a kingdom in northern India, so called from its principal division, the celebrated valley of that name; and comprehending within its limits the various territories which constitute the dominions of Gholab Singh. Its boundaries are the Karakorum mountains on the north; Tibet on the east; the British possessions of Spiti, Lahoul, and the Punjab on the south; and the Hazareh country on the west. It extends from Lat. 32.17. to Lat. 36., and from Long. 73.20. to Long. 79.40.; its extreme length from east to west being 350 miles, and its breadth about 270. Area about 25,000 square miles. The population has been estimated at 750,000. Within its limits are included the valley of Cashmere, and the provinces of Jamoo, Ladakh, Balti or Iskardoh, Chamba, and some others.

The valley of Cashmere is a tract of oval form, surrounded by lofty mountains. Its extent from the snowy Panjal on the S.E. to the Durawar ridge on the north measures 120 miles, with a breadth of 65 miles in the direction of the opposite angles. This country is universally celebrated in the east for its romantic beauties, its fertile soil, and tempe- Cashmere, rate climate. According to ancient tradition, the valley, inclosed by mountains rising above the limit of perpetual snow, was the bed of a great lake, into which flowed all the streams from the adjacent hills, carrying with them large quantities of soil. The lake at last opening itself a passage through the mountains, left the valley covered with a rich alluvial deposit, an admirable field for human industry. The valley of Cashmere is not exposed to the periodical rains which deluge the rest of India, the clouds being shut out by the height of the mountains; and it has only light showers. These, however, are in sufficient abundance to feed some thousands of cascades, which roll down into the valley from every part of the lofty barrier that encircles it. The Behat or Jhelum, the Hydaspes of Alexander, is the chief river; it runs through the whole length of the valley with a remarkably smooth current from east to west, and receives numerous tributary streams from every quarter. The plains of Cashmere being abundantly supplied with moisture, yield rich crops of rice, which form the common food of the inhabitants. On the higher grounds, among the hills, all the European grains, namely, wheat, barley, and other species, arrive at maturity. In this elevated region are also found most of the plants, fruit and forest trees, and flowers, common to Europe, such as violets, roses, narcissuses, and other flowers, which grow wild and perfume the air; and of fruits, the apple, the pear, the plum, the apricot, and the nut, with abundance of grapes; and many kitchen herbs peculiar to cold countries. The seeds of the nebuloma growing in the lakes affords an article of food to the lower classes. A superior sort of saffron is also produced in some parts; and iron of excellent quality is found in the high lands.

Some of the mountains which surround Cashmere are of great elevation; and, ascending from the plains, we find various climates and the productions of distant regions concentrated within a short space. The lower ridges of these mountains, which are of a moderate height, are covered with trees and verdure, and afford excellent pasture for cattle of various species, as well as for wild animals; while they are entirely unfrequented by the ferocious beasts, such as lions and tigers. Above these fertile and romantic regions, the increasing cold gradually stunts the vegetation; and the traveller reaches that highest range of mountains which tower above the clouds into the regions of perpetual snow. Among these mountains are interspersed many fruitful and well-watered valleys; and they afford shelter to a rude and bold class of inhabitants, who, in these deep recesses, bid defiance to conquering armies, and who have little intercourse with the inhabitants of the plains, their poverty offering as little inducement to the visits of merchants as of warriors.

Cashmere has been long famed for the manufacture of shawls, which are distributed all over northern and western Asia, and are exported in great quantities to Europe. These shawls owe their peculiar beauty and fine texture to the wool which is brought from Thibet, lying at a distance of a month's journey to the N.E. The wool forms the inner coat with which the goat is covered, and the breed is peculiar to Thibet; all attempts to introduce it into India or Persia having invariably failed. The wool, which is originally of a dark gray colour, is bleached in Cashmere by the help of a preparation of rice-flour. The process of manufacture is very slow; not more than one inch being added to the finest shawls in the course of a day. It is estimated that about 16,000 looms were at one time employed in this manufacture; but of late years the demand has declined, owing to the decay of the Persian and Ottoman empires, and the desolation and poverty of the eastern countries. When Cashmere was tributary to Afghanistan, a great portion of the public revenue was exacted in shawls. The yarn into which the wool is spun is dyed with various colours, and after being woven, the piece is once washed, and the border, in which is displayed a variety of figures and colours, is attached to the shawls in so dexterous a manner that it is hardly possible to discover the junction. The price varies in proportion to the quality. A species of writing-paper is also made in Cashmere, which is highly praised throughout the East, and was formerly a great article of traffic; as were also its lacquered ware, cutlery, and sugar. A wine resembling Madeira is manufactured, and a spirituous liquor is distilled from the grape. The internal intercourse of the country is chiefly maintained by means of the numerous streams which intersect it, and which are navigated in long and narrow boats moved by paddles.

