Chronology, from κρόνος, time, and λόγος, word or description, is the science which treats of time. Its object is to arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred in the history of the world in the order of their succession, and to ascertain the intervals of time between them.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of time, implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement in the arts of civilized life, which could only be attained by the accumulated experience of many generations. Before the invention of letters, the memory of past transactions could not be preserved beyond a few years with any tolerable degree of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make a deep impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the earth, might be vaguely transmitted through several ages by traditional narrative; but intervals of time, expressed by abstract numbers, and these too constantly varying, would soon escape from the memory. The invention of the art of writing afforded the means of substituting precise and permanent records for vague and evanescent tradition; but in the infancy of the world mankind had neither learned to estimate accurately the duration of time, nor to refer passing events to a fixed and determined epoch. Writing was practised many centuries before historians began to assign dates to the events they narrated.

For these reasons the history of the early ages of the world is involved in impenetrable obscurity, and chronology, comparatively speaking, is only of recent date. After political relations began to be established, the necessity of preserving a register of passing seasons and years would soon be felt, and the practice of recording important transactions must have grown up as a necessary consequence of social life. But of these early records, how small a portion has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism? The annals of the early Greeks and of the Etruscans are irretrievably lost. Of the chronicles which Manetho, high priest of Sebennoe, professed to have reduced from the archives of the Egyptian temples; of the histories of Sanchoniathon the Phoenician, of Berosus, Hecataeus, and others, only a few mutilated fragments have been transmitted to our times through the suspected relation of Josephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and other chroniclers. The Gauls destroyed the records of ancient Rome. The Romans, in their turn, extirpated the Druids of Gaul and Britain, and obliterated the last vestiges of their ancient traditions. An Arab chief burned the library of Alexandria, a Chinese emperor the histories of his own country, and a Spanish soldier the paintings and hieroglyphics of the palace of Montezuma.

In order to preserve an exact record of the succession of events, some conventional epoch, or fixed point of time, must be taken as the origin of the reckoning, and some standard period assumed with which the successive intervals may be compared. It is a trite remark, that the simplest ideas are generally the latest in representing themselves to the mind. Nothing seems more obvious than to measure the longer intervals of time by the tropical revolutions of the sun, and to number the years in regular succession. But this simple method was not adopted by historians in the earliest ages. In the Scripture history the lapse of time is frequently estimated by generations, or reigns of kings, and not by exact numbers of years. The historians of early Greece proceeded in a similar manner. Chrono-Hellanicus regulated his narrative by the succession of the priestesses of Juno in the temple of Argos. Others reckoned by the ephori and kings of Sparta, or the archons of Athens. Ephorus, the disciple of Isocrates, who composed a chronological history of Greece, reckoned by generations. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus, who flourished about a hundred years after the death of Alexander the Great, first attempted to introduce precision into historical records, by substituting numbers of years for generations, reigns, or successions. (See Newton's Chronology, Introduction.) Now, when time is measured by any of the above methods, it is obvious that we can only approximate to the intervals between successive events, from our knowledge of the average duration of human life, and of kings' reigns, in the present state of the world. Chronologers usually reckon three generations equivalent to a hundred years, and Sir Isaac Newton allows eighteen or twenty years to a reign or succession. In a great number of years this estimate is probably near the truth, but it affords very uncertain information with respect to short periods, and none whatever with regard to the duration of an individual reign. It is to those loose methods of marking the lapse of time that we must ascribe the great discrepancy that exists among the chronological accounts of the early ages of Greece and Rome.

Another great cause of uncertainty and confusion in chronology has arisen from the diversity of epochs assumed by historians, and the practice, which has been unhappily too prevalent, of shifting the origin of their eras from one epoch to another. Having little intercourse with each other, the different groups or communities into which mankind were divided in early times, instead of agreeing on a common epoch, began each to date the years from some event, important perhaps in reference to its individual history, but of which other tribes were probably entirely ignorant, or which at least they regarded with indifference. Hence in ancient history we have the Olympiad of Corcubus, the foundation of Rome, the era of Nabonassar &c.; and in more recent times the Christian era, the Hegira, the era of Yezdegird, &c. Some centuries after the introduction of Christianity, the various sects of Christians began to found their eras on events connected with the appearance of Christ, but without any regard to uniformity. Some reckoned from the epoch of his conception, or the annunciation; others from his birth, others again from his passion, others from his ascension; and hence there is very frequently the greatest difficulty in reconciling the dates given by the historians and annalists of the middle ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession, the numbers denoting the years necessarily undergo a constant and unlimited augmentation. But rude nations, and illiterate people in general, seldom attach any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice, very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, containing a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese, and some other nations of Asia, reckon not only the years, but also the months and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldeans, the Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction, are instances of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and were rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than as chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly expressed, and consequently form important elements of chronology.

In the article Calendar, we have already treated of that part of Chronology which relates to the measurement of time, and explained with sufficient detail the principal methods that have been employed, or are still in use, for adjusting the lunar months to the solar year, as well as the intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year according to the celestial motions. In the present article it is our purpose to give an account of the different Eras and Periods that have been employed by historians, and by the different nations of the world, in recording the succession of time and events; to fix the epochs at which the eras respectively commenced; to ascertain the form and the initial day of the year made use of; and to establish their correspondence with the years of the Christian era. These elements will enable us to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation, any historical date, of which the chronological characters are given according to any era whatever, into the corresponding date in the common era of the Incarnation.

Julian Period.

Although the Julian period is not, properly speaking, a chronological era, yet, on account of its affording considerable facilities in the comparison of different eras with one another, and in marking without ambiguity the years before Christ, it is very generally employed by chronologers. It consists of 7980 Julian years. The number 7980 is formed by the continued multiplication of the three numbers 28, 19, and 15, that is, of the cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the Indiction; hence, when the number of any year in the Julian period is divided by one of these three numbers, the remainder of the division will indicate the number of that year in the corresponding cycle. The first year of the Christian era had ten for its number in the cycle of the sun, two in the cycle of the moon, and four in the Indiction; but 4714 is the only number less than 7980 which, on being divided by 28, 19, and 15, gives the respective remainders 10, 2, and 4 (See Calendar). Hence the first year of the Christian era corresponded with the year 4714 of the Julian period. In order, therefore, to find the year of our era corresponding to any other year of the period, or the contrary, we have the following rule:

1. When the given year is anterior to the commencement of the Christian era, subtract the number of the year in the Julian period from 4714, and the remainder is the year before Christ; or subtract the year before Christ from 4714, and the remainder is the corresponding year in the Julian period.

2. When the given year is after Christ, subtract 4713 from the year of the period, and the remainder is the year of the Christian era; or add 4713 to the year of Christ, and the sum is the corresponding year of the Julian period.

Olympiads.

The Olympic games, so famous in Grecian history, were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full moon first following the summer solstice, on the banks of the river Alpheus, near the city of Pisa, in the Peloponnesus, and lasted five days. They are said to have been originally instituted by Hercules, at the funeral ceremonies of Pelops, 1354 years before the Christian era; but they seem to have been forgotten, or at least to have been discontinued, during several centuries. They were afterwards re-established by Iphitus, king of a canton of Elis, in concert with Lycurgus and Cleostratus of Pisa, 814 years before Christ, and 470 years from the time of their original institution; but it was not till upwards of a hundred years after this time that they began to be used as a chronological epoch. It was then that the practice was adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period of four years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the stadium, and of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of Olympia. The first who received this honour was Coroebus. The games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the principal epoch of Grecian history, were celebrated about the time of the summer solstice, 776 years before the common era of the Incarnation, in the 398th of the Julian period, and twenty-three years, according to the account of Varro, before the foundation of Rome.

Form of the Olympic Year.—Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the ordinary Grecian year consisted of twelve lunar months, containing twenty-nine and thirty days alternately; and in order to reconcile this with the course of the sun, a thirteenth month was added, at first every second year, and subsequently three times in eight years. The additional or intercalary month contained thirty days, so that the Octaeteris, or period of eight years, consisted of ninety-nine months, containing in all 2922 days, which is exactly equal to eight Julian years. The years which contained the intercalary month were called embolismic, and formed the third, fifth, and eighth of the period. Hence the Olympiads contained forty-nine and fifty months alternately, the first four years of the Octaeteris containing one intercalary year, and the second two; and hence, also, the Olympic games were celebrated alternately on common and embolismic years. It has been shown in the article Calendar, that the Octaeteris fell short of the actual length of ninety-nine lunations by a day and a half nearly; at the end of two periods, therefore, the moon's age was three days less than it had been at the commencement, and in order to restore the coincidence between the civil month and the lunation, three days were added to the last year of each second Olympiad. But this correction introduced an error in respect of the sun, and caused the solar year to commence three days too late. This error was allowed to accumulate till the end of the fortieth Olympiad, when a full month of thirty days was omitted, by which means the solar and lunar years were adjusted, and the forty-first Olympiad commenced with the same day of the moon, and the same season of the year, as the first had done 160 years before. According to this arrangement the common years contained 354 days, and the embolismic 384; excepting however the concluding year of each second Octaeteris, which contained 387 days, and the last year of each fortieth Olympiad, which had 357 days.

In the fourth year of the eighty-sixth Olympiad, Meton published his celebrated cycle of nineteen years, which, after receiving a slight correction from Calippus, continued to be followed ever afterwards, so long as the practice of dating by Olympiads continued in use. Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, sometimes with that which preceded, the summer solstice, on account that the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354; but subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced with the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. In order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results differ from one another only by a few days, chronologers in general regard the first of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some authors, however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome, and the historian Socrates, place its commencement at the first of September; but they seem to have confounded the Olym- It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods begin with the first of July, the first six months of a year of our era correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another. Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation corresponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand that it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that the correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore distinguish two cases.

1st, When the event in question happened between the first of January and the first of the following July, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year of the era, therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of the Olympic year from 776. For example, Varro refers the foundation of Rome to the 21st of April of the third year of the sixth Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our era. Since five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth Olympiad is $5 \times 4 + 3 = 23$; therefore, subtracting 23 from 776, we have 753, which is the year before Christ to which the foundation of Rome is referred by Varro.

2d, When the event took place between the summer solstice and the first of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference therefore between 777 and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other date. Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required to find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413 from 777, the remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 91 without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the fourth year of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which it is referred by Thucydides.

If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July and January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic year to find the corresponding year of our era; but if it took place in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads seldom occurs in historical records after the middle of the fifth century of our era.

The names of the months were different in the different Grecian states. The Attic months, which were the most usual, are as follows:

- Hecatombaion - Metageitnion - Boedromion - Pyanepsion - Memonerion - Poseideon

Era of the Foundation of Rome.

After the Olympiads, the era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respecting the year in which this event took place; but the authorities most deserving of credit are the five following:

1st, Fabius Pictor, who places the epoch of the foundation of Rome in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th of the Julian period, and with the year 747 before Christ.

2d, Polybius, who places it in the second year of the seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian period, and 750 B.C.

3d, Cato, who places it in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and 751 B.C.

4th, Verrius Flaccus, who places it in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and 752 B.C.

5th, Terentius Varro, who places it in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and 753 B.C.

A knowledge of these different computations is frequently necessary, in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another, and even with themselves. Livy in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt the account of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus, where it is stated that the 991st year of Rome commenced with the festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus. Now this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our era; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 21st of April; all the accounts agree in regarding this date as the epoch of the foundation of Rome.

The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which was used in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the consular year, according to which the annals of their history have been composed. From the time of Numa the civil year always commenced with the calends of January; but by reason of the arbitrary manner in which, till the time of Julius Caesar, their calendar was regulated by the pontiffs, the civil months did not retain a fixed place in the solar year, and the calends of January successively passed into the different seasons. Hence part of the Roman civil year corresponded to one Julian year, and part of it to another. Thus, when the 1st of January in the civil year corresponded with the Julian 1st of September, the first four months of the civil year belonged to one Julian year, and the last eight months to the Julian year following. With regard to the consular year (or year of the reign before the expulsion of the kings) the confusion and uncertainty are still greater. The epoch of the succession of a king regulated the commencement of the years of his reign, and the installation of the consuls the commencement of the consular year. The initial day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the seventh century of Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the sixth century of our era.

In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the 21st of April; an event therefore which happened in the months of January, February, March, or during the first twenty days of April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil year 501. Before the time of the Decemvirs, however, February was the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st of January. Others again confound both the year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year after the regulation of the calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a like want of

The Christian Era.

The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian countries, and is even used by some eastern nations. Its epoch or commencement is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian period. It is usually supposed to begin with the year of the birth of Christ, but there are various opinions with regard to the year in which that event took place. The most probable is, that the birth of Christ happened five years and seven days before the initial day of the vulgar era. This method of dating the years was introduced into Italy in the sixth century, by Dennis or Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and began to be used in France in the seventh, though it was not generally followed in that country before the reigns of Pepin and Charlemagne. In England it seems to have been introduced by St Augustin. Before its adoption the usual practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their number in the cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply marked and distinguished by the cardinal numbers; those before Christ being distinguished by the characters n.c. (Before Christ), or a.c. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ by a.d. (Anno Domini). This method of reckoning time is more commodious than those which employ cycles or periods of any length whatever; and, provided the commencement of the era had been placed at the creation of the world, or at some point of time prior to all historical records, it would have satisfied, in the simplest manner possible, all the conditions that are necessary for registering the succession of events. But when the commencement of the era is placed, as in the present case, at an intermediate period of history, some inconvenience is felt with regard to the dates of preceding events, on account of the interruption of the numerical order. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want of uniformity in the methods adopted by authors, of numbering the preceding years. In order to preserve uniformity in their computations, astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year previous to that by 1 n.c.; but chronologers, in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the era 1 n.c., the previous year 2 n.c., and so on. By reckoning in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty frequently arises respecting dates, on account of the different epochs that have been assumed for the commencement of the Christian year. Dennis, the author of the era, thinking it more natural to reckon from the conception, adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. The epoch of Dennis therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some of the Italian states, and continued to be used in Pisa even down to the year 1745. It was also adopted by some of the Popes in their Bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France about the middle of the eleventh century. Some chroniclers, who adhere to the day of the annunciation as the commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch, as the Florentines in the tenth century. Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the sixth and seventh centuries, make the year commence sometimes with the 1st of March, like the Romans before the time of Numa, and sometimes with the 1st of January. In France under the third race of kings it was usual to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least till the middle of the sixteenth century, for an edict was passed by Charles IX. in the month of January 1563, ordaining that the commencement of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking place on the first of January. An instance is given, in l'Art de Verifier les Dates, of a date in which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the astronomical year, and that the 18th of March was taken for the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the eleventh century, it was usual to commence the year at Christmas; and this practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome, and other Italian cities, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year at Christmas was introduced in the seventh century, and traces of it are found to exist even in the thirteenth. Gervais of Canterbury, who lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century, mentions that almost all writers of his country had agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year, because it forms as it were the term at which the sun finishes and recommences its annual course. In the twelfth century, however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and continued to be generally followed from that time till the reformation of the calendar in 1752. The historical year has always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the first of January. The liturgic year of the church of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen for the commencement of the year in different countries is indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of the ancient chronicles and annals, in which the dates often appear contradictory, though correctly and precisely marked. We may cite an example or two. It is well known that the emperor Charlemagne was crowned at Rome on Christmas-day in the year 800, and that he died in the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning; but in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation of Charlemagne is stated to have taken place in the year 801, and his death in 813. Both these statements appear at first sight to be erroneous; but on attending to the different periods at which the year has been supposed to begin, they will both be easily reconciled with the known facts. In the first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800. In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January, would be referred to the end of the year 813. As another example, the English revolution is popularly called the revolution of 1688. Had the year then begun, as it now does, with the 1st of January, it would have been the revolution of 1689, that event having taken place in February in the year 1689; but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar. The old style still continues to be used by the Russians and Greeks; and in order to convert a date expressed in this manner into the new style, it is necessary to attend to the variation which takes place from century to century, in the interval between the commencement of the Julian and Gregorian years. From the reformation of the calendar in 1582 to the 29th of February 1700, the difference is ten days; from the 1st of March 1700 to the 29th of February 1800, it is eleven days; from the 1st of March 1800 to the 29th February 1900 the difference is twelve days; and after the 1st of March 1900, if the old style shall then continue to be in use, the difference will be thirteen days, till the 29th of February 2100, as has been explained at length in the article CALENDAR.

Era of the Creation of the World.

As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain Pagan rites and observances, which the Christians held in abhorrence, these began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the creation of the world. The chronological elements on which both Jews and Christians founded their computations for determining the epoch of that event were derived from the Old Testament narrative, which, though sufficiently circumstantial to enable us to determine the lapse of time during the first two ages of the world with considerable precision, has been transmitted to us through three distinct channels, not only differing greatly in respect of chronology, but totally irreconcilable with each other. These are, first, the Hebrew text of the Scriptures; second, the Samaritan text; and, third, the Greek version of the Septuagint. Unfortunately no very conclusive reason can be given for preferring any one of these accounts to another. We have no concurrent testimony with which to compare them: it is not even known which of them was regarded as the most probable by the Jews themselves, when the books of the Old Testament were revised and transcribed by Ezra; and the ordinary rules of probability cannot be applied to a state of things in which the duration of human life extended to nearly a thousand years.

