anything considerable was effected, until after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, when artisans of every trade fled to this country, among whom were tapestry and carpet weavers, who settled in various parts. About the year 1750, Mr Moore was awarded a premium by the Society of Arts for the best imitation Turkey carpets; and Parrot conducted an establishment for their manufacture at Paddington, under the patronage of the Duke of Cumberland. Subsequently, carpets were wrought on the same principle at Axminster, in Devonshire, whence the name; and afterwards at Wilton, where they are still manufactured by Messrs Blackmore. The Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures in Scotland offered prizes for the best Persian and Turkey carpets, which were carried off by Gregory, Thomson & Co. of Kilmarnock, and Whytock & Co. of Edinburgh. About ninety years previously they had been made in the vicinity of Holyrood Palace. These expensive and magnificent carpets are now made in many parts of Europe, but more particularly at the Gobelins manufactory, at Aubusson and Fellitin, in the department of Creuse, at the Manufacture Royale de Tapis de Tournai in Belgium, and at Deventer in the Netherlands. They are also made in London and Kidderminster.

Hitherto we have been treating of the simple hand-wrought or needle-work process, which implies great expense and waste of time and labour, and is therefore not calculated to supply a general demand. The machine-wrought fabric now claims our attention; and first in order, the common ingrain, Kidderminster or Scotch carpet, which is made in many parts of Scotland, the north of England, and in the United States of America. This consists of worsted warp traversed by woollen weft, and is woven in pieces about a yard wide. It is composed of two distinct webs interlaced together at one operation, and is therefore a double or twoply carpet, similar on either side. In this article only two colours can with propriety be introduced, as otherwise it has a striped or mixed appearance. A pure or plain colour can only be obtained where the weft traverses the warp of the same colour. Suppose a crimson figure on a maroon ground; the one web is maroon, the other is crimson, and the pattern is produced by these intersecting and decussating each other at points predetermined; thus what is crimson on one side is maroon on the other, and vice versa. One beam contains the warp of both plies, arranged in two tiers, which is passed through the mails or metallic eyes of the harness—two threads through each eye—and thence through the reed. The harness draws up certain warp threads, to admit of the passage of the shuttle with the weft, the pattern depending upon such warp threads as are so drawn up. This was formerly effected by means of a revolving barrel, whose surface was studded with pins, which by rotation acted upon the warp threads. These studs being arranged so as to produce one pattern, a separate barrel or a new arrangement of the studs was requisite for every other pattern. But this machine is now superseded by the more efficient Jacquard apparatus, which produces the pattern by means of an endless chain of perforated cards working against parallel rows of needles. This double fabric is also made in France, and sprigs of divers colours inserted. A detailed account of this process, with elaborate diagrams, is given by M. Roland de la Platière, in the Encyclopédie Méthodique.

An improvement upon the Kidderminster carpet is the triple or three-ply fabric, the invention of Mr Thomas Morton of Kilmarnock. This is composed of three distinct webs, which, by interchanging their threads, produce the pattern on both sides. A variety of colour is thus obtained, and the texture is of great thickness and durability.

Figured Venetian carpeting is of similar description; here the wool is completely covered by a heavy body of warp. Dutch carpeting is much inferior in quality, and was originally made of cow-hair, but now of the coarsest wool. Neither fabric has great capabilities of design; simple diced patterns are wrought in the Venetian, stripes and chequers in the Dutch.

The Brussels carpet is a very superior texture. It is composed of worsted and linen, and has a rich corded appearance. The figures are raised entirely from the warp, by inserting a series of wires between the linen foundation and the superficial yarn. These wires are afterwards withdrawn, leaving a looped surface. In this manufacture there is a great waste of material, and the colours are usually limited to five. Each colour has its continuous layer of thread, running from end to end of the web, which rises to the surface at intervals indicated by the design, and then sinks into the body of the fabric. Thus there are five layers or covers, only a fifth part of which is visible; and owing to the irregularity of their ascent to the surface, they cannot be placed upon one beam, but each thread is wound on a separate bobbin, with a weight attached to give a proper tension. These bobbins are arranged in five frames jutting out behind the loom—260 bobbins in each frame for the ordinary width. Additional frames are requisite for additional colours introduced; but where more than five are engaged the pattern is rather indistinct. The threads of all the bobbins are then drawn through the harness, heddles, and reed, to unite with the linen yarn in the compound fabric, the Jacquard machine being employed to

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1 The same article is produced in many parts of Asia from the grassy fibres of the ratan. A superior description is now made in this country from cocoanut fibre and Manilla flax. produce the pattern. Brussels carpets were first introduced into Wilton about a century ago, from Tournai in Belgium. Kidderminster is now the chief seat of this manufacture, where upwards of 2000 looms are in operation.

Moquette or Wilton carpets are woven in the same manner, and differ only in this, that the loops are cut open into an elastic velvet pile. To effect this, the wires are not circular as in the Brussels fabric, but flat, and furnished with a groove in the upper edge, wherein the sharp point of a knife is inserted and drawn across the yarn, cutting the pile. These carpets, besides being manufactured in many parts of England and Scotland, are also made in France.