The aborigines of Cashmere are a distinct nation of the Hindu stock, and differ in appearance, language, and manners from their Tartar neighbours. The men are remarkably stout, active, and industrious; while the females have been celebrated for their beauty and complexion, which approaches to the brunette. They have been on this account much sought after for wives by the Mogul nobility of Delhi. They are naturally a gay and lively people, excessively addicted to pleasure, and notorious for falsehood and cunning all over the East. They are eager in the pursuit of wealth, and are considered as much more acute and intriguing than the natives of Hindustan generally are. They are said to be addicted to literature and poetry, which is probably limited to a few popular songs. The country, although fertile, has but a scanty population, the total number of inhabitants not exceeding 200,000. Of this amount, a considerable proportion consists of Mohammedans, partly Soones, and partly also of the sect of Ali. All Cashmere is reckoned holy land; and miraculous fountains abound in all parts. There are numerous temples dedicated to the various objects of Hindu superstition, as Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, &c.; though many of these monuments of Brahminical superstition have been destroyed by Mohammedan invaders. The country is subject to the dreadful evil of earthquakes; and, to guard against their effects, all the houses are built of wood, which is abundant. The author of the Ayeen Achery dwells with rapture on the romantic beauty of the valley of Cashmere, which was said to be the favourite retreat of the Mogul emperors when they relaxed from the cares of government; and this description is so far confirmed by Bernier, who, in 1663, visited this country in the suite of Aurungzebe.

As far as the history of Cashmere can be collected from imperfect traditions, the people appear originally to have been Hindus. The period of its subjugation to its Mohammedan conquerors is uncertain. About the year 1012 Mahmoud of Ghizil invaded and plundered the country, but does not appear to have taken permanent possession of it. In the year 1589 it was taken by an army of about 70,000 Tartars, whose commander established himself as sovereign of the country, and was soon after converted to Mohammedanism by a priest, who in return was made his prime minister. His descendants reigned in Cashmere till the year 1641, when it was conquered by Mirza Hyder, on the part of the Emperor Humayon, and was annexed by Akbar to his empire in 1588. It was ruled by the house of Timour for 160 years, after which it was betrayed by the Mogul governor, about 1754, to Ahmed Shah Durranzy, and constituted a province of the Afghan sovereignty. In 1819 it was conquered by the Sikhs, from which time till the year 1845 it was ruled by a viceroy appointed by Ranjeet Singh the Great. The sudden entrance of a Sikh army into British territory at the close of the last-named war gave rise to the first Punjab war, upon the termination of which the hill country between the Beas and the Indus, including the valley of Cashmere, was ceded to the British as indemnification for its expenses. The greater part of the territory thus ceded, the British transferred to Gholab Singh, under the treaty of Amritsar in 1846, in consideration of the payment of £750,000. By the provisions of that treaty, Gholab Singh acknowledges the supremacy of the paramount power, which in return is bound to aid him in defending himself from external aggression.

capital of the above province, is a large city, which extends 4 miles on each side of the river Jhelum, over which there are seven wooden bridges. It is of un- equal breadth; but in some places it is nearly 2 miles wide.

North of the city, on the summit of the Kohi Maran, a hill rising 250 feet above the bed of the Jhelum, is the citadel, and in the south-eastern quarter is the small fort of Shore Glur, where the governor resides. The houses are mostly built of wood, with partition walls of brick and mortar. They are high, being many of them three stories, with sloping wooden roofs covered with a bed of lime earth, which in summer is sown with flowers, and exhibits a lively appearance.

The town, like most of those in the East, is dirty in the extreme, its narrow streets being covered with the filth of the inhabitants, who, even in the East, are proverbially unclean. The river is, notwithstanding, covered with baths. The public buildings in the city are not remarkable; the most celebrated being the Jama Musjid, or Great Mosque, and the mosque of Shah Hamedan. There is a beautiful lake near the town, which extends from the N.E. quarter in an oval circumference of 5 or 6 miles, and communicates with the Jhelum by a narrow channel near the suburbs. On the east side of the lake is a detached hill called Tukhtii Suliman, and on the west an eminence designated Huri Parbut. The verdant and level margin of this beautiful piece of water was the favourite resort of the Mogul emperors, and is still in many places overspread with the relics of their pleasure-grounds and palaces. Of these the most celebrated is the Shalimar, laid down by the Emperor Jehangir, and which has been selected by Moore for the closing scene of Lalla Rookh. The city of Cashmere is generally considered to have been founded by Pravaraesana, who reigned from A.D. 128 to 176. Its elevation above the sea is about 5500 feet. Cashmere is also called Sirinagar.

Lat. 34. 5., Long. 74. 58.