Between the creation and the flood ten patriarchs are enumerated, whose names, with the age of each at the birth of his eldest son, according to the three versions, are as follows:

| Hebrew | Samaritan | Septuagint | |--------|-----------|------------| | Adam | 130 | 130 | 230 | | Seth | 105 | 105 | 205 | | Enos | 90 | 90 | 190 | | Cainan | 70 | 70 | 170 | | Mahalalel | 65 | 65 | 165 | | Jared | 162 | 62 | 162 | | Enoch | 65 | 65 | 165 | | Methuselah | 187 | 67 | 187 | | Lamech | 182 | 53 | 188 | | Noah | 500 | 500 | 500 |

Total | 1556 | 1207 | 2162 |

Noah entered the ark when he was 600 years of age; by adding, therefore, a hundred to each of the above sums, we have for the interval between the creation of Adam and the flood,

According to the Hebrew account...1656 According to the Samaritan......1307 According to the Septuagint.....2262

Hence it appears that the Greek version assigns to this period a duration of 606 years above the Hebrew account, and 955 above the Samaritan, while the two latter differ from each other only by 349 years. On account of their nearer agreement, and also of their greater antiquity, critics generally give the preference to the Hebrew and Samaritan texts; and as it appears from a passage in St Jerome, that in his day some manuscripts of the Samaritan agreed with the Hebrew in respect of Methuselah and Lamech (two out of the three cases in which it at present differs), chronologers usually adopt the Hebrew account. The Latin or vulgate translation, which was declared authentic by the Council of Trent, is in entire conformity with the Hebrew.

The second age of the world is reckoned from the deluge to the vocation of Abraham. It contains also ten patriarchs (the Septuagint reckons eleven), with respect to whose ages the three accounts differ still more widely than in the case of the antediluvian patriarchs. The following are their names, with the age of each at the birth of his eldest son:

| Hebrew | Samaritan | Septuagint | |--------|-----------|------------| | Shem | 100 | 100 | 100 | | Arphaxad | 35 | 135 | 135 | | Cainan II | — | — | 130 | | Salah | 30 | 130 | 130 | | Eber | 34 | 134 | 134 | | Peleg | 30 | 130 | 130 | | Reu | 32 | 132 | 132 | | Serug | 30 | 130 | 130 | | Nahor | 29 | 79 | 179 | | Terah | 70 | 70 | 70 | | Abraham | 75 | 75 | 75 |

Total | 465 | 1115 | 1345 |

From the above sums we must deduct the age of Shem when the deluge took place. This was ninety-eight years. The interval between the flood and the call of Abraham is consequently,

According to the Hebrew account....367 According to the Samaritan........1017 According to the Greek..............1243

In this case the Samaritan and Greek accounts differ greatly from the Hebrew. Their difference from each other is only 230 years; and if we reject Cainan II., whose name does not appear either in the Hebrew or Samaritan text, the difference is only 100 years, which may easily be supposed to have arisen from the errors of the copyists. The near agreement of the Samaritan and Greek accounts renders it probable that the Hebrew text is in error. As another reason for giving the preference to the Samaritan, it may also be mentioned, that according to the Hebrew account, the dispersion of the descendants of Noah, which took place in the time of Peleg, must have happened about a hundred years after the deluge; and it can hardly be conceived that in so short a space of time they should have increased to so great an extent, that, as it is mentioned, a single country could not contain them. According to the Samaritan text, the dispersion took place about 400 years after the deluge,—a space of time which allows of a considerable increase in the number of the inhabitants of the earth.

From this period the intervals of time between the principal events recorded in Scripture are seldom mentioned in the same circumstantial manner; and the chronologers who computed the succession of years had not only to contend with the discordant readings, but were often obliged to assign arbitrary values to the generations, or other vague terms by which the time is computed. From computations founded on such loose and uncertain data, it would be in vain to look for agreement; accordingly the results not only present great discrepancies, but appear to be as numerous as the computations. Desvignoles, in the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he has collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of the world and the commencement of the vulgar era, and the longest 6984. The difference amounts to thirty-five centuries. In the following table we have inserted the results obtained by some of the most eminent of the computists. The reader who is desirous of more information on this subject may consult the first volume of the Universal History, or L'Art de Verifier les Dates, avant J. C. p. ix.

Table of the Years elapsed between Adam and the Birth of Christ, according to the computation of the principal Chronologers.

| Chronologer | Years | |--------------------------------------------------|-------| | Alphonso X. king of Castile, in the tables of Regiomontanus | 6984 | | Suidas | 6000 | | Nicephoras, patriarch of Constantinople | 5700 | | Riccioli, according to the Septuagint | 5634 | | Clement of Alexandria | 5624 | | The Septuagint of John Ernest Grabe (computation followed by the Russians) | 5508 | | Julius Africanus | 5500 | | The Ethiopians | 5499 | | Albumuzar, an Arabian | 5328 | | Eusebius, bishop of Cesarea | 5200 | | Authors of L'Art de Verifier les Dates | 4963 | | Flavius Josephus the historian | 4698 | | Riccioli, according to the Vulgate, 2d System | 4184 | | Michael Mostlin | 4079 | | Riccioli, 3d System | 4062 | | John Müller, or Regiomontanus | 4053 | | Archbishop Usher, in Moreri | 4004 | | The same, in Chevreau | 4000 | | Kepler, Petan, and Decker | 3984 | | Philip Landsberg | 3972 | | Gerard Mercator and Peter Opmeer | 3966 | | Longomontanus, in the Astronomia Danica | 3964 | | John Lightfoot | 3960 | | John Pic, count of Mirandola | 3955 | | Venerable Bede, in Chevreau | 3952 | | Joseph-Juste Scaliger | 3950 | | The same, in Chevreau | 3947 | | St Jerome | 3941 | | Mercator, 2d calculation | 3928 | | James Gordon, a Scotch Jesuit | 3880 | | Some of the Talmudists | 3784 | | The modern Jews | 3760 | | Abridged Chronology of the Jews | 3670 | | Louis Lippman, a Venetian | 3616 |

All that can be gathered from these conflicting statements amounts to this, that the true epoch of the creation of the world is utterly unknown. British chronologers in general prefer the computation of Archbishop Usher, who places the creation of the world, or rather of Adam, 4004 years before the vulgar era.

Jewish Year and Eras.

Before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but in order to solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of Nisan or Abib, in which that event took place, and which falls about the time of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of the jubilee and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox.

The ancient Jewish year was lunisolar, that is to say, the months were regulated by the moon, and intercalations employed to preserve a correspondence between the same months and the same seasons of the year. This correspondence was implied in the ceremonials of their religion. The passover began at the middle of the month Nisan; and, besides the paschal lamb, required the offering of a sheaf of barley as the first fruits of the harvest. Pentecost, or the feast of weeks, which was celebrated fifty days after the passover, required the offering of two loaves as the first fruits of the wheat harvest; and the feast of tabernacles, which was always celebrated on the 15th of the month Tisri, was at the end of the harvest. Hence the passover could only be celebrated about the season when the barley was ready to be cut, Pentecost after the wheat was ripe, and the feast of tabernacles after the vintage and the ingathering of the olives. These regulations rendered it necessary that the three great festivals of the Jews should always occur at nearly the same seasons, and consequently, that some sort of intercalation should be employed for the adjustment of solar and lunar time. But the methods employed for this purpose seem to have been of the rudest kind,—founded on no astronomical calculation, and regulated by no fixed rule. The beginning or end of the month was determined only by sight. When a new moon became visible, a new month began. Experience taught them that it was needless to look out for a new moon before the 29th day of the month; if a new moon then appeared, the next day was the first of the following month; if not, they resumed their watch on the night following, and if the moon was not then visible, they concluded that it must have been obscured by clouds, and the following day was reckoned the first of the succeeding month. Twelve months formed the ordinary year, but every two or three years an intercalary month was added. The rule which they followed with regard to the intercalary month seems to have been this. When the 15th of Nisan, which was the first day of unleavened bread, and of the passover, would have occurred in the ordinary course before the vernal equinox, an intercalary month was inserted before Nisan, in consequence of which the passover, with the feasts depending on it, was thrown back a whole month. The intercalary month was called ee-Adar, or second Adar, from its immediately following Adar, the last of the twelve ordinary months.

While the year continued to be regulated in this uncertain and arbitrary manner, it is evident that uniformity could only be preserved by conventional arrangements entered into from year to year. Accordingly the Jews, after their dispersion, were constrained to have recourse to the astronomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen, in order that their religious festivals might be observed on the same days in all the countries through which they were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Christians borrowed from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six years, with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, in order to disguise its true source, and give it an appearance of originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and the octaeteris 2922 days (see Calendar), the sum, which is 30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Julian years. But the addition was very far from being an improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes between the places of the sun and moon, which was the whole error of the Calippic period, this difference, in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day six hours and forty-one minutes. Buccherus places the commencement of this cycle in the year 162 B.C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B.C. According to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have commenced in the year 46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St. Prosperus, that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle of eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uniformly, for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and adopted that of Meton, by which their lunisolar year is regulated at the present day. This improvement was first proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews at present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of the Messiah.

The following are the names of the Jewish months, with the number of days in each:

| Days | Days | |------|------| | 1. Nisan, or Abib | 7. Tisri | | 2. Iyar, or Zius | 8. Marchesvan | | 3. Sivan | 9. Chisleu | | 4. Thammuz | 10. Thebet | | 5. Ab | 11. Sebat | | 6. Elul | 12. Adar |

and, in intercalary years, Ve-Adar.

When each of the two months Marchesvan and Chisleu has twenty-nine days, the year of twelve months contains only 353 days, and is called defective; when these months contain each thirty days, the year contains 355 days, and is called perfect; when the one contains twenty-nine days and the other thirty, the year is common, and contains 354 days. These two months are variable, because certain days of the week are regarded by the Jews as unlucky; on such days it is not lawful to celebrate the feasts; and as the passover begins on the same day of the week as that with which the year began, when the first day of the year would fall, in the regular course, on one of the unlucky days, the commencement of the year is postponed to the day following.

Till the fifteenth century the Jews usually followed the era of the Seleucid or of Contracts. Since that time they generally employ a mundane era, and date from the creation of the world, which, according to their computation, took place 3760 years and about three months before the commencement of our era. No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day on which any given Jewish year begins, without entering into the minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar.

**Egyptian Year and Canicular Period.**

The ancient year of the Egyptians appears to have been lunisolar, and to have continued so till the reign of Hypereion or Osiris. From that time they employed a solar year, which consisted of 365 days, or twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary days added at the end of the last month. This was their religious year; and as its commencement anticipated that of the true solar year by one day every four years, it was adhered to long after they had discovered that the year consists of 365¼ days, from superstitious notions, in order that each of the seasons might in its turn be blessed by the enjoyment of the sacred festivals.

As the anticipation of a day every four years brought back the commencement of the vague year to the same place in the seasons in the space of 1461 years, it follows that 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460 Julian years. The period of 1461 Egyptian years is denominated in chronology the Sothic or Canicular period, because it commenced with the heliacal rising of the dog-star, called in Egypt Sothis; that is to say, it commenced at the time when that star begins to disengage itself from the rays of the sun, and to be visible just before sunrise. In the latitude of Lower Egypt the dog-star begins to rise heliacally about the 20th of July.

The vague year of the Egyptians began with the month of Thoth, or the 20th of July, in the year of our era 136, which year, therefore, was the first of a Sothic period. The same coincidence took place 1460 Julian years before that time, that is to say, in the year 1325 before Christ. The cycle which began 1325 B.C. is regarded by chronologers as the second which was used in Egypt. Hence, since 1325 + 1460 = 2785, the first must have commenced in the year 2785 B.C. according to the Julian computation. In this first cycle we must place the principal events of Egyptian history, such as the invasion of the shepherds, the establishment of the Israelites in that kingdom, &c.

The names of the Egyptian months are,

1. Thoth. 7. Pharmenoth. 2. Paophi. 8. Pharmuthi. 3. Athyr. 9. Pashon. 4. Cohiac. 10. Payni. 5. Tybi. 11. Epiphi. 6. Meshir. 12. Mesori.

Each month contained thirty days, and the year, as already stated, was completed by the addition of five supplementary or epagominal days.

**Era of Constantinople.**

This era, which is still used in the Greek church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September; the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of March, sometimes with the 1st of April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at Constantinople as beginning with September previous to the separation of the Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first eight months of the Christian year 1 coincide with the Constantinopolitan year 5509, while the last four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, we have the following rule: If the event took place between the 1st of January and the end of August, subtract 5508 from the given year; but if it happened between the 1st of September and the end of the year, subtract 5509.

**Era of Alexandria.**

The chronological computation of Julius Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ; but in reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era, it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondence, however, continued only from the introduction of the era till the accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by dropping ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the throne of the Roman empire in the year of Christ 284. According to the Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the world, and 287 of the incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before, and the other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not very well known for what reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computation about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to commence with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 being divided by 19, leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrian era continued to be followed by the Copts in the fifteenth century, and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the common era by subtracting 5502, till the Alexandrian year 5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after that year.

Mundane Era of Antioch.

The chronological reckoning of Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the beginning of the fourth century. Panodorus struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later, referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch being placed in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is found by subtracting 5492 if the event falls between January and September; from September to January subtract 5493.

Era of Nabonassar.

This era is famous in astronomy; having been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It had been in use for some centuries among the Chaldean astronomers; for the ancient observations of eclipses, which were collected in Chaldea by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by him into Greece to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the commencement of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the Babylonians. The epoch from which it is reckoned is precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year consisted of twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary days added at the end. No intercalation was used; and it is therefore in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. From this circumstance the initial day of the year falls one day earlier every four years than the first of the Julian year; so that 1460 Julian years are equal to 1461 Babylonian years. On account of this difference in the length of the year, the conversion of dates according to the era of Nabonassar, into years before Christ, is attended with considerable trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with certainty, unless we also know the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reformation of the calendar by Julius Caesar, they adopted, like the other Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had receded to the 29th of August. In the year 136 of our era, the first of Thoth, in the ancient Egyptian year, corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the 29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say, about the year 25 B.C. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23, and 22 B.C.

Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era.

The era of the Seleucidae dates from the epoch of the first conquests of Seleucus Nicator in Syria, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Seleucidæ, but in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant; was followed by the Jews till the fifteenth century; and is said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the Jews it was called the Era of Contracts; by the writers of the books of Maccabees the Era of Kings. But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East during a great number of centuries, the authors by whom it was followed differ much with regard to their manner of expressing dates, in consequence of the different epochs which they adopt for the commencement of the year. Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month, or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October. Albategnius, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the 1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfragan, date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These discrepancies with respect to the initial day of the year render it extremely difficult to determine the exact correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of 365 days; Albategnius adopts the Julian year of 365¼ days. For all these reasons, it frequently happens that the date cannot be fixed, unless some other chronological characters are given with it than merely the month and the year.

According to the computations most generally followed, the year 312 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st of September in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.

The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows:

| Syrian | Macedonian | English | |--------|------------|---------| | Elul | Gorpiæus | September | | Tishrin I | Hyperberetæus | October |

| Syrian | Macedonian | English | |--------|------------|---------| | Tishrin II. | Dios | November | | Canun I. | Apellus | December | | Canun II. | Audynaeus | January | | Sabat | Peritius | February | | Adar | Dysstrus | March | | Nisan | Xanticus | April | | Jiar | Artemisius | May | | Haziran | Dæsius | June | | Tamus | Panæmus | July | | Ab. | Lous | August |

Era of Alexander.

Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, which took place in the year 325 before Christ. The year is the same as in the preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidae.

Era of Tyre.

The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyperberetescus, in the year 126 before Christ. In order, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is B.C., subtract it from 125. Dates expressed according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

Cæsarean Era of Antioch.

This era was established to commemorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th of August in the year 48 B.C., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpius of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the Cæsarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding our history; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his Ecclesiastical History.

Julian Era.

The Julian era commences with the 1st of January, forty-five years before Christ. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

Era of Spain.

The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year before Christ, gave rise to another era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long followed in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated according to this era. After the ninth century it became usual to join with it the year of the Incarnation in public acts. It was followed in Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Arragon till 1350, in Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1393. In Portugal it is said to have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem, that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that of the Incarnation. As the era of Spain commenced with the 1st of January, and the months and days of the year are those of the Julian calendar, any date is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

Era of Actium.

This era was established to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3d of September, in the year 31 before Christ, and in the 13th of the Julian era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as commencing on the 1st of January of the 16th of the Julian era, and the 30th B.C. The Egyptians, who followed it till the time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of August; and the eastern Greeks from the 2d of September. By the latter it was also called the era of Antioch, and continued to be used till the ninth century. It must not be confounded with the Cæsarean era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this era. Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which commenced four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.

Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs.

We have already remarked that the Alexandrians, at the accession of Diocletian to the throne of the Roman empire, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their reckoning. The same event furnished them with an opportunity of establishing a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences with the 29th of August (the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution raised by that prince against the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era; for it was in this year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. In order to transfer a date from this era to that of the Incarnation, it is necessary to recollect the form of the Egyptian year. The ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year. In consequence of this regulation the year is exactly similar to the Julian year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period commence on the 29th of our August, and the fourth commences on the 30th of that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to the 29th of August. Hence, to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if it falls between the 30th of August and the end of the year of the third year of the Julian cycle, we must add 283 years and 241 days. We ought to remark, that the Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which they again commence with unity. This is the Dionysian, or Great Paschal Period, and is formed... by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.

The following are the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old style:

Mascaram...29th August. Maqubit.....25th February. Tiksmith......28th September. Miazia......37th March. Hadar........28th October. Gimbott......26th April. Tacassam......27th November. Sene........26th May. Tir............27th December. Hamle.......25th June. Yacatit......26th January. Nahasse......25th July.