We now proceed to describe a very ingenious improvement in this branch of carpet manufacture—the invention of Mr Richard Whytock of Edinburgh. This is a combination of the arts of printing and weaving, at the same time simplifying both. These arts may be said to be combined when any woven fabric is printed; but here the process is reversed, the threads being printed before they are in cloth. This, to be sure, is the case when warps are printed and then woven; but the grand novelty of this invention is that the threads are printed before even the warp is formed. One thread, or two treated as one, in some cases miles in length, are coloured by steps of half an inch, faster than a swift runner would make the distance. When these threads have been all parti-coloured in this manner, they form the elements, as it were, of the intended design or fabric. Singly, they exhibit no regular figure or pattern; but when arranged in their proper order, ready for the weaver's beam, the figure comes into view, much elongated of course, inasmuch as 18 feet of the warp will sometimes be gathered into 4 feet of cloth, in order to secure the due proportions of the intended object. It has been said that the two combined arts of printing and weaving are simplified by this contrivance. With regard to the weaving:

First, The loom occupies only one-third of the space in length that the Brussels loom requires. Second, The latter must have 1300 little beams or bobbins, from which the worsted pile has to be gathered; whereas this loom requires only one beam for the whole of the worsted threads. Third, While the Brussels or Wilton, on a web of 27 inches, requires for the best fabric 2560 threads, only 750 are here requisite—one layer instead of five—to produce as good or a better surface.

Lastly, While the number of colours in succession lengthwise, on the old principle, must not exceed six or seven, upwards of twenty or thirty can be introduced by the new method. Then, again, as a simplification of the printing process; whereas formerly a change of blocks was required for every change of pattern, in this new process the same block serves for all patterns—as the press serves for every form of type.

Many of those manufacturers who are now availing themselves of this invention do not see wherein its true economy consists. If an object, say a rosebud, recur a thousand times in the length of a web at intervals of 4 feet, the block printer must apply his block a thousand times to point the opening bud; but here the buds are conglomerated, so that one stroke may dye them all. If it be desired to have a thousand buds in the length of the web, let a thread be wound round a hollow cylinder a thousand times, and a traversing wheel charged with colour be passed across the coil. The thread when uncoiled will be found to be marked in a thousand places, exactly where it is wanted to tip the opening bud with red from end to end of the web.

Design-paper, wherein the pattern is indicated in small squares, serves as a guide to the printer; each square being one thread of the colour-pulley. After the threads are thus streaked across with colour, they are removed from the cylinder or drum, and the dyes are fixed by the action of steam. The threads are then arranged in setting frames, according to the squares of the design-paper, to constitute the warp of the projected web. The Jacquard is now so far at a discount, and the loom restored to nearly the same simplicity as of old, when

"Between two trees the web was hang."

The principle here referred to is only in its infancy. The works of the first masters may yet be multiplied by this process, if they will condescend to furnish the cartoons. Already flowers are produced which the botanist can classify without mistake.

Like every other improvement, this invention met with considerable opposition, particularly on the part of manufacturers and dealers. During the first fourteen years, the number of looms employed gradually increased from one to fifty-six, the greatest number in operation at Lasswade in 1847. Now, so extensive is the manufacture in England, that one house produces to the extent of half a million sterling per annum, having upwards of 200 looms at work by steam-power. It is gratifying to learn that these power-looms, instead of throwing off of late, have engaged more operatives than before, and are easier work. Messrs Henderson and Wildnall of Lasswade, John Crosley and Sons of Halifax, Pardoe, Hoocman, and Pardoe of Kidderminster, and Sutherland and Tod of Lanark, are the principal manufacturers engaged upon this patent.

An extraordinary consequence upon the introduction of this article is that it has not interfered with other branches of the carpet manufacture, not one of which appears to have been diminished. There is, therefore, an addition to the trade of the country, to the whole amount of its produce, itself no mean result; the whole trade being at least doubled, as far as fine carpets are concerned.

Whytock's carpets are known under the designation of Patent Tapestry and Velvet Pile Carpets. Rich, tabouret, fine velvets, and tapestry hangings, are wrought on the same principle.

Another great improvement in carpet-making, which originated also in Scotland, was patented by Mr James Templeton of Glasgow. It is on the chenille principle, and consists of a process of double weaving. First a thin striped fabric is made; and this, when cut up, is again woven into a denser fabric for carpets, rugs, and table-covers. The chenille stripes, like the parti-coloured threads in Whytock's invention, form the elements of the second fabric, only those elements go to compose the woof instead of the warp, as in the former case. Extremely beautiful carpets have been made on this principle, and these being woven in large squares, have interfered much with the Tournai or Axminster carpets, having the same depth of pile, without being so expensive. In fact, however, the manufacture has been confined to a place where it originated.

Patent wool carpets is another novelty. This manufacture was introduced into England from Germany. It is produced by cementing together, underneath a close velvet pile on a plain cloth. Messrs John Crosley and Sons of Halifax have brought out some admirable specimens of this mosaic-work, in carpets, rugs, and hangings for walls; but as yet this method has been more extensively applied to the manufacture of small articles.

A very cheap description of carpet is now made near Manchester. It is first woven in plain colours by steam-power, under Sevier's patent, by Bright & Co. It is then printed with coloured blocks by machinery patented by Barch & Co. This article has a large export sale.

The carpet manufacture is rapidly increasing in Great Britain. Upwards of 5000 looms, it is computed, are now in operation, upon every description. The wages of the operatives may average from 15s. to 30s. per week.

It remains to speak of carpet design. This matter is regulated by prevailing fashion and caprice, under the ever-varying semblance of good taste. There are revolutions in decorative art, as in all things else, and in these carpet design is involved. An acute observer can discover here symptomatic indications of national or individual character. The supremacy of Gothic architecture, in our day, implies the revival of medieval art. Simple ornamental designs, in quiet and subdued colouring, are now about to take the place of their more brilliant predecessors. Many colours will only be tolerated in Moorish and Arabesque ornament, or in the bizarre Turkey carpet. But this reformation is not yet general.