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August. In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later. The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with the above in every respect excepting the names.

Indiction.

The cycle of indiction is a period of fifteen years, and was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some ages before the adoption of the Christian era. We are unacquainted with the circumstances and the exact time of its origin, but it was certainly not in use before the time of Constantine; and examples occur in the Theodosian code of its being employed in dating the years under the reign of Constance, who died 361 A.D. Three inductions may be distinguished; but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The Constantinopolitan Indiction, which, like the Greek year, commenced with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indiction, so called because its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the Caesarean Indiction. It commences on the 24th of September, and it is not unfrequently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.

3. The Roman or Pontifical Indiction, which began on the 25th of December or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to commence on the one or other of these days. It is often employed in the papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII.; and traces of its use are found in some of the old French authors.

The first year of the first cycle of Indiction is generally considered to correspond with the year 313 of the Christian era. Some authors, however, regard it as having commenced in 312, others in 314, and some also in 315. The number of cycles, however, is scarcely ever referred to, but only the year in the cycle. Reckoning backwards from 313, the first year of our era is found to be 4 in the cycle of Indication. Hence to find the Indication corresponding to any year of the Christian era, add 3 to the date, divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the Indication. If there is no remainder, the proposed year is the 15th or last of the cycle.

Era of the Armenians.

The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the council of Tiberius, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from the Greek church by condemning the acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, we may proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the 11th of August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 521 years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of August, both inclusive, of the year 552; that is to say (since 552 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years, one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months, with their correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:

1. Navazardi begins...........11th August. 2. Hori..........................10th September. 3. Sahomi.......................10th October. 4. Dre Thari.....................9th November. 5. Kagoths......................9th December. 6. Aracz..........................8th January. 7. Malegi.........................7th February. 8. Arcki..........................9th March. 9. Angi...........................8th April. 10. Mariri.........................8th May. 11. Marcacz......................7th June. 12. Herodiez.....................7th July.

To complete the year, five complementary days are added in common years, and six in leap years.

Era of the Hegira.

The epoch of this era, which is universally used in all Mahommedan countries, is Friday the 16th of July, A.D. 629—the day on which Mahommed fled from Mecca to Medina. Some chronologers, however, and the Arabian astronomers in general, refer its commencement to the preceding day; but though the flight of Mahommed probably began on the evening of Thursday the 15th of July, it is certain, from the comparison of modern dates, that the present practice of the Mahommedans, in dating their civil transactions, is to count from Friday the 16th of July 629. It may be remarked that the civil day of the Mahommedans begins at sunset; the astronomers probably began the day at noon.

The Mahommedan year is strictly lunar, and the civil months are adjusted to the course of the moon, by means of a cycle of 30 years, containing 19 common years of 354 days, and 11 intercalary years of 355 days; whence the cycle contains 10,631 days, which amount to 29 Julian years and 39 days. Each year is divided into 12 months, containing alternately 30 and 29 days, excepting that the last month of the intercalary year contains also 30 days. The intercalary years are the 2d, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th of the cycle.

The names of the Turkish months, with the number of days in each, are as follows:

| Days | Days | |------|------| | Moharem | 30 | | Regeb | 30 | | Saphar | 29 | | Shaban | 29 | | Rabiu I | 30 | | Ramadan | 30 | | Rabiu II | 29 | | Shawall | 29 | | Jomadhi I | 30 | | Dhul'kada | 30 | | Jomadhi II | 29 | | Dhul'hajjah | 29 | | and in intercalary years | 30 |

The months of the Hegira are composed of weeks of seven days. The following are the names of the days in Turkish and modern Arabic:

| Turkish | Modern Arabic | |---------|--------------| | Sunday | Pazar gun | | Monday | Pazar ertesi | | Tuesday | Sale | | Wednesday | Charshambe | | Thursday | Pershambe | | Friday | Juma, or Adina | | Saturday | Juma ertesi |

Such are the chronological elements by means of which Mahommedan dates are reduced to the Christian era. As the rules generally given for this purpose are attended with ambiguity, and cannot be depended on to a day, unless corrected by means of a subsidiary table, we will explain at length a method of proceeding by which the correspondence between the two eras is established, without the slightest risk of ambiguity or mistake. The subject is of some interest, in consequence of the era of the Hegira being used over so large a portion of the world.

Having given a Mahommedan date to find the corresponding date in the Christian era,

1. Divide the number of years elapsed by 30; the quotient will be the number of cycles, and the remainder the number of years elapsed since the beginning of the current cycle. Call the quotient A, and the remainder B; and let x be the number of intercalary years in B. Then the number of days that have elapsed from the commencement of the Hegira to the beginning of the year in which the date occurs, is given by the formula,

\[ 10631A + 354B + x \]

for 10,631 is the number of days in the cycle or intercalary period, and 354 is the number of days in the common lunar year. To the sum obtained from this formula add the days since the beginning of the current year, and the result is the number of days from the commencement of the cycle to the given date.

2. To the number of days from the commencement of the Hegira to the given date, add the number of days between the commencement of our era and the Hegira, and the sum is the number of days from the epoch of the Incarnation to the given date. The number of days from the beginning of our era to the beginning of the Hegira is 22,7016; for

\[ 621 \times 365 = 226665 \]

in 621 years there are 155 leap years

\[ 155 \text{ from 1st of January to 15th July 622, inclusive} \]

Sum

\[ 227016 \]

3. It now remains only to reduce the sum thus obtained to Julian years. For this purpose divide by 1461 (the number of days in the Julian intercalary period), and call the quotient C. Divide the remainder by 365, and call the quotient D, and the last remainder y. Then

\[ 4C + D = 4 \times 434 + 3 = 1739. \]

Therefore, as 1739 years have elapsed, the date required is the 151st day of the Christian year 1740. Now since 1740 is a leap year, the 151st day is the 30th of May. This, however, is in Old Style. Add eleven days for the change of style, and we have the 10th of June.

It results, therefore, that the 15th of Rabiu I. of the year of the Hegira 1153 corresponds with the 10th of June 1740 New Style. In this way any Mahommedan date may be reduced to the corresponding Christian date. The arithmetical operation is extremely simple, and can never lead to ambiguity or error.

Era of Yezdegird, or Gelaleean Era.

This era commences with the elevation of Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, and dates from the 16th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1075 A.D., the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by Gelal-Edin Malek Schah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted, which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years; one day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end of the fifth year (See Calendar). This era was at one period universally adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by a different name. According to Alfragran, the names of the Persian months are as follows:

- Afrudin-meh. - Merded-meh. - Adar-meh. - Ardisuscht-meh. - Schaharir-meh. - Di-meh. - Cardi-meh. - Mahar-meh. - Behen-meh. - Tir-meh. - Aben-meh. - Affirer-meh.

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named Musteraca.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague year, which was followed till 1075, anticipated the Julian year by one day every four years. In 443 years the anticipation would amount to about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would, in consequence, be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year 632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.

Chinese Chronology.

From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000 years B.C., the Chinese had two different years; a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but occasionally a thirteenth was added, in order to preserve its correspondence with the solar year. Even at this early period the solar or astronomical year consisted of 365½ days, like our Julian year; and it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100 ke, each ke into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Schaall, president of the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day commences at midnight, and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty, 205 B.C., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also, they have employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It is, however, not precisely known how they distributed their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them, great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun, with regard to the solstitial points, into twelve equal portions, each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these periods, which is denominated the tse, is subdivided into two equal portions, called tehong-ki and tsie-ki; the tehong-ki denoting the first half of the tse, and the tsie-ki the latter half. Though the tse are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet, what is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the tehong-ki or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the tse is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive twice at a tehong-ki during the same lunation; and as there are only twelve tse, the year can contain only twelve months having different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and called by the same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which they reckon their days, moons, and years. The days are distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has a particular name; and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalations that may be necessary for adjusting the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1833 being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1828, 1823, &c., or 1837, 1842, &c., will also commence a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated. The present cycle began in the year 1804 of our era; the year 1832 is consequently the 29th of the current cycle.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called celestial signs, are:

1. Ken ; 2. Yich ; 3. Ping ; 4. Ting ; 5. Woo ; 6. Ke ; 7. Kang ; 8. Sin ; 9. Jin ; 10. Kwey.

And in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,

1. Tse ; 2. Tchow ; 3. Yin ; 4. Mnaou ; 5. Shin ; 6. Sze ; 7. Woo ; 8. We ; 9. Shin ; 10. Yew ; 11. Seo ; 12. Hae.

The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary cycle, is formed by combining the first words in each of the above series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series, and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first series is combined with the eleventh of the second; then the second of the first series with the twelfth of the second; after this the third of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last of the second. Thus Kea-tse is the name of the first year, Yih-tchow that of the second, Kea-seo that of the eleventh, Yih-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tse that of the thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tartar dialect by the orders of the emperor Kang-hi, who died in 1722, the characters of the cycle begin to appear at the year 2357 B.C. From this it has been inferred, that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely, that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given to that year 2357 B.C. are Kea-shin, which denote the 41st of the cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 B.C., or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by the authors of L'Art de Verifier les Dates. The mathematical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial, counted the first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is to say, from the year 2277 B.C.

Since the year 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have generally dated the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An emperor, on his accession to the throne, gives a name to the years of his reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c. of Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor, or his successor, to ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. According to this method of dating the years, a new era commences with every reign; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the years of our era.

The Chinese chronology is discussed with ample detail by Freret, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. xviii.; and an abridgment of his memoir is given in L'Art de Verifier les Dates (tom. ii. p. 284, et seq. Ed. in 4to, 1818), from which the preceding account is principally taken.

Indian Chronology.

The method of dividing and reckoning time followed by the various nations of India resembles in its general features that of the Chinese, but is rendered still more complex by the intermixture of Mahommedan with Hindu customs. Like the Chinese, the Hindus have a solar year, which is generally followed in the transaction of public business, especially since the introduction of European power; and they have also a lunar year, which regulates their religious festivals, and which they follow in their domestic arrangements. Their solar year, or rather sidereal year, is measured by the time in which the sun returns to the same star, and is consequently longer than our astronomical year, by the whole quantity of the precession of the equinoxes. It is reckoned by the Hindus at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds, and consequently exceeds a Gregorian year by one day in sixty years. The Indian zodiac is divided into twelve solar and twenty-eight lunar signs; and the year begins with the sun's arrival at the first degree of the first sign. The month is the time the sun takes to pass through one sign; and as each sign contains the same number of degrees, the months vary somewhat in length, according as the sun is nearer the apogee or perigee. The longest month may contain 31 days, 14 hours, 39 minutes, and the shortest only 29 days, 8 hours, 21 minutes. The civil months, however, depend solely on the moon; though, with the same perversion of ingenuity which we have already remarked with regard to the Chinese, and of which it would be difficult to find an example, except in the east of Asia, they derive their names from the solar signs of the zodiac. The first civil month commences with the day after the full moon of that lunation in the course of which the sun enters the first Hindu sign, and so on with the others. When the sun enters into no new sign during the course of a lunation, the month is intercalary, and is called by the name of that which precedes or follows it, which some prefix, to distinguish it from the regular month. In some provinces of India, as in Bengal, the civil month commences with the day after the new moon; but in the upper or northern provinces, it begins, as we have stated, with the day after the full moon. From the manner in which they are reckoned, it is evident that the Hindu months, both solar and lunar, neither consist of an entire number of days, nor are regulated by any cycle, but depend solely on the motion of the sun and moon. The time of their commencement is different on every different meridian; and a Hindu has no means of knowing beforehand on what day any month begins, excepting by consulting his almanack. The civil day in all parts of India begins at sunrise.

The Hindu eras have been the subject of much controversy. According to the dreams of Indian mythology, the duration of the world is limited to four yugs or ages, three of which have already passed, and the fourth, which is the kali-yug, is the last and most deteriorated. It is this only which has any reference to authentic chronology. It forms the principal era of India, and comprehends several others in common use, as the era of Vicramaditya, of Salivahan, the Bengalee era, and the cycle of sixty years.

The Kali-yug commenced in the year 3101 B.C. The year is sidereal, and begins when the sun enters the first sign of the Hindu zodiac, which at present happens about the 11th of April. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the beginning of the year advances in the seasons at the rate of about one day in sixty years.

The Era of Vicramaditya is reckoned from the year 56 B.C., which corresponds to 3045 of the Kali-yug. This era, the years of which are called Soment, prevails chiefly in the higher or northern provinces of India, and in Gujarat. Its name is derived from that of a sovereign of Malwa, who, by defeating Soka, king of Delhi, acquired possession of the principal throne of India. Whether the year from which it is reckoned was that of the accession or death of this prince, is uncertain. The years are reckoned in the same manner as those of the Kali-yug; and it may be remarked of the Indian eras in general, that though some of them profess to be counted from the deaths of their kings, or other historical events, they all commence at the time the sun reaches the same point in his annual course through the zodiac.

The Era of Salivahana is the year 78 A.D., which corresponds to 3179 of the Kali-yug, and 94 of the Vicramaditya. The name is derived from Salivahan, who is said to have reigned many years over the kingdom of Nor-singa, and to have been a liberal encourager of the arts and sciences. It is generally used in records or writings of importance, but is most prevalent in the southern provinces of Hindustan. The years are called Saka.

The Fuslee Era, from the near coincidence of its dates with those of the Hegira, seems to have been imposed on the natives of India by their Mahommedan conquerors. It is principally used in revenue transactions, and is pretty generally known over India. There are several eras of this name; but the most common is that which is reckoned from the year 590 A.D. At Madras, the commencement of the Fuslee year is fixed on the 12th of July. In Bengal it begins in September, or with the full moon preceding the autumnal equinox.

The Bengalee Era is also supposed to be derived from the Hegira; but the year is measured by solar time, and therefore differs entirely from the Mahommedan year, which is purely lunar. At the present time, the Bengalee epoch is about nine years later than the Hegira; the year 1245 of the Hegira having commenced in July 1829, and the Bengalee year 1236 in April 1829. The sidereal year exceeds the lunar year by 10 days 21 hours nearly; consequently, by reckoning backwards, it will be found that the dates of the Bengalee era and of the Hegira coincided about the middle of the sixteenth century. History is silent on the subject; but it seems probable, that though the epoch of the Hegira was partially adopted in India, the Hindus pertinaciously resisted all attempts to disturb their ancient methods of reckoning the subdivisions of the year.

Besides the Indian eras here enumerated, there are some others which are less generally known, or which are followed only in particular provinces. The cycle of sixty years is also sometimes used, particularly in connection with the era of Vicramaditya. According to the Bengal account, the first cycle began 3185 years B.C.; and the year 1832 of our era is consequently the thirty-seventh of the eighty-fourth cycle. In the Telenga account the first cycle began 3114 B.C., and the year 1832 is the twenty-fourth of the eighty-third cycle.

We will conclude this part of the article with the following table, showing the dates at which the different eras above described respectively commenced.

| Julian period began | 4713 B.C. | | Olympiad of Corcubus | July 776 | | Era of Rome, according to Varro | 21st April 753 | | Jewish era | October 3761 | | First Canicular period | 2785 | | Era of Constantinople | 1st September 5509 | | Era of Alexandria | 5503 | | Mundane era of Antioch | September 5493 | | Era of Nabonassar | 26th February 747 | | Era of the Seleucidæ | September 311 | | Era of Alexander | September 323 | | Era of Tyre | 19th October 126 | | Cesarean era of Antioch | October 48 | | Julian era | 1st January 45 | | Era of Spain | 1st January 38 | | Era of Actium | 1st January 30 | | Era of Diocletian | 29th August 284 A.D. | | Era of the Armenians | 9th July 552 | | Era of the Hegira | 16th July 622 | | Era of Yazdegerd | 16th June 632 | | First Chinese cycle of sixty years | 2277 B.C. | | Kali-yug | 3101 | | Era of Vicramaditya | 56 | | Era of Salivahana | 78 A.D. | | Fuslee era | 590 | | Bengalee era | 593 |

The utility of chronological and synchronistic tables in the illustration of history has been long perceived. Of the more ancient writers who devoted their labours to this object, the principal are, Diodorus Siculus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius of Cesarea, and George Syncellus, to whom we are indebted for the preservation of some curious fragments of Berossus, Sanchoniathon, and Manetho. The modern works of this kind are exceedingly numerous. It will be sufficient to refer the reader to Petavi, de Doctrina Temporis; Usher's Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti; Newton's Chronology; Blair's Chronology and History of the World; Playfair's Chronology; and the Tables Chronologiques de l'Histoire Ancienne et Moderne of Thouret; without mentioning a multitude of smaller tables, of various degrees of merit. But the most complete work on chronology is the Art de Verifier les Dates, an immense compilation, for which the student of history is indebted to the Benedictines of the congregation of St Maur. We may likewise mention, as a very extensive and useful work, though printed in a most inconvenient form, the Tableau Historiques Chronologiques et Geographiques of Buret des Longchamps, the second edition of which was published at Brussels in 1822.

The subjoined table of political events has been compiled with great care for the present edition of the Encyclopedia. Though necessarily of limited extent, it will be found to contain a useful summary of the principal events of ancient and modern history. In the early period, the dates are taken from Usher and Blair, as being those followed by the majority of chronologers.

A Chronological Table of the Principal Events of Political History, and of the most important Inventions and Discoveries, from the Creation of the World to the Year 1854.

| B.C. | | --- | | 4004 Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew text of the Scriptures. | | 2349 Commencement of the Deluge. | | 2200 Kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt, supposed to have been founded respectively by Nimrod, Assur, and Menes. | | 2059 Kingdom of Sicyon established. | | 1981 Call of Abraham. | | 1856 Kingdom of Argos established by Inachus. | | 1764 Deluge of Oggyes. | | 1709 The shepherd kings possess Egypt. | | 1556 Cecrops, first king of Athens. | | 1503 Deluge of Deucalion. | | 1493 Cadmus comes into Greece. | | 1491 The Israelites leave Egypt. | | 1485 Danaus comes to Greece from Egypt. | | 1480 Troy built by Dardanus. | | 1453 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written. | | 1451 The Israelites enter Canaan. | | 1406 Minos reigns in Crete; gives laws to the Cretans. | | 1362 Pelops comes to Greece from Asia. | | 1352 Corinth said to be founded by Sisyphus. | | 1344 The kingdom of Mycenæ begins. | | 1325 Isthmian games instituted. | | 1294 First colony from Italy to Sicily; second, 1264. | | 1263 The Argonautic expedition. | | 1257 Theseus unites the cities of Attica. | | 1252 Tyre, the capital of Phœnicia, built. | | 1243 Evander conducts a colony of Greeks into Italy. | | 1225 to 1215 First and second wars of Thebes. | | 1193 The Trojan war begins. | | 1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. | | 1104 The Heraclidae conquer the Peloponnesus. | | 1102 Sparta becomes a kingdom. | | 1079 Saul king of Israel. | | 1070 Athenians abolish regal government. Medon first Archon. Codrus. | | 1055 David king of Israel. | | 1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies. | | 1008 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. | | 979 Rehoboam. Judah and Israel separate kingdoms. | | 974 Jerusalem plundered by Shishak (Sesostris) king of Egypt. | | 894 Gold and silver money coined at Argos. | | 884 Lycurgus reforms the republic of Lacedæmon. | | 869 Dido leads a colony of Phœnicians to Africa; founds Carthage. | | 821 Fall of Nineveh. Sardanapalus. Arbaces. | | 799 Kingdom of Lydia founded. | | 790 Pul founds a new Assyrian empire. | | 776 Commencement of the Olympic era. | | 760 The Ephori, popular magistrates, instituted at Lacedæmon. | | 758 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth. | 754 Athenians limit the office of archon to ten years. Charops.

753 Rome founded by Romulus.

747 Nabonassar extends the Assyrian empire. Medes. Era of Nabonassar begins 26th February.

746 Government of Corinth republican.

721 Captivity of the ten tribes of Israel.

711 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judea. The Medes revolt. Deioces.

703 Corcyra (Corfu) founded by the Corinthians.

702 Deioces builds Ecbatana, the capital of Media.

685 Second Messenian war begins; continues fourteen years.

684 Athenians make the archonship annual. Creon.

681 Esarhaddon re-unites the kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh (Assyria).

670 Psammetichus king of all Egypt. Byzantium founded by an Athenian colony.

659 Cypselus usurps the government of Corinth. Periander.

635 Scythians get possession of Upper Asia; Cimmerians of Lydia. Both are dispossessed (607) by Cyaxares.

625 Nabopolassar seizes Babylon; renders himself independent.

624 Draco archon and legislator of Athens.

606 Destruction of Nineveh by Nabopolassar king of Babylon, and Cyaxares king of Media.

598 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem; carries the Jews into captivity.

596 Perdiccas founds the monarchy of Macedonia.

594 Solon archon and legislator of Athens.

591 The Pythian games instituted in Greece.

588 First irruption of the Gauls into Italy.

580 Copper money coined at Rome.

571 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. Egypt subdued.

562 Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis.

550 Pisistratus tyrant of Athens.

546 Kingdoms of Media and Lydia destroyed by Cyrus king of Persia.

539 Marseilles built by the Phocaeans.

538 Babylonian empire subverted by Cyrus. The Jews released from captivity.

534 The Jews begin to rebuild their temple; are engaged in this work nine years.

529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambyses king of Persia.

525 Cambyses conquers Egypt.

510 The Pisistratids expelled from Athens. Democracy restored.

509 Tarquin expelled from Rome. Consular substituted for regal government. Brutus.

508 First alliance between the Romans and the Carthaginians.

Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia, subdues Thrace; makes an unsuccessful invasion of Scythia.

504 The Athenians, by burning Sardis, embroil themselves with the Persians.

498 Dictatorship instituted at Rome. Lartius.

493 The port of Piraeus built by the Athenians.

490 Battle of Marathon. Tribunes of the people created at Rome.

486 Darius, king of Persia, succeeded by his son Xerxes.

483 Quorsters instituted at Rome.

481 Xerxes renewes the war with Greece.

480 Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. Leonidas. Themistocles.

479 The Persians ravage Attica.—burn Athens,—suffer defeats at Platæa and Mycale. Xerxes leaves Greece.

476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens.

471 Volero renders more popular the election of consuls and other magistrates at Rome.

470 Battles of the Eurymedon. Persians defeated by Cimon.

465 Third Messenian war begins; lasts ten years.

463 The Egyptians, assisted by the Athenians, throw off the Persian yoke.

451 Roman decemvirate. Laws of the twelve tables.

449 Cimon negotiates a peace between the Greeks and Persians.

448 First sacred war concerning the temple of Delphi. Battle of Coronaca.

445 Military tribunes substituted for consuls at Rome.

437 Censorship instituted. Pericles powerful at Athens.

431 Peloponnesian war begins; continues twenty-seven years.

421 Peace of six years and ten months between the Athenians and Lacedemonians; each continues at war with the other's allies.

416 Sicily becomes the field of the Peloponnesian war.

414 The Athenians are defeated before Syracuse.

409 The Carthaginians enter Sicily; are repulsed by Hermocrates.

405 Battle of Ægospotamos. Usurpation of Dionysius.

404 Athens taken by Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian war. Government of the thirty tyrants.

401 Battle of Cunaxa, and death of the younger Cyrus. Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks. Sparta involved in war with Persia.

Persecution and death of Socrates. Expulsion of the thirty tyrants. Thrasybulus.

396 The Lacedemonians invade Asia. 395, Corinthian alliance assists Persia. 394, Battles of Cnidos and Coronaca. Agesilaus.

387 Peace of Antalcidas. Greek cities of Asia become tributary to Persia.

385 Rome burnt by the Gauls under Brennus.

382 Lacedemonians seize the citadel of Thebes; (380) are expelled by Pelopidas and Epaminondas.

376 Sea-fight of Naxos. Chabrias.

371 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemonians at Leuctra.

367 Institution of the pretorship at Rome. Licinian law. Plebeian consul.

363 Battle of Mantinea. Death of Epaminondas.

359 Philip king of Macedon.

358 Greek social war. Battle of Methane.

357 Dionysius the Younger expelled from Syracuse.

356 Birth of Alexander the Great. Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt by Erostratus. Phocian or sacred war.

350 Darius Ochus subdues Egypt.

348 Philip of Macedon takes Olynthus. Sacred war ends.

347 Dionysius recovers the tyranny of Syracuse; is finally expelled (343) by Timoleon.

343 War between the Romans and Samnites begins; continues with interruptions to 372.

340 Timoleon defeats the Carthaginians at Agrigentum.

338 Battle of Cheronæa. 337, Philip chosen to lead the Greeks to the invasion of Persia. 336, Murdered. Alexander. Darius Codomannus.

336 Alexander destroys Thebes; 335, Is chosen generalissimo of the Greeks; Marches into Asia; 334, Defeats the Persians on the banks of the Granicus; 333, Again at Issus; 332, Subdues Egypt and takes Tyre; 331, Defeats the Persians at Arbela. 330, Darius is killed; end of the Persian empire.

328 Alexander invades India; penetrates to the Ganges; his admiral, Nearachus, sails from the Indus to the Euphrates.

324 Death of Alexander at Babylon—an event followed by wars among his officers, and the dismemberment of his empire.

315 Restoration of Thebes.

312 Era of the Seleucid.

311 Appian way and aqueducts constructed at Rome.

304 Demetrius Poliorcetes besieges Rhodes; restores (303) the liberty of the Grecian cities.

301 Battle of Ipsus. Dismemberment of the empire of Alexander completed.

300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea.

286 Law of Manius; the Roman senate bind themselves to sanction all decrees of the people.

285 Commercial era of Dionysius of Alexandria.

283 Alexandrian library founded.

281 Achaean league negotiated.

280 Pyrrhus, invited by the Samnite allies, invades Italy. Battles of Lyris and Asculum.

277 Greek (Septuagint) version of the Scriptures made by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus.

274 Battle of Beneventum. Pyrrhus withdraws from Italy.

272 Samnite war ended. Rome mistress of all the southern states of Italy.

266 Silver money first coined at Rome.

264 First Punic war begins. Chronology of Paros (Arundel marbles) composed.

256 Regulus defeats the Carthaginians in the sea-fight of Ecnomia; lands in Africa; reduces Clupea and other towns; is vanquished (255) by Xanthippus, and taken prisoner.

250 Parthia, under Arsaces, becomes an independent kingdom.

241 Catulus destroys the navy of Carthage. End of first Punic war.

240 Plays (the composition of Livius Andronicus) first acted at Rome.

237 Conquest of Spain attempted by the Carthaginians.

235 Temple of Janus shut; open since reign of Numa.

231 Sardinia and Corsica subdued by the Romans.

227 War between Sparta and the Achaean league; ended (229) by the battle of Sellasia. Cleomenes. Aratus.

225 to 220 Gauls repeatedly defeated and driven from Cisalpine Gaul. Illyria subdued.

219 Hannibal the Carthaginian besieges Saguntum, and brings on the second Punic war.

218 Hannibal leads an army from Spain into Italy; defeats the Romans at Ticinum and Trebia; 217, at Thrasymene; 216, at Cannae; 215, concludes an alliance with Philip (2d) of Macedon.

212 Philip defeats the Ætolians, allies of Rome. Marcellus takes Syracuse.

211 P. Scipio sent into Spain. Antiochus conquers Judea.

207 Asdrubal, conducting supplies to Hannibal, is defeated and slain at the Metaurus. Gold money at Rome.

204 Scipio, having reduced Spain, carries the war into Africa.

203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal.

202 Battle of Zama. 201, Submission of Carthage. End of second Punic war.

197 Defeat of Philip at Cynocephale. End of first Macedonian war.

192 to 189 War between the Romans and Antiochus, king of Syria. Battle of Magnesia.

188 Philopomen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus.

172 to 168 Second Macedonian war. Battle of Pydna. Macedon becomes a Roman province.

170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jerusalem.

168 First library at Rome.

166 Judas Maccabæus delivers the Jews from the Syrians.

149 Third Punic war begins.

147 Rome defends Sparta against the Achaean league.

144 Corinth, Thebes, Chalcis destroyed. Greece becomes a Roman province.

— Carthage destroyed. Carthaginian territory reduced into a province.

141 War of Numantia.

135 to 132 Servile war in Sicily.

133 Tiberius Gracchus slain. Numantia taken. Pergamus annexed to the Roman empire.

121 Caius Gracchus slain.

117 Gallia Narbonensis becomes a Roman province.

111 to 106 Jugurthan war. Metellus. Marius.

109 Cimbri and Teutones invade Gaul; 105, cut off a Roman army of 80,000 on the banks of the Rhone.

102 Marius exterminates the Teutonic army at Aix, and the Cimbrian (101) on the banks of the Athesis.

91 Italian (social) war begins; lasts three years.

88 Mithridatic war. Marian civil war.

87 Marius seizes Rome; 86, dies. Cinna.

84 Sylla conquers and makes peace with Mithridates; 83, attacks the Marian party in Italy; 82, seizes Rome, and is made perpetual dictator; resigns his office (78).

77 Civil war of Sertorius in Spain, and of Lepidus and Catulus in Italy.

74 Mithridatic war renewed. Lucullus.

73 to 71 Servile war in Italy. Spartacus. Crassus.

67 Pompey reduces the pirates; 64, subdues Mithridates and Tigranes; 63, reduces Syria into a Roman province.

62 Conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero.

59 First triumvirate; Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.

58 Caesar begins the conquest of Gaul; 55, invades Britain. Crassus goes to Syria; slain (53) by the Parthians.

52 Clodius murdered by Milo.

50 Subjugation of Gaul completed.

49 Civil war. Caesar drives Pompey from Italy, and disperses his army in Spain.

— Commencement of the era of Antioch.

48 Battle of Pharsalia. Murder of Pompey in Egypt.

47 War in Egypt. Destruction of the Alexandrian library. Defeat of Pharnaces.

46 African war. Cato. Reformation of the calendar; this the year of confusion.

45 War in Spain; Battle of Munda. Caesar declared perpetual dictator.

44 Caesar assassinated. Brutus. Cassius.

43 Battle of Mutina. Second triumvirate; Octavius, M. Antony, Lepidus.

42 Battles of Philippi. The triumviri masters of the empire.

40 Accommodation between Sextus Pompey and the triumviri; broken, 39.

36 Pompey driven from Sicily; put to death.

35 Lepidus deprived of power.

32 War between Octavius and Antony.

31 Battle of Actium. Era of the Roman emperors.

27 Name of Octavius changed, by the senate, to Augustus.

15 Rhaeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus.

B.C. 12 Pannonia subdued by Tiberius. 10 Temple of Janus shut. 8 Augustus corrects the calendar, suppressing the intercalary days for twelve years. 4 Birth of Christ, four years before the vulgar era.

A.D. 9 Three Roman legions under Varus cut to pieces in Germany. 14 Tiberius emperor of Rome. 25 End of the Olympiads. 33 Crucifixion of our Saviour. 37 Caligula emperor. 40 The followers of our Saviour called Christians. 41 Claudius emperor. 43 Expedition of Claudius to Britain. 44, Successes of Plautius. 50 London founded by the Romans. 51, Caractacus carried to Rome. 54 Nero emperor. 61 Boudicca defeats the Romans. Suetonius Paulinus. 64 Rome set on fire—burned six days. First persecution of the Christians. 66 Jewish war begins. 68 Galba emperor. 69, Otho—Vitellius. 70, Vespasian. Destruction of Jerusalem. 77 The Parthians ravage Armenia. 79 Titus emperor. Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. 80 Agricola completes the pacification of South Britain. 81 Domitian emperor. 85 Agricola defeats the Caledonians; circumnavigates Britain. 88 Dacian war begins. 95 Second Christian persecution. 96 Nerva emperor. 98, Trajan. 103 to 107 Dacia and other eastern countries subdued. 118 Adrian emperor. Conquests of Trajan abandoned. Euphrates, eastern frontier. 120 Adrian's wall (from Tyne to Solway) built. 132 to 135 Second Jewish war. Jews driven from their country. 138 Antoninus Pius emperor. 139 Lollius Urbicus subdues Britain to the Moray Frith; builds the wall of Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde. 161 Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus joint emperors. 163 Fourth Christian persecution. 166 to 178 War with the Marcomanni, Quadi, &c. 171 Death of Verus. Aurelius sole emperor. 180 Commodus. Goths seize the eastern part of Dacia. 189 The Saracens (now first noticed in history) defeat the Romans. 193 Pertinax. Didius Julian. Pescennius Niger. Septimius Severus. 202 Fifth Christian persecution. 209 Severus rebuilds the wall of Antoninus (Graham's Dyke). 211 Caracalla and Geta emperors. 212, Geta murdered. 213 First mention of the Alemanni (Germans), a union of tribes on the Upper Rhine. 217 Macrinus emperor. 218, Heliogabalus. 222, Alexander Severus. The Goths bribed not to molest the empire. 226 Alexander defeats the Persians; 235, is murdered by Maximin. 236 Sixth Christian persecution. 237, Defeat of the Sarmatians. 238 Papienus and Balbinus joint emperors. Gordian.

A.D. 242 Gordian defeats Sapor the Persian. 244 Philip the Arabian emperor. 249 Decius emperor. Seventh Christian persecution. First notice of the Franks, a union of tribes on the Lower Rhine. 251 Vibius, Gallus, emperors. 253 The Goths, Burgundians, &c. break into Moesia and Pannonia. 254 Valerian emperor. 257, Eighth Christian persecution. 259 Sapor ravages Syria; takes Valerian prisoner. The Germans advance to Ravenna. 260 Gallienus emperor. Thirty tyrants. 261 Sapor takes Antioch. 263, The Franks invade Gaul; 267, the Heruli Greece. 268 Claudius emperor; defeats (269) 320,000 of the Goths and Heruli. 270 Aurelian emperor. 271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage the empire. 272 Ninth Christian persecution. 273 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, defeated by Aurelian at Edessa. 274 Silk brought from India. 275 Tacitus emperor. Goths seize Dacia. 277 Probus emperor; drives the Alemanni from Gaul; defeats the Franks. 282 Carus, (284) Diocletian, emperors. The northern nations redouble their attacks. 292 Partition of the empire by Diocletian. 298 Constantine Chlorus defeats the Alemanni near Langres. 302 Tenth Christian persecution. 304 Constantine and Galerius emperors. 306, Constantine (the Great) becomes sole emperor; stops the persecution of the Christians. 313 Constantine publishes the edict of Milan in favour of the Christians; defeats the Franks; also (321) the Saracens. 325 First general council meets at Nice. 329 Seat of empire transferred from Rome to Constantinople. 337 Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius joint emperors. 350 Franks possess extensive settlements in Gaul. 357 Julian defeats the Germans at Strasbourg. 361 Julian emperor; slain (363) in battle with the Persians. 364 Valentinian emperor of the West. Valens, of the East. 373 Scriptures translated into the language of the Goths. 375 "Migration of Nations." The Huns cross the Don and Wolga. 376 Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace. They advance (378) to the gates of Constantinople. 379 Theodosius the Great emperor of the East, in 392 also of the West. Christianity becomes the religion of the state. 381 Second general council held at Constantinople. 383 Huns overrun Mesopotamia; are defeated by the Goths; invade (395) the eastern provinces. 400 Alaric the Visigoth ravages Italy; is defeated (403) by Stilicho. 406 The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invade France and Spain. 410 Alaric sacks Rome. 411 The Vandals established in Spain. 420 Pharamond, first king of the Franks, supposed to begin his reign. 424 Valentinian III. emperor of the West. A.D.

496 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain. 499 The Vandals pass into Africa. 431 Third general council—held at Ephesus. 439 Vandals take Carthage; establish themselves in the African province. 442 Theodosius II. concludes a disgraceful treaty with Attila the Hun. 445 to 448 Attila ravages the eastern provinces; exacts a tribute from the emperor; 450, invades Germany and France; sustains a defeat at Chalons. 451 Saxons assist the Britons against the Scots and Picts. Fourth general council—held at Chalcedon. 452 Foundation of the city of Venice. 455 Rome sacked by the Vandals. Geneser. 468 The Visigoths expel the Romans from Spain. 470 Ælla the Saxon occupies the kingdom of Sussex (471) all the British princes. 475 Romulus Augustulus last emperor of the West; deposed (476) by Odoacer, king of the Heruli. Extinction of the western empire. 481 Clovis king of the Franks. 485 Battle of Soissons. Syagrius. 488 Theodoric the Ostrogoth defeats Odoacer; becomes king of Italy. 497 Clovis, with his Franks, embraces Christianity; 500, exacts tribute from the Burgundians; 507, subdues the Visigoths settled in Gaul; 510, makes Paris the capital of France. 511. The kingdom divided. 516 Computation of time by the Christian era introduced by Dionysius Exiguus. 529 Belisarius defeats the Persians. Code of Justinian published. 534 Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa destroyed. 537 Rome taken from the Ostrogoths; recovered (547) by Totila. 540 Antioch destroyed by the Persians. 547 Northumbrian kingdom founded by Ida the Saxon. 550 Rise of the kingdom of Poland. 553 Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy destroyed by Narses. 559 France re-united under Clotaire. 568 The Lombards conquer Italy. 580 Latin ceases to be the spoken language of Italy. 585 Kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy established, some before, others about this period. Britons in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. Civil wars of the Saxons begin. 596 Augustine the monk preaches Christianity to the British Saxons. 602 Papal supremacy authorized by Phocas, emperor of the East. 604 St Paul's Church in London founded. 616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians under Cosroes II. 622 Era of the Hegira, or flight of Mahammed from Mecca to Medina. 625 Constantinople besieged by an army of Persians, Huns, and Slavonians. 632 Abubeker—633, Omar, succeed Mahammed as caliphs of the Saracens. 636 Omar takes Jerusalem—640, Alexandria—orders the Alexandrian library to be burnt. 648 The Saracens take Cyprus—653, Rhodes—658, agree to pay the emperor tribute—669, ravage Sicily—672, make a fruitless attack on Constantinople—675, fail in an attempt to establish themselves in Spain. 680 Sixth general or oecumenical council of Constantinople.

A.D.

690 Pepin d'Heristal (Maire du Palais) regent of France. 698 The Saracens seize Carthage—699 and 700, sustain defeats from the emperor of the East—713, make themselves masters of Spain. 714 Charles Martel (Maire du Palais) regent of France. 718 Christian kingdom of the Asturias founded by Pelagius. 729 The Saracens ravage France—are defeated (732) by Charles Martel, in the battle of Tours. 742 Childeric III. (last of the Merovingian dynasty) king of France. 749 The Abasside caliphs of the Saracens. 751 Pepin (le Bref.) deposes Childeric, and founds the Carolingian dynasty of French kings. 754 Pepin takes Ravenna from the Lombards, and confers it on the pope—hence origin of the pope's sovereignty. 756 Abderrahman king of Cordova. Didier last king of Lombardy. 762 Almanzor caliph of the Saracens, makes Bagdad the seat of his government. 767 The Turks (a Tartar tribe) ravage Asia Minor. 768 Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman kings of France. 772 Charlemagne sole ruler. 774 Charlemagne subdues the kingdom of Lombardy—778, Spain to the Ebro—779, Navarre and Sardinia—785, Saxony. 785 Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Saracens, ravages part of the empire of the East—encourages science among the Arabs. 787 The Danes pay their first visit to England. Seventh general council—held at Nice. 794 Charlemagne defeats and disperses the Huns. 797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, and Rhodes. 800 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the Romans. Clocks brought from the East to Europe. 814 Louis (le Debonnaire) emperor and king of France—817, divides his dominions among his sons. 827 Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy into one—England. The Danes begin to infest the English coast. 838 Ethelwolf king of England. Titles. 843 Kenneth M'Alpin reduces the whole of North Britain into the monarchy of Scotland. 853 Separation of the Greek and Latin churches. 855 Kingdom of Navarre founded by Garcias. 855 Ethelbald and Ethelbert—866, Ethelred—872, Alfred, kings of England. The Danes commit destructive ravages. 874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians. 875 Norway, Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides, subject to Harold Harfager. 877 Louis (the Stammerer) emperor of Germany and king of France. Hereditary feudal system begins to prevail in France. 878 to 890 Alfred the Great destroys the Danish power in England; establishes a militia—a navy; divides England into counties, hundreds, &c.; publishes a code of laws. 880 The Normans ravage France; 885, besiege Paris. 886 University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 900 Louis IV. (last Carolingian) emperor of Germany. 901 Edward the Elder king of England. 904 The Russians before Constantinople. 911 Conrad, duke of Franconia (a German), elected emperor by the princes of the empire. 912 Rollo the Norman extorts a grant of the province of Neustria (Normandy) from Charles the Simple.

915 University of Cambridge founded.

928 Athelstan king of England.

931 Rise of the republic of Pisa. Geneva in the hands of the Saracens.

941 Edmund I—948, Edred—955, Edwy—959, Edgar, kings of England. Wolves extinguished by Edgar.

961 Candia retaken from the Saracens.

964 Otho the Great re-unites Italy to Germany.

967 Antioch retaken from the Saracens.

970 Greenland discovered by Gunnbjorn, an Icelander.

976 Edward II. and 978, Ethelred II., kings of England.

977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the Bulgarians.

986 Louis V. (last Carlovingian) king of France.

987 Hugh Capet, count of Paris, ascends the throne of France—third dynasty.

991 The arithmetical figures introduced into Europe by the Arabians.

999 Boleslaus first king of Poland.

1002 Massacre of the Danes settled in England, by Ethelred; the cause of an invasion by Sweyn, king of Denmark, in 1013, and by Canute, his son, in 1014.

1016 Edmund Ironside king of England. War with Canute, king of Denmark.

1017 Canute becomes king of England.

1018 The Normans invade Italy.

1030 Caliphat of Cordova dismembered.

1036 Harold Harefoot king of England.

1039 Hardicanute (last Danish) king of England.

— Macbeth murders Duncan—usurps the throne of Scotland.

1041 Edward the Confessor (son of Ethelred II.) king of England. Danish power in England annihilated.

1043 The Turks subdue Persia—1055, take Bagdad—deprive the caliphs of temporal authority—suffer them to retain the spiritual.

1056 Milan a republic.

1057 Macbeth slain by the English. Malcolm Canmore, son of Duncan, king of Scots.

1058 Guiscard the Norman expels the Saracens from Sicily.

1062 A council of bishops decrees that the cardinals alone shall nominate supreme pontiffs.

1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.

1066 Harold king of England. William, duke of Normandy, disputes his title; defeats Harold at Hastings, and gains the crown.

1070 Feudal law introduced into England by William the Conqueror.

1073 Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) publishes a bull against the investiture and marriage of priests; 1076, excommunicates and deposes the emperor Henry IV.

1079 Doomsday book begun by order of William the Conqueror—finished 1085 or 1086.

1085 Alphonso of Castile takes Toledo and Madrid from the Saracens.

1086 Carthusian order of monks established.

1087 William II. (Rufus) king of England; Robert, his brother, duke of Normandy.

1091 Saracens in Spain assisted by the Moors, who take possession of their dominions.

1095 Council of Clermont. First crusade. Peter the hermit.

1098 The crusaders take Antioch, and, 1099, Jerusalem; erect a Christian kingdom; Godfrey of Bouillon sovereign. Knights of St John instituted.

1100 Henry I. king of England.

1102 Guiscard the Norman assumes the title of king of Naples.

1106 Normandy re-annexed to England.

1108 Louis VI. of France incorporates towns; abridges the power of the feudal chiefs.

1110 Order of the Templars instituted.

1119 War between England and France. Battle of Andeli.

1135 Stephen king of England.

1137 Pandects of Justinian discovered at Amalfi.

1138 Battle of the Standard; David first of Scots defeated by the earl of Albemarle.

1139 Civil war in England between Stephen, and Matilda, daughter of Henry I.; 1141, Battle of Lincoln.

1140 Canon law introduced into England. Faction of the Guelphs and Ghibellines.

1147 Second crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux. Moscow founded. Alphonso Henriquez takes Lisbon from the Moors; assumes the title of king of Portugal.

1150 Study of civil law revived at Bologna. Scholastic philosophy cultivated.

1152 Frederic Barbarossa emperor of Germany.

1153 Treaty of Winchester; compromise between Stephen and Prince Henry, son of Matilda.

1154 Henry II. (Plantagenet) king of England. Guelphs and Ghibellines at war in Italy.

1157 Bank of Venice established.

1160 Religious sect of the Albigenses begins to attract notice.

1163 London bridge built of stone.

1164 Teutonic order of knighthood instituted in Germany.

— King of England attempts to retrench clerical usurpations. Council of Clarendon. Becket.

1172 Ireland conquered by Henry II. Strongbow earl of Pembroke.

1175 Division of England into four circuits; appointment of itinerant judges.

1179 University of Padua founded.

1180 Philip (Augustus) king of France. Guelphic party repulsed. Bills of exchange in use.

1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin, sultan of Egypt.

1189 Richard I. king of England. Third crusade; the leaders, Frederick of Germany, Richard of England, Philip of France.

1191 Ptolemals reduced by the crusaders; Battle of Ascalon; truce of three years, three months, three weeks, three days, &c. with Saladin.

1200 Universities establishing in many large towns.—First historical notice of the mariner's compass.

1202 Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, earl of Flanders; bursts upon Constantinople. Baldwin becomes emperor of the East.

1204 The inquisition established by Pope Innocent III. Provinces of Normandy, Anjou, &c. re-united to France.

1206 Genghis Khan. Mogul empire. Dispute between John, king of England, and the pope; settled 1213.

1208 London obtains a charter for electing its own magistrates.

1210 Crusade against the Albigenses.

1212 Battle of Toledo; Christians defeat the Moors. 1213 King of England becomes a vassal of the holy see. 1215 Magna Charta signed by John. 1216 Henry III. king of England. 1217 Fourth crusade, under Andrew, king of Hungary. 1218 Switzerland a province of the German empire. 1219 Damietta taken by the crusaders. 1222 Assembly of estates of France called a parliament. 1226 St Louis king of France. Institution of the monastic orders of St Dominic and St Francis. 1227 Genghis Khan and the Moguls (Western Tartars) overrun the empire of the Saracens. 1228 Sixth crusade under the emperor Frederic II. 1234 Inquisition committed to the Dominicans. 1237 Russia subdued by the Moguls. 1248 Seventh crusade under St Louis. 1254 Interregnum in Germany to 1273. 1256 Hanseatic league formed. 1258 Bagdad taken by the Moguls. End of the empire of the Saracens. 1261 Battle of Largs. Norwegians defeated by Alexander III. king of Scots. Use of the mariner's compass known in France. 1264 Borough deputies sit, for the first time, in the English parliament. Earl of Leicester. Battle of Lewes and (1265) of Evesham. 1266 Charles, count of Anjou, defeats Mainfroy, king of Naples and Sicily; 1268, succeeds him as king. 1272 Edward I. king of England. Florentine academy founded. 1273 Rudolph of Hapsburg (first of the Austrian family) emperor of Germany. 1279 The Moguls subdue China. 1282 Sicilian vespers. King of Aragon obtains possession of Sicily; academy de la Crusca instituted. 1283 Edward I. conquers Wales. 1290 Death of Margaret of Norway queen of Scots. Competition of Bruce, Baliol, &c. for the crown. Edward I. arbiter. 1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the crusades. 1292 Edward extorts an admission of his feudal superiority from the Scots barons; decides the disputed succession in favour of Baliol. 1295 First English House of Commons assembled. 1296 Edward dethrones Baliol; attempts to annex Scotland to his other dominions. Battles (1297) of Stirling and (1298) Falkirk. Sir William Wallace. 1299 Othman (founder of the Ottoman empire) makes Prusa the seat of the Turkish power. 1301 King of England's eldest son created prince of Wales. Spectacles used. 1305 Robert Bruce attempts to restore the independence of Scotland; 1306, is crowned at Scone. 1307 Establishment of the Swiss republics. William Tell. Edward II. king of England. 1308 Pope transfers his residence from Rome to Avignon. 1310 Lincoln's Inn Society established. Rhodes taken by the knights of St John. Chimneys used in domestic architecture. 1312 Order of Templars suppressed. 1314 Battle of Bannockburn. Independence of Scotland secured. 1319 Catalonia and Valencia united to Aragon. University of Dublin established. 1325 First treaty of commerce between England and Venice. 1327 Edward III. king of England. 1328 Philip of Valois king of France. Salic law. 1329 David II. (Bruce) king of Scots. 1331 The Teutonic knights settle in Prussia. 1332 to 1336 Crown of Scotland contended for by David Bruce, and Edward, son of John Baliol. Battle of Halidon Hill. 1336 Crown of France claimed by Edward III.—the cause, in 1339, of war between France and England. 1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a monk of Cologne. Oil painting by John Van Eyk. 1341 Petrarch crowned at Rome. 1345 Canary islands discovered by the Genoese. Firearms in use. 1346 Battles of Cressy and Durham. Siege of Calais. 1347 Riccati tribune of the people at Rome. University of Prague founded. 1350 Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III. 1351 John king of France. 1352 The Turks first enter Europe. 1355 The Golden Bull fixes the constitution of the German empire. 1356 Battle of Poictiers. Black Prince. 1357 Coals first used in London. 1360 Peace of Bretigny. Aquitaine ceded to England. 1361 The Turks conquer Adrianople; settle in Europe; establish the military order of Janizaries. 1362 Edward III. abolishes the use of French in the English courts of law. 1365 Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded. 1370 War between England and France renewed. 1377 Pope returns to Rome. Richard II. king of England. Doctrines of Wickliffe propagated. 1378 Two popes, Urban VI. at Rome, Clement VII. at Avignon. 1380 Tamerlane (or Timour) the Mogul conqueror, subdues Chorasan. 1381 Wat Tyler and Jack Straw's insurrection in England. Bills of exchange used by the English. 1383 Cannon employed in the defence of Calais. 1384 First navigation act in England. Windsor Castle built. 1386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia. 1388 Battle of Otterburn. Douglas. Percy. 1392 Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese. 1395 Hungarians defeated by the Turks. 1398 Delhi taken by Tamerlane. 1399 Henry IV. (of the house of Lancaster) king of England. Order of the Bath instituted. 1400 Wenceslaus, emperor of Germany, deposed by the electoral princes. 1401 First final law against heresy in England. William Saute, a Wickliffite, the first victim. 1402 Battle of Homeldon; 1403, of Shrewsbury. — Moguls under Tamerlane defeat the Turks under Bajazet at Angora; 1405, death of Tamerlane. 1406 James I. king of Scots. 1411 University of St Andrews founded. 1412 Algebra taught in Europe by the Arabs. 1413 Henry V. king of England. Persecution of the Lollards. 1414 Council of Constance deposes two popes. Pontificate vacant for three years. 1415 Civil war of the Burgundians and Armagnacs in France. Invasion of Henry V. Battle of Agincourt. John Huss and (1416) Jerome of Prague consigned to the flames for heresy by the council of Constance. 1417 First mention of the Bohemians or gypsies in Europe. Paper made from linen rags. 1420 The island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. Treaty of Troyes. Henry V. regent of France.

1421 The Turks invest Constantinople; conclude a ten years' truce with the Christians.

1422 Henry VI. king of England and (by treaty of Troyes) of France. Charles VII. takes arms in support of his claim to the crown of France.

1424 French and Scots defeated at Verneuil by the Duke of Bedford.

1425 Court of Session in Scotland instituted by James I.

1428 Siege of Orleans; raised by Joan of Arc.

1430 Charles VII. crowned at Rheims; Henry VI. at Paris.

1431 Maid of Orleans (Joan of Arc) burnt for sorcery. Rise of the Medici family at Florence.

1432 The Azores discovered by the Portuguese.

1437 James II. king of Scots.

1439 Temporary re-union of the Greek and Latin churches.

1440 Art of printing invented by John Gutenberg.

1442 African slave trade commences.

1444 Truce with Turkey broken by the Christians. Battle of Varna. Scanderbeg frees Albania from the Turkish yoke.

1445 Constantine Paleologus last emperor of the East.

1446 Vatican library founded at Rome.

1450 Mahommed II. emperor of the Turks.

1453 The Turks take Constantinople, and extinguish the eastern empire of the Romans. A standing army established in France. The English retain Calais alone of their continental possessions. War in France at an end.

1454 University of Glasgow founded.

1455 Civil war between the royal houses of York and Lancaster, or "war of the Roses." Battle of St Albans.

1456 The Turks defeated before Belgrade by John Hunyadi.

1459 Engraving on copper invented.

1460 James III. king of Scots. Battles of Northampton and Wakefield.

1461 Edward (of the house of York) proclaimed king of England by his party. Battle of Towton. Louis XI. king of France.

1464 Stages, diligences, and posts established in France.

1468 The Orkney and Shetland islands united to the kingdom of Scotland.

1470 Edward IV. driven from England. Henry VI. restored to the throne.

1471 Return of Edward. Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury; destruction of the Lancastrian party.

1474 Cape Verde Islands discovered by the Portuguese.

1477 University of Aberdeen established.

1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile; establish the inquisition in their dominions. Russia freed from Tartar subjection.

1481 Death of Mahommed II.

1483 Charles VIII. king of France. Edward V. king of England murdered. Richard III. king of England.

1485 Richard (last English king of the Plantagenet dynasty) is slain in the battle of Bosworth. Henry earl of Richmond becomes king; styled Henry VII.

1486 and 1487 Imposture of Lambert Simnel.

1488 James IV. king of Scots.

1491 Granada, the last possession of the Moors in Spain, subdued by Ferdinand and Isabella. Bretagne, the last independent fief in France, re-united to the crown. Opposition of Henry VII.; bought off (1492) by the treaty of Estaples.

1492 Hispaniola and Cuba discovered by Christopher Columbus.

1493 Maximilian I. emperor of Germany.

1494 Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. Continent of America discovered by Columbus.

1496 Newfoundland discovered by Sebastian Cabot.

1497 Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, doubles the Cape of Good Hope, and sails to the East Indies.

1498 Louis XII. king of France.

1499 North America discovered by Cabot. Execution of Perkin Warbeck, pretended son of Edward IV. Conquest of the Milanese by Louis XII.

1500 The Portuguese discover Brazil.

— to 1504 War between the kings of France and Spain for the possession of Naples. Treaty of Blois. Pope Julius II.

1507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese.

1508 Julius II. forms the league of Cambray against Venice. Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba colonized by the Spaniards.

1509 Henry VIII. king of England. Battle of Agnadel.

1510 Julius dissolves the league of Cambray; acts against his ally Louis XII. General wars.

— to 1515 Goa, Malacca, Ormus, conquered by the Portuguese. Albuquerque.

1512 Council of Pisa. Navarre united to Spain. Battle of Ravenna.

1513 Invasion of France by Henry VIII. Battle of Spurs. Invasion of England by the Scots. Battle of Flodden; James IV. slain. James V. king of Scots. South Sea entered by Nugnez Balboa.

1514 General pacification among the European powers.

1515 Francis I. king of France. Invasion of Italy. Battle of Marignan. The Milanese submit to France.

1516 Charles of Austria (the grandson of Ferdinand) king of Spain.

1517 Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. The Turks end the sway of the Mamelukes in Egypt. China visited by Ferdinand d'Andrada, a Portuguese.

1518 Pope Leo X. condemns Luther's doctrines.

1519 Charles king of Spain is elected emperor of Germany. Magellan explores the South Seas.

1520 Reformation in Switzerland. Zuingleus. Sweden and Denmark united. Massacre of Stockholm by Christiern II.

1521 Luther cited before the diet of Worms. Gustavus Vasa king of Sweden. Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. General wars renewed by Charles and Francis. Ladrones and Philippine islands discovered by Magellan.

1522 First voyage round the world performed by a ship of Magellan's squadron. Rhodes taken by the Turks; also Belgrade in 1523.

1523 The Spaniards subdue Chili.

1524 Sweden and Denmark embrace Lutheranism.

— Battle of Biagrassoa. Death of the Chevalier Bayard.

1525 Grand Master of the Teutonic order makes himself hereditary duke of Prussia. Battle of Pavia. Captivity of Francis I.

1526 Treaty of Madrid. Holy League. The Turks acquire the sovereignty of Moldavia and Wallachia.

1527 Rome sacked by the army of Charles V. Pope made prisoner. Pizarro begins the conquest of Peru. The Bermudas discovered by John Bermudez, a Spaniard.

1529 The Turks threaten Vienna. Peace of Cambray. 1530 Diet and confession of Augsburg. League of Smalcald. Secretary of state appointed in England.

1532 Treaty of Nuremberg; the German Protestants obtain liberty of conscience. Court of Session remodelled by James V.

1533 Henry VIII. quarrels with the Holy See; 1534, is declared by parliament "The only supreme head of the church of England upon earth."

1534 Anabaptist republic at Munster. Jack of Leyden. Barbarossa seizes the kingdom of Tunis.

1535 Society of the Jesuits instituted by Loyola. Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis.

1536 Renewal of war between Charles and Francis; Milan the cause. Invasion of France.

1538 Dissolution of all the monasteries in England. English Bible read in the churches. Turks defeat the Germans at Essek on the Drave. Barbarossa ravages the coasts of Italy. Truce of Nice.

1540 Reformation at Geneva. Calvin. Variation of the compass noticed by Cabot.

1541 Great part of Hungary subdued by the Turks. Disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Algiers.

1542 Renewal of hostilities between France and the empire. The Turks allies of Francis. Henry VIII. makes war with Scotland. Battle of Solway Moss. Mary Queen of Scots. Japan visited by Ferdinand Mendez Pinto.

1544 Battle of Cerisoles. Peace of Crespi.

1545 Battle of Ancrum Muir.

1546 Peace concluded between Charles V. and Turkey. Council of Trent meets. Religious war in Germany.

1547 Battle of Mulhausen. Henry II. king of France; Edward VI. king of England; Duke of Somerset protector. Battle of Pinkney. Orange trees brought from China to Portugal.

1548 The Interim published and enforced in Germany.

1549 English liturgy completed. Telescopes invented.

1551 War of Parma.

1552 The German Protestants assisted by Henry II. of France. Peace of religion concluded at Passau. War with France continues; siege of Metz.

1553 Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England; obliged to resign the crown to the Princess Mary. Queen Mary attempts to restore the Catholic religion, and (1555) persecutes the Protestants.

1555 Recess of Augsburg. Charles V. resigns the Spanish dominions to his son Philip, and Germany to his brother Ferdinand. Truce of Vaucelles.

1556 War rekindled in Italy and the Low Countries. Waigat's Strait discovered by Stephen Borough.

1557 England joins Spain against France. Battle of St Quentin. Calais taken by the French.

1558 Elizabeth queen of England. Marriage of Mary queen of Scots to the dauphin.

1559 Peace of Chateau Cambressis. Francis II. king of France.

1560 Charles IX. king of France. Struggle between the French Catholic and Protestant parties commences. Papal jurisdiction abolished, and Presbyterian worship established in North Britain by the Scots Parliament. John Knox.

1561 Mary queen of Scots returns from France to her own dominions. Persecution of the Dutch and Flemish Protestants by Philip II. of Spain; the cause (in 1566) of a war in the Low Countries.

1562 Religious war rages in France. Battle of Dreux.

1563 The Protestants obtain toleration.

1564 The Turks fail in an attempt to take Malta.

1565 Marriage of the queen of Scots to Lord Darnley. Catholic or Holy League of Bayonne negotiated.

1566 Revolt of the Low Countries from Philip II. His governor (Duke of Alva) commits great cruelties. Flemish refugees establish manufactures in England.

1567 Religious war in France renewed. Battle of St Denis. Lord Darnley murdered. A resignation of the crown is extorted from Mary; her son is proclaimed king (James VI.), and the Earl of Murray appointed regent. Solomon Isles discovered by Mendana.

1568 Battle of Langside. Mary escapes into England; is put under restraint by Elizabeth. Philip II. employs the inquisition to exterminate the Moors in Spain.

1569 The Regent Murray assassinated. French Protestants defeated at Jarnac and Moncontours.

1570 Treaty of St Germain en Laye. The French Protestants obtain an amnesty, liberty of conscience, and other privileges. Queen Elizabeth excommunicated by the pope.

1571 The Turks conquer Cyprus; are defeated in the naval action of Lepanto.

1572 Massacre of St Bartholomew. The Brille taken by Flemish privateers (the Gueux).

1573 Siege of Haarlem. Requesens succeeds Alva in the Low Countries. Siege of Rochelle. Toleration granted to the French Protestants.

1574 Henry III. king of France. Africa invaded by Don Sebastian, king of Portugal. Siege of Leyden.

1576 The Catholic league in France formed against the Protestants. Frobisher's Straits discovered by Sir Martin Frobisher.

1578 Elizabeth supports the insurgents in the Low Countries. The Spaniards are defeated at Rimenant.

1579 Union of Utrecht. Battle of Alcagar; king of Portugal slain.

1581 Philip II. takes possession of Portugal. The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. Parish registers kept in England.

1582 Raid of Ruthven; James VI. seized by the Earl of Gowrie. Reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII.

1584 William Prince of Orange murdered. Siege of Antwerp by the Duke of Parma. Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. Tobacco used in England.

1586 Babington's conspiracy against the life of Elizabeth.

1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded. French Protestants defeat the army of the league at Coutras. Davis' Straits explored by John Davis.

1588 Spanish Armada sent to invade England.

1589 Henry III. joins the Protestants under the king of Navarre; besieges Paris; is assassinated. Henry IV. (of Navarre) king of France. Coaches first used in England.

1590 Henry obtains aid from England; defeats the army of the league at Ivri. Telescopes first made.

1591 Elizabeth re-endows the University of Dublin.

1594 Earl of Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. Falkland Isles discovered by Hawkins.

1595 The Dutch establish factories in Java.

1597 Watches brought to England from Germany. 1598 Edict of Nantes in favour of the French Protestants. Reduction of Cadiz by an English armament. Peace of Vervins between France and Spain. Philip III., king of Spain.

1599 Eastern possessions of Spain and Portugal seized by the Dutch. Earl of Essex sent to suppress Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland.

1600 Gowrie's conspiracy in Scotland. English East India Company established. Battle of Nieuport. Thermometer.

1601 Ostend invested by the Archduke Albert.

1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.

1603 Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland, James VI. of Scotland becoming king of Great Britain.

1604 Ostend reduced by Spinola.

1605 Gun-powder plot.

1606 English colonies settled in Virginia and New England.

1608 Galileo constructs telescopes; discovers the satellites of Jupiter; spots; rotation of the sun.

1609 Spain acknowledges the independence of the United Provinces. Evangelical union and Catholic league formed in Germany.

1610 Henry IV., murdered by Ravaillac. Louis XIII., king of France. Hudson's Bay discovered.

1611 Baronets first created in England by James I. Smolensko seized, and Moscow burnt by the Poles.

1614 Logarithms invented by Napier of Merchiston. New river brought to London by Sir Hugh Middleton.

1616 The English establish factories in Amboyna, Banda, &c. Baffin's Bay discovered. Cape Horn.

1617 Family compact of the Emperor Mathias; alarming to the evangelical union.

1618 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War.

1619 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany. Circulation of the blood discovered by Dr Harvey. Vanini burnt at Toulouse for atheism.

1620 Battle of Prague. Elector Palatine loses his dominions. Catholicism forced upon the Protestants of Bearn. The French reformers take arms with the intention of establishing a republic. The English make a settlement at Madras.

1621 Philip IV., king of Spain. Batavia built by the Dutch. The English House of Commons claim unlimited freedom of debate; beginning of the disputes concerning privilege and prerogative.

1623 Knights of Nova Scotia instituted by James I. Peace between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects. Edict of Nantes confirmed.

1624 Massacre of the English settlers in Amboyna by the Dutch.

1625 Charles I., king of Great Britain. Barbadoes colonized by the English.

1626 League of the Protestant princes of Germany against the emperor. War between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects renewed; the latter supported by England. Richelieu, Buckingham.

1627-8 Siege of Rochelle. English Bill of Rights.

1629 France and (1630) Sweden join the enemies of the emperor.

1631 Battle of Leipsic; Imperialists defeated. Description of the Vernier published.

1632 Battle of Lutzen; Gustavus Adolphus slain Christina queen of Sweden. English non-conformists emigrate in great numbers to North America, and form many settlements.

1632 to 1697 The Buccaneers wage implacable war with the Spaniards in America.

1634 Battle of Nordlingen. Evangelical union disposed to peace.

1635 Treaty of Prague. Sweden and France continue the war. French academy instituted.

1637 Ferdinand III., emperor of Germany.

1638 Bagdad taken by the Turks.

1639 The Scottish Covenanters take arms in defence of Presbytery. Reflecting telescope constructed by Mersenne.

1640 John, duke of Braganza, recovers the kingdom of Portugal. Long Parliament assembled.

1641 Earl of Strafford beheaded. Irish rebellion; massacre of the Protestants in Ulster.

1642 Civil war between Charles I. and the Long Parliament. Battle of Edgehill. Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand discovered by Tasman.

1643 Louis XIV., king of France. Anne of Austria regent. Battle of Rocroi. Solemn league and covenant between the English and Scottish parliaments. Friendly Islands; Tasman. Barometer; Torricelli.

1644 The Tartars subdue China. Battle of Marston Moor.

1645 Execution of Archbishop Laud. Battle of Naseby.

1646 Royalist force completely broken; Charles surrenders to the Scottish army; civil war ended.

1648 Peace of Westphalia. War of the Fronde at Paris. Exclusion of Presbyterians from the House of Commons (Pride's Purge). Rump Parliament.

1649 Charles I. beheaded. Monarchy abolished in England. Commonwealth. Prince of Wales assumes the title of Charles II. The Covenanters declare him king of Scotland. Cromwell storms Drogheda and Wexford; 1650, defeats Charles at Dunbar; and 1651, at Worcester. Commonwealth recognised by every dependence of the British kingdoms, and by foreign states.

1651 Office of stadtholder abolished by the Dutch. English act of navigation passed.

1652 First war between the English and Dutch.

1653 Dissolution of the Rump Parliament by Cromwell.

1654 End of the commonwealth of England. Cromwell lord protector.

1655 Persecution of the Waldenses. Cromwell joins France in a war against Spain. Jamaica reduced by Penn, an English admiral. Blake destroys the shipping in the harbours of Tunis and (1657) Santa Cruz. Fourth satellite of Saturn discovered by Huygens. Pendulum clocks made.

1656 Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, procures a recognition of the independence of Prussia.

1658 Spaniards totally defeated near the Downs. Dunkirk taken and delivered to the English. Richard Cromwell lord protector of England. Copenhagen besieged by Charles X. of Sweden.

1659 Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. Richard Cromwell resigns his office. Rump Parliament re-assembles. Micrometer; Huygens.

1660 Charles II. restored to the throne of Great Britain. Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland.

1661 Sir Henry Vane, the Marquis of Argyle, and others, executed for treason.

1662 Act of uniformity passed by the English Parliament; two thousand clergymen in one day resign their benefices. Dunkirk sold back to the French. Royal Society of London instituted. 1663 Carolina planted. Bombay taken by the English. French academy of inscriptions instituted.

1664 to 1667 Second Dutch war. Many naval actions fought; success various.

1665 Charles II. king of Spain. Great plague in London. Rotation of Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, observed by Cassini.

1666 Great fire of London. Ten first imported into England. The academy of sciences instituted in France. The Covenanters defeated on Pentland Hills.

1667 Peace of Breda; end of second Dutch war. Louis invades the Spanish Netherlands. Triple alliance.

1668 Peace of Aix la Chapelle.

1669 Candia taken by the Turks. Cabal administration in England. Secret treaty with France against Holland.

1670 English Hudson's Bay Company incorporated.

1671 The Danes seize the island of St Thomas. Fifth satellite of Saturn discovered by Cassini.

1672 Louis and Charles unite against the Dutch. Naval action of Southwold. Louis overruns the greater part of the seven United Provinces. Office of stadtholder restored.

1673 Catholics excluded from office in Britain by the test act. Spain and Germany support the Dutch. French evacuate the United Provinces.

1674 Separate treaty concluded between Great Britain and Holland. Louis continues the war alone. Battle of Seneffe. John Sobieski king of Poland.

1674–5 Palatinate devastated by Turenne.

1676 Charles concludes a secret treaty with Louis; becomes a pensioner of France. Carolina colonized by the English.

1677 War between Russia and Turkey. Marriage of the Princess Mary, presumptive heiress of the British crown, to the Prince of Orange.

1678 A British force is raised to assist the Dutch, but immediately disbanded, through the influence of French gold over the king and House of Commons. Peace of Nimeguen. Popish plot.

1679 Habeas Corpus act passed by the parliament of England. Rising of the covenanters in the west of Scotland. Battle of Bothwell Bridge. Whig and Tory become party names.

1680 Bill for excluding the Duke of York (because a papist) from the succession passed by the Lower and rejected by the Upper House. Pennsylvania colonized.

1682 Peter the Great czar of Muscovy. Charters of London and other towns seized by Charles.

1683 Rye-House plot. Execution of Lord Russell and Algernon Sydney. Turks defeated before Vienna by John Sobieski.

1684 Louis XIV. acquires Strasbourg and Luxemburg.

1685 James II. king of Great Britain. Louis XIV. revokes the edict of Nantes. Duke of Monmouth invades the west of England. James suspends the test act.

1686 Newtonian philosophy published. Air-pump. League of Augsburg against France.

1687 Expulsion of the president and fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford.

1688 Declaration of general indulgence issued by James. Prosecution of the primate and six bishops. Union of all parties in defence of the constitution. Prince of Orange lands in England. James escapes to France. The Revolution.

1689 English and Scottish conventions settle the British crown on William and Mary, 13th February. Act of toleration. Presbytery established in Scotland. Battle of Killiecrankie; death of Dundee. Siege of Londonderry.

1690 Battle of the Boyne. The English establish themselves at Calcutta.

1691 Treaty of Limerick. Ireland renounces the authority of James.

1692 Massacre of Glencoe. Battle of La Hogue. Reduction of Namur by the French. Battle of Steinkirk. Hanover made an electorate.

1693 Funding system commenced. Bank of England established.

1694 Triennial bill. Death of Queen Mary.

1695 Namur retaken by William.

1697 Peace of Ryswick. Peter the Great defeats the Turks and takes Azoph. Charles XII. king of Sweden. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Zenta.

1698 England, Holland, and France, concert a secret treaty for the partition of Spain on the death of Charles II. Charles makes a will in favour of the Elector of Bavaria.

1699 Peace of Carlowitz between the Christian powers and Turkey. Scots plant a colony at Darien. Death of the Elector of Bavaria.

1700 Second partition treaty. Will of Charles in favour of the Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin. Poland, Denmark, and Russia, form an alliance against Sweden. Charles XII. takes Copenhagen. Academy of Berlin. New Britain discovered by Dampier.

1701 Succession to the crown of Great Britain settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and her protestant heirs. Death of Charles II. of Spain. Duke of Anjou proclaimed by the title of Philip V. The emperor disputes his claim, and takes the field in Italy. Grand alliance. Battle of Narva; the Russians defeated by Charles XII. Death of James II. His son acknowledged king of Great Britain by Louis. England joins the grand alliance. War of the Spanish succession.

1702 Anne queen of Great Britain. Marlborough commander-in-chief of the allied army in Flanders. Battle of Friedlingen; the imperialists defeated. Spanish and French fleet destroyed in the harbour of Vigo. Charles XII. takes Warsaw; defeats Augustus, king of Poland, at Clissow; enters Cracow. French send colonies to the Mississippi.

1703 Duke of Savoy and king of Portugal join the grand alliance. Villars defeats the imperialists at Hochstet. Archduke Charles assumes the title of king of Spain. Charles XII. defeats Augustus at Pultusk. St Petersburg founded.

1704 Battle of Blenheim. Gibraltar taken; French fleet defeated off Malaga by Sir G. Rooke. Augustus dethroned, and Stanislaus Leszinski chosen king of Poland.

1705 Joseph I. emperor of Germany. The Archduke Charles, supported by a British armament, reduces Valencia and Catalonia. The Russians, entering Poland, are defeated and driven beyond the Dnieper by Charles XII.

1706 Battle of Ramillies. Siege of Turin; raised by Prince Eugene. Madrid taken by the English and Portuguese; retaken by Philip. Majorca and Ivica reduced by a British fleet. Battle of Frauenstadt; Russians and Saxons defeated. Augustus acknowledges Stanislaus as king of Poland. 1707 Legislative union of England and Scotland finally arranged (March 6). Italian dominions of Spain subdued by the allies. Battle of Almanza; the allies defeated. The French carry war into Germany; penetrate to the Danube. Siege of Toulon.

1708 The Pretender makes a fruitless attempt to enter the Forth with a French armament. Battle of Oudenarde. Siege of Lisle. Sardinia and Minorca reduced by the British. Charles XII. invades Russia.

1709 Louis XIV. offers the whole Spanish dominion to the house of Austria, and large concessions to the other allies; these proposals rejected. Siege of Mons. Battle of Malplaquet; the French defeated, and Mons taken. Battle of Pultowa; king of Sweden defeated by the czar. Augustus restored to the throne of Poland.

1710 Conferences of Geertruydenberg. Douay, Aire, and other places within the French frontier reduced. Battle of Almenara. The allies again at Madrid, and again obliged by the French and Spaniards to retire. Trial of Dr Sacheverell. Change of the English ministry. Intrigues in favour of the Pretender; abetted by the queen. The czar conquers Carelia and Livonia. St Paul's Cathedral rebuilt.

1711 Charles, competitor with Philip for the crown of Spain, becomes emperor of Germany. Secret treaty negotiated between the French and English Courts. Creation of British peers to support the measure. The czar invades Turkey. Concludes (to save his army from destruction) a disadvantageous treaty with the Porte. English South Sea Company incorporated.

1712 The Duke of Ormond supersedes Marlborough; separates the British from the allied forces. The French retake Douay and other towns.

1713 Treaty of Utrecht signed 31st March. Hostilities continued by the emperor alone. Landau, Freyberg, and other towns reduced by the French. Pragmatic sanction.

1714 Treaty of Rastadt. George I. (elector of Hanover) king of Great Britain. Louis XV. king of France; Duke of Orleans regent. Peter the Great defeats the Swedes at Sea; subdues the isle of Oeland.

1715 An army of Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, besieges Stralsund; the defence conducted by Charles XII. Rebellion in Scotland. Battle of Sheriffmuir. The Turks take the Morea from the Venetians. Compensation pendulum; Graham.

1716 Charles XII. invades Norway. Bill for Septennial parliaments passed by the British legislature. Emperor supports Venice against Turkey. Battle of Peterwaradin; the Turks defeated.

1717 Prince Eugene invests Belgrade; defeats the Turkish army; takes the town.

1718 Peace of Passarowitz. Turkey retains the Morea. Quadruple alliance. England attacks Spain by sea, France by land. Charles XII. falls at the siege of Fredericksball; his death followed by a cessation of arms among the northern powers.

1719-20 Mississippi scheme in France. South Sea scheme in England.

1720 Philip of Spain accedes to the terms of the quadruple alliance. Treaties of peace concluded by the sovereigns of Hanover, Sweden, Prussia, and Denmark. Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia. Inoculation practised in England.

1721 George I. supports Sweden against Russia. Treaty of Nystadt. Peter assumes the title "Emperor of Russia." Ruin of the South Sea scheme. Great mercantile distress in Britain.

1722 Peter the Great supports the shah of Persia against the Afghans; obtains the cession of three provinces on the shores of the Caspian. Jacobite conspiracy in favour of the Pretender defeated.

1723 Duke of Orleans, regent of France, dies.

1724 Philip V. resigns the crown of Spain to his son Louis; resumes it after his son's death. Academy of sciences of St Petersburg instituted.

1725 Catherine empress of Russia. Treaty of Vienna between the emperor and the king of Spain; and of Hanover between France, England, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, in opposition to the former.

1726 A British fleet sent to blockade Porto Bello.

1727 Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. Congress of Soissons. George II. king of Great Britain. Peter II. emperor of Russia.

1728 Treaty between Great Britain and Holland. Books printed at Constantinople. Bering Strait discovered.

1729 Peace of Seville concluded between France, Spain, and Great Britain. Corsica revolts from the Genoese. Rise of methodism in England; John Wesley.

1730 The Persians under Kouli Khan defeat the Turks. Aberration of the fixed stars observed by Dr Bradley. Fahrenheit's thermometer.

1731 Treaty of Vienna. Pragmatic sanction guaranteed by the parties to the peace of Seville. Don Carlos, son of Philip V., succeeds to the duchies of Parma and Placentia.

1732 Culture of coffee introduced by the English into their American settlements.

1733 Death of Augustus II. War for the crown of Poland. Stanislaus the ex-king supported by France and Spain; the elector of Saxony by the emperor and Russia.

1734 The French and their allies take Philipsburg; possess themselves of Naples and Sicily; defeat the imperialists at Bitonto, Parma, Guastalla. Treaty of commerce concerted between Great Britain and Russia.

1735 Preliminaries of a treaty (Vienna) settled between the courts of Paris and Vienna—Stanislaus to resign Poland and obtain the duchy of Lorraine—the Duke of Lorraine, Tuscany—Don Carlos, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in exchange for Parma and Placentia.

1736 Empress of Russia (Anne) commences hostilities against Turkey; reduces Azoph; ravages the Crimea. Kouli Khan seizes the throne of Persia; takes the name "Nadir Schah." Porteous mob at Edinburgh.

1737 Ockzakoff taken by the Russians.

1738 Definitive treaty of Vienna, between France and Germany. The emperor joins Russia against Turkey. Nadir Schah subdues Candahar.

1739 The Turks defeat the imperialists in Hungary; conclude an advantageous peace with Germany and Russia. Convention of Prado. War between Great Britain and Spain. Reduction of Porto Bello.

1740 Frederick III. (the Great) king of Prussia. Death of the emperor Charles VI. Pragmatic sanction, securing the hereditary dominions of Austria to Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles, disregarded. War of the Austrian succession.

1741 Battle of Molwitz; Frederick defeats the Austrians; receives the submission of Silesia. The elector of Bavaria claims Bohemia and the imperial crown; gains the support of France; carries Prague by assault; is crowned king of Bohemia. British parliament grants a subsidy to Maria Theresa. Sweden declares war against Russia; battle of Wilmanstrand. Siege of Carthagena. Expedition to the South Sea under Commodore Anson.

1742 Elector of Bavaria chosen emperor (Charles VII.). British army sent into the Netherlands to support Maria Theresa. The Austrians recover Linz; take Munich. Battle of Czaslau. Peace of Breslau between Austria, Prussia, and Poland. Retreat of the French and Bavarians; siege of Prague. Convention of Turin between Austria and Sardinia. Austrian dominions in Italy attacked by Spain; with little success.

1743 French driven from the Palatinate. Battle of Dettingen. French defeated by the British. Treaty of Worms between Austria and Sardinia. Family compact; France and Spain. Peace of Aho; Russia and Sweden. War between Nadir Schah and Turkey. Society of Sciences of Copenhagen. University of Erlangen.

1744 Invasion of England, in favour of the Pretender, attempted by France. War declared between France and England. French and Spaniards overrun Savoy. Treaty of Frankfort between France and Prussia.

1745 Death of Charles VII.; his son Maximilian Joseph consents to guarantee the pragmatic sanction, and concludes peace with Maria Theresa. France and Spain continue the war. Battle of Fontenoy. Francis duke of Tuscany (husband of Maria Theresa) chosen emperor. Treaty of Dresden; internal peace of Germany restored. Prince Charles Edward, grandson of James II., lands in Scotland; takes Edinburgh; defeats the king's army at Prestonpans; marches into England. Habeas corpus act suspended; militia called out. Duke of Cumberland takes the command of the army. The prince retreats into Scotland.

1746 Siege of Stirling castle. Battle of Culloden. The rebellion entirely suppressed. Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault subdued by the French. Battle of Roucoux gained by the French, and of St Lazaro by the Austrians. Ferdinand VI., king of Spain. Genoa garrisoned by Austrians; the garrison expelled by the Genoese. Madras reduced by the French.

1747 Neutral territory of the United Provinces invaded by the French. Prince of Orange (William IV.) declared stadtholder, and hostilities commenced with France. Battle of Val; allies under the Duke of Cumberland defeated. Bergen-op-Zoom taken by the French. Siege of Genoa. French defeated at sea; off Cape Finisterre by Admiral Anson; off Belleisle by Admiral Hawke. Nadir Schah assassinated.

1748 Pondicherry in the East, Cuba and Hispaniola in the West Indies, attacked by British armaments. Siege of Maastricht. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Austria, Sardinia, and Holland.

1749 Kingdom of Afghanistan founded by Achmet Abdallah, a general of Nadir Schah. League of the Pope, Venetians, &c., against Algiers. English and French in the East Indies take opposite sides in a contest of native princes for the nabobship of Arcot.

1750 Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden and Denmark concerning Holstein. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and Spain. Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. Royal Society of Gottingen. Westminster Bridge finished.

1751 Siege of Arcot. Captain Clive. Death of Frederick Prince of Wales.

1752 New style adopted in Britain; September 2d reckoned September 14th.

1753 Hostilities in India continued; advantage generally on the British side. British Museum established.

1754 The French (having connected Canada and Louisiana by a chain of forts) attempt to circumscribe the British American colonies; attack Nova Scotia and Virginia. War in India concluded; non-interference with native governments a stipulation of the treaty.

1755 Armaments sent by Great Britain and France to support their respective American colonies. Expeditions of General Braddock against the French posts on the Ohio, of Sir W. Johnson against Crown Point, of General Shirley against Niagara,—all unsuccessful. Maritime commerce of France distressed by British cruisers. Treaty between George II. and Russia for defence of Hanover. Foundation of the Burman empire in the eastern peninsula of India. Destruction of Lisbon by an earthquake.

1756 Kings of Britain and Prussia conclude a treaty for the exclusion of foreign troops from Germany; Austria, Russia, Sweden, and France, another for the partition of Prussia. Minorca attacked by the French. Declaration of war between Great Britain and France. Militia bill; rejected by the Peers. German mercenaries brought to defend Britain from invasion. Admiral Byng attempts to relieve Minorca; fails; the island submits. Calcutta taken by the Soubahadar of Bengal; garrison thrust into the Black Hole; 123 die of suffocation. King of Prussia invades Saxony (beginning of the Seven Years' War); takes Dresden; enters Bohemia; defeats the Austrians at Lwow-sitz. William Pitt prime minister of George II.

1757 Admiral Byng tried for misconduct off Minorca; shot. French troops pass the Rhine to invade Hanover. Pitt, opposing British interference with the affairs of Germany, is dismissed from office. Duke of Cumberland sent to defend the electorate. Battle of Reichenberg; the Austrians, repulsed by the Prussians, retreat to Prague. Battle; siege of Prague; battle of Colin; siege raised. Memel taken by the Russians. Duke of Cumberland repulsed and driven from the electorate. Convention of Closter-Seven. Pitt reinstated. Frederick gains the battles of Rosbach and Lissa; the Russians return home. The Hanoverians rise against the French. Colonel Clive recovers Calcutta; defeats the Soubahadar of Bengal at Plassey; lays the foundation of the British power in India. The Hanoverians drive the French across the Rhine. Britain and Prussia engage not to treat but in concert, and the former grants the latter a large subsidy. Battle of Crevelt; the French defeated by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Battle of Sangershausen; the prince defeated. Frederick en- 1759 Frankfort on the Maine (a neutral city) seized by the French. Battle of Minden; French defeated by Prince Ferdinand. The Russians enter Silesia; defeat Frederick at Cunersdorff. Guadaloupe reduced. Battle of Quebec; death of General Wolfe; surrender of Quebec. British gain advantages in the East Indies; take Surat. French fleet under Conflans, destined for the invasion of Britain, destroyed by Admiral Hawke; another, under Thurot, pillages Carrickfergus; is captured off the Isle of Man (February 1760).

1760 Three armies, Austrian, Russian, and Swedish, surround Frederick at Lagnitz; he defeats the Austrians, and prevents their junction. The Russians pillage Berlin. Battle of Torgau; the Austrians again defeated. Siege of Quebec by the French; raised. Province of Canada submits to Britain. Siege of Pondicherry. George III. king of Great Britain.

1761 Pondicherry taken; French power in India destroyed. Negotiations for a general pacification opened at London and Paris. Belleisle reduced by a British armament. Family compact of the Bourbons; Pitt proposes instant war with Spain; resigns; Earl of Bute succeeds as premier. Negotiations broken off.

1762 War declared by the courts of London and Madrid. Spaniards invade Portugal; are expelled by British assistance. Peter III. emperor of Russia; he concludes an offensive and defensive alliance with Sweden, a peace with Prussia. Catherine II. empress of Russia; adheres to the peace, but withdraws her troops. The West India islands belonging to France, the town of Havannah, with a great part of Cuba, and the Philippine Islands, belonging to Spain, subdued by British armaments. Preliminaries of a treaty signed at Fontainbleau (November 3).

1763 Treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg; France cedes to Britain Canada, Cape Breton, St Vincent, Tobago, and the coast of Senegal; Spain cedes Florida; Prussia and Austria mutually restore conquests; end of the Seven Years' War. Parliaments of Paris, Rouen, &c. declare against the arbitrary imposition of taxes. Grenville administration formed. Wilkes expelled from the House of Commons.

1764 Stanislaus Poniatowski king of Poland. Byron's voyage.

1765 British government suggests the taxation of the North American colonies. Stamp act. Opposition of the colonies. Rockingham administration.

1766 Repeal of the stamp act. Grafton administration. Civil war in Poland arising out of religious differences. Death of James Stuart, son of James II.

1767 Jesuits banished from Spain and the Indies, Naples and Sicily. British government imposes new taxes on the American colonies. Russia and Prussia interfere in the domestic broils and government of Poland. Otaheite discovered by Wallis.

1768 Riots at Boston in North America. Corsica ceded by Genoa to France. War between Russia and Turkey, arising out of the interference of the former in the affairs of Poland. Royal Academy established. Voyage of Bougainville.

1769 House of Commons annul the votes of the Middlesex electors. Wilkes. Luttrell.

1770 Dispute between Britain and Spain respecting the Falkland Islands; compromised without honour to Britain (1771). Russians send an armament into the Mediterranean; obtain a footing in the Morea; destroy Turkish fleet off Scio; subdue Moldavia and Wallachia. Blackfriars Bridge finished.

1771 House of Commons issue an order for the apprehension of the printers and publishers of certain parliamentary debates. Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, an alderman of London, resisting the execution of the order, are sent to the Tower by command of the house. From this period the proceedings in both houses of Parliament have been regularly reported in the newspapers. Members of the parliament of Paris deprived of their offices, and banished to different parts of the country. Turks defeated near Bucharest, and in the Crimea. Cooke's first voyage.

1772 Treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, for the partition of Poland. British American colonies claim the sole right of legislating for themselves.

1773 First partition of Poland. Society of the Jesuits suppressed in France. Constitution of the British East India Company settled by act of Parliament, on nearly the existing basis. Assembly of Massachusetts Bay pass a resolution against the importation of tea; a quantity thrown into the sea at Boston.

1774 Peace of Kainargi; the Crimean independent; Russian frontier advanced into Turkey. Port of Boston closed by act of Parliament. Congress of twelve provinces at Philadelphia. Louis XVI. king of France. New Caledonia discovered by Cook.

1775 War of American independence. Battle of Bunker's Hill. General congress of thirteen provinces. Washington commander in chief. Louis XVI. restores the parliament of Paris. Spain engaged in war with the Moors and Algerines.

1776 The United States of North America declare themselves independent (July 4). Philosophical administration in France.

1777 Capitulation of General Burgoyne at Saratoga. Alliance between France and Switzerland.

1778 To prevent an alliance between the American colonies and France, the British government offer to concede the right of self-taxation to the colonial assemblies—without effect: the alliance is concluded. A British fleet is sent to cruise against the French. War of the Bavarian succession; Austria and Prussia the belligerents. Sandwich Islands discovered by Cook.

1779 Treaty of Teschen between Austria, Prussia, and Bavaria. Spain joins France in the war against Britain. Islands St Vincent and Grenada reduced by the French. Holland refuses Britain the assistance stipulated by treaty 1678. Captain Cook killed at Owhyhee.

1780 War in India with the Mahrattas and Hyder Ali. Riots in London; Lord George Gordon. South Carolina reduced. The Americans defeated at Camden. Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St Vincent, and French in the American seas, by Rodney. Armed neutrality; Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, Portugal, German and Italian States, the parties. War declared against Holland.

1781 St Eustatia and the colonies of Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara taken from the Dutch. Jersey invaded by France. Gibraltar besieged by Spain. Minorca reduced by the French and Spaniards; Tobago by the French. Army of Cornwallis surrenders to Washington. Planet Uranus discovered by Herschell.

1782 House of Commons condemns the American war. Rockingham; Shelburne administration. Ireland declared independent of the British parliament. St Christophers reduced by the French. Their fleet defeated by Rodney. Floating batteries employed against Gibraltar destroyed by General Elliot. Tippoo Saib, son of Hyder Ali, continues the war in India. Revolutions attempted in Geneva and some of the Swiss cantons.

1783 Treaties of peace concluded between Great Britain and her enemies. Independence of the United States of America recognised. Washington president. The Crimea seized by Russia. Pitt administration.

1784 Peace concluded with Tippoo Saib. Board of control established for regulation of affairs of India.

1785 German league. Treaty of commerce negotiated with France; concluded in 1786.

1786 Death of Frederick the Great; Frederick William succeeds. Contest for power between the stadtholder and the pensionaries of several of the states of Holland. Sinking fund established for the extinction of the national debt of Great Britain. Impeachment of Warren Hastings.

1787 Civil war in Holland. The stadtholder obtains aid from Prussia; secures an extension of authority. First assembly of the notables of France, at Versailles. Turkey engaged in hostilities with Russia and Austria.

1788 Second assembly of the notables. The Swedes attack Russia; the Danes Sweden. Oczaikoff taken from the Turks. Great Britain, Holland, and Prussia conclude a defensive alliance; compel Sweden and Denmark to abstain from hostilities. Prince of Wales regent for four months. Charles IV, king of Spain. Convict colony of Botany Bay founded. Death of Prince Charles Edward Stuart at Rome.

1789 Abolition of the slave trade proposed in the British parliament. The states-general of France meet at Versailles (May 5). French revolution. Constituent assembly. Bastille destroyed (July 14). National guard instituted. Feudal privileges and tithes suppressed. Jacobin club. Insurrection in the Low Countries. Suwarrow defeats the Turks. The Austrians take Belgrade.

1790 France divided into eighty-three departments. Religious orders suppressed. Hereditary nobility abolished. Assignats. Civil constitution of the clergy. Belgic confederation at Brussels. Alliance of Prussia with Poland and Turkey. Peace of Werela between Russia and Sweden. Capture of Ismael by Suwarrow. The Austrians enter Brussels. War with Tippoo Saib renewed; concluded 1792.

1791 Flight; arrest of Louis XVI. He is conducted to Paris; accepts the constitution of 1791. Legislative assembly. Party of the Girondists. Convention of Pilsitz. The pope issues a bull against the civil oath of the French clergy. Peace of Szistowa between Austria and Turkey.

1792 France declares war against Austria. An Austrian and Prussian army invades France. Thulleries attacked. Swiss guards massacred by an armed mob. Royal authority suspended (Aug. 10). Royal family imprisoned in the Temple (14). Massacre of the state prisoners at Paris (Sept. 2 and 3). Battle of Valmy. National convention. Abolition of royalty (21). Republic proclaimed. Battle of Jemappes. Savoy incorporated with the French republic. Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey. Disturbances in St Domingo. City of Washington founded.

1793 Execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21). First coalition against France. Reign of terror. Levy en masse of all Frenchmen between eighteen and twenty-five years of age. Toulon taken by the English. Christian religion abolished. New era introduced, to date from 22d Sept. 1792. Queen beheaded (Oct. 16). Toulon retaken from the English. Bonaparte. Second partition of Poland. Pondicherry reduced by the English.

1794 Fall of Robespierre. Struggle of the Poles against Russia. Kosciusko. Habeas Corpus act suspended. Telegraph invented. Victory of Lord Howe (June 1). Exchequer bills issued. American minister received at Paris. Retreat of the British army in Flanders. Battle of Praga; 30,000 Poles butchered by Suwarrow. Trial of John Horne Tooke. The Duke of York leaves the Continent. Missionary societies established in England.

1795 Battle of Fleurus. Occupation of Amsterdam by the French. Revolution in Holland; United Provinces dependent on France. Third and last partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. End of the elective kingdom of Poland. Peace of Basle between France and Prussia. Death of Louis XVII. in the Temple. Peace between France and Spain; St Domingo wholly yielded to the former. Martinique, St Lucia, Guadaloupe, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, taken by the English. Belgium and Liege united to the French republic. Insurrection of the 13th Vendemiaire (Oct. 5). Barras, Bonaparte. New Constitution. Councils of Ancients and Five Hundred. Executive Directory. Polytechnic School. National Institute of France. Mungo Park.

1796 Italian campaign of Bonaparte. Battles of Montenotte and Monte-lezino (April 14). King of Sardinia cedes Savoy and Nice to the republic. Battle of Lodi (May 10). Sovereigns of Naples and Parma make peace. Conquest of the Milanese. Cisalpine republic. Retreat of Moreau from the Danube. Paul emperor of Russia. War between England and Spain (Oct. 5). Battle of Arcola (Nov. 15). Irish insurrection act. Lithography; Senefelder.

1797 Mutiny in the British navy. Battle of Rivoli. Part of the papal territory ceded to France. Bonaparte traverses the Tyrol; subdues Carinthia, Styria, &c.; opens negotiations with the court of Vienna at Leoben (April 18). Successes of Hoche and Moreau on the Rhine; arrested by the negotiations. Venice revolutionized (May 12), and Genoa (21). Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St Vincent. Trinidad taken by the English. Treaty of Campo Formio (Oct. 7). French frontier extended to the Rhine. Dutch fleet defeated off Camperdown (Oct. 11). Britain menaced with invasion. Rebellion in Ireland. 1798 Rome revolutionized (Feb. 15). The French sow discord in Switzerland. Geneva incorporated with France. Helvetic confederation. Batavian republic. Malta reduced, and Egypt invaded, by Bonaparte. Battle of Aboukir; Nelson; Brueys. Rebellion in Ireland continues; 1000 French troops land; are taken prisoners. Russia and Turkey unite against France. Vaccination; Jenner.

1799 Austria and Naples renew the war. Naples taken by the French. Forces of the republic under Jourdan, Massena, and Moreau, pressed by the Austrians and Russians in Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. Syria invaded by Bonaparte. Siege of Acre; Sir Sydney Smith. Defeat of the Turks at Aboukir (July 25). Return of Bonaparte to Europe. Capture of Seripungapatam; fall of Tipu Saib; partition of Mysore. Rome recovered by the allies. The English and Russians invade Holland; give up 8000 French prisoners to obtain a safe retreat (Oct. 18). French directory subverted. Bonaparte first consul (Nov. 10). Death of Washington.

1800 The Irish parliament vote for a legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland. Bill, to effect this, obtains the royal assent (July 2). Genoa taken by the Austrians. Battles of Montebello and Marengo. Prince of Parma made king of Etruria. Moreau penetrates into Bavaria. Battle of Hohenlinden. Republic of the seven Ionian Islands. First congress at Washington. Royal institution founded.

1801 Treaty of Lunéville (Feb. 9); Austria makes further concessions to France. Malta taken by the English. Armed neutrality formed against Great Britain by Russia. Battle of Alexandria (March 21). Death of Abercromby. Alexander emperor of Russia (24). Addington administration. Danish fleet attacked before Copenhagen by Lord Nelson (April 2). Convention between Great Britain and Russia, Sweden, and Denmark (June 17). French troops in Egypt agree to evacuate the country (Sept. 2). Planet Ceres discovered by Piazzi.

1802 Peace of Amiens (March 27). Catholicism re-established in France. Bonaparte first consul for life (July 29). French expedition against St Domingo; Toussaint L'Ouverture. First consul gives new constitutions to the French, Cisalpine, Ligurian, and Helvetian republics; regulates the internal arrangements of Germany. Legion of Honour instituted. Planet Pallas discovered by Olbers.

1803 Disputes between the courts of London and Paris (March). War renewed (May 16). Invasion threatened by France; preparations to repel it made in Britain. Insurrection in Ireland. The French reduce Hanover. England declares war against Holland. St Lucia, Tobago, Demerara, Essequibo, reduced by British armaments. St Domingo independent; Dessalines. Marquis Wellesley defeats the native powers of India. Concludes a treaty (Dec. 17), by which the British possessions are greatly extended. Treaty of neutrality between Great Britain and Sweden. Louisiana acquired by the United States of America.

1804 Conspiracy against the first consul. Duke D'Eng- hien seized in the territory of a neutral state (Baden), and shot. Mr Pitt resumes office (May 7). Bonaparte emperor of the French. The emperor of Germany assumes the style "Emperor of Austria." Ohio a state of the North American Union. Dessalines proclaimed emperor of Haiti. Planet Juno discovered by Harding.

1805 Spanish South American fleet destroyed by a British armament; war declared between the countries (Jan. 24). Impeachment of Lord Melville for misapplication of public money. Catholic claims debated. Napoleon crowned king of Italy at Milan (May 26). Genoa annexed to the empire (June 4). Coalition of Great Britain, Austria, and Russia, against France. Napoleon crosses the Rhine; compels General Mack, with 20,000 men, to surrender at Ulm (Oct. 20). Battle of Trafalgar (Oct. 21); the navies of France and Spain destroyed. Death of Nelson. The French enter Vienna (Nov. 13). Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2). Peace of Presburg (25). War with the Mahratta chief Holkar; siege of Bhurtpore; peace (Dec. 24); the Company's territory extended.

1806 Cape of Good Hope reduced by the English (Jan. 18). Death of Mr Pitt (23). Administration of Mr Fox and Lord Grenville. Slave trade restricted. Acquittal of Lord Melville. The Prussians take possession of Hanover. Joseph Bonaparte king of Naples. Louis Bonaparte king of Holland. British force lands in Calabria. Battle of Maida (July 4). Confederation of the Rhine (12). Death of Charles James Fox (Sept. 13). Negotiations for peace broken off. King of Prussia declares war against France (Oct. 9). Battles of Saalfeld, Jena, Auerstadt. Capture of Berlin. Conquest of Silesia. Invasion of Poland. Battle of Pultusk. "The Continental System" published at Berlin. British fleet sent into the Tagus. Christophe ruler of the black republic of Haiti.

1807 War between Russia and Turkey. England co-operates with the former; sends expeditions to the Dardanelles and Egypt. Act of parliament to abolish the slave trade sanctioned (March 25). Bill to remove Catholic disabilities brought forward by ministers; opposed by the king; change of administration. Duke of Portland. Battle of Eylau. Dantzic taken by the French (May 20). Battle of Friedland (June 14). Conference of the sovereigns of France, Russia, and Prussia, upon a raft in the Niemen (25). Peace of Tilsit (July 7). Jerome Bonaparte king of Westphalia. Bombardment of Copenhagen; surrender of the Danish fleet (Sept. 7). Invasion of Portugal by the French; the royal family embark for Brazil. French troops enter Spain; seize the strongest towns. Kingdom of Etruria annexed to the empire. Planet Vesta discovered by Olbers.

1808 A new French nobility created by Bonaparte (Jan.). Charles IV. of Spain resigns the sovereignty to his son Ferdinand (March 19). Napoleon compels the resignation of both (May 5). Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. Murat king of Naples. Junta of Seville proclaim Ferdinand VII.; declare war against the French (May 29). Sir Arthur Wellesley in Portugal. Battles of Roleia and Vimiera (Aug. 21). Convention of Cintra (30). British army enters Spain. Battles of Durango, Espinosa, Tudela. Conference of Napoleon and Alexander at Erfurt; produces offers of peace to England. Napoleon joins the army in Spain. Madrid taken (Dec. 4). The British retreat. 1809 Battle of Corunna; fall of Sir John Moore (Jan. 16). Convention between Spain and Great Britain. Duke of York's direction of the army the subject of parliamentary investigation. He resigns the office of commander-in-chief. Abdication of Gustavus IV. of Sweden; Charles XIII. king. Soult enters Portugal. Oporto taken. Battle of Medellin (March 19). Sir Arthur Wellesley opposes Soult; recovers Oporto. Emperor of Austria declares war against France (April 8); invades Bavaria; battle of Eckmuhl; capitulation of Vienna (May 13); Austrians repulsed in Italy; papal territory incorporated with the dominions of France (17). Battle of Essling (21 and 22); of Wagram (July 6); of Talavera (28). Insurrection in the Tyrol; Hofer. British expedition to Walcheren. Cayenne, Martinique, Ionian Islands, taken from France. War between Russia and Persia. Britain concludes treaties with Turkey and Persia. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria (Oct. 14). Defeat of the Spaniards at Ocana and Alba de Tormes. Mr Perceval prime minister. Jubilee.

1810 Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower by the House of Commons. Napoleon marries Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria; dethrones his brother Louis; annexes the United Provinces to France (July 1). The United States of America prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain and France. Marshal Bernadotte chosen crown-prince of Sweden (Aug. 18). Massena reduces Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida; battle of Busaco (Sept. 27). Meeting of the Spanish cortes (28). Siege of Cadiz. Isle of Bourbon, Mauritius, settlements in Madagascar belonging to the French, Ambonina and Banda, to the Dutch, reduced by British armaments. Mental derangement of George III. Prince of Wales regent.

1811 Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo (March 1). Massena commences a retreat from Portugal (5). Battle of Fuentes d'Honor; of Albuera (May 16). The Spanish American colonies refuse submission to the Cortes; claim independence. Java, with all its dependencies, reduced by the British. Riots at Nottingham.

1812 Ciudad Rodrigo stormed by Lord Wellington (Jan. 19). Constitutional code promulgated in Spain (March 20). Badajos stormed (April 6). Assassination of Mr Perceval (May 11). Administration of Lords Liverpool and Castlereagh. The United States declare war against Britain (June 18); invade Canada. Treaties of alliance; Russia with Sweden, with Great Britain, with the Spanish Cortes; of peace, with Turkey, the Pruth the frontier. War between France and Russia (June 24). Battle of Salamanca (July 22). Smolensko taken (Aug. 18). Battle of Borodino (Sept. 7). Entry of the French into Moscow (14); the city burnt by the inhabitants. Napoleon offers peace; retreats from Moscow (Oct. 29). Frost and the Russians destroy the French army.

1813 Prussia joins the enemies of France (Feb. 22). Napoleon enters Germany. Battle of Lutzen (May 2); of Bautzen (21 and 22); of Richenbach; truce (June 4); the French to occupy Silesia. Sweden and Austria join the allies. England contributes largely towards the expenses of the war. Battle of Vittoria gained by Lord Wellington (June 21). St Sebastian stormed (August 31). The allies resume hostilities with 180,000 men; Napoleon with as many. Battles of the Katzbach (August 26); Dresden (September 4 and 3), &c.; Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19). Bavaria joins the allies. Lord Wellington enters France (October 18). Battle of Hanau (October 30). Revolution in Holland (November 16). Prince of Orange restored (December 2). British trade to India partially opened.

1814 The allies invade France at different points; after many conflicts with various success, enter Paris (March 31). Bonaparte abdicates (April 11); embarks at Prejus for Elba (28). Louis XVIII. enters Paris (May 3); Ferdinand VII. Madrid (14). Peace of Paris between France and the allies (30); France reduced to her limits on the 1st January 1792. King of Spain suppresses the Cortes; re-establishes the Inquisition, Jesuits' College, &c. Norway united to Sweden (August 14). City of Washington taken by the British (24). Congress of Vienna (September 26); Belgium united to Holland. Hanover a kingdom. Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and America (December 15).

1815 Congress of Vienna guarantees the integrity of the twenty-two Swiss cantons; issues a manifesto against Bonaparte on his return to France. Bonaparte leaves Elba (February 26); lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris (21). Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, bind themselves to bring 150,000 men each into the field against Bonaparte (25). Murat attacks the Austrians; loses the battle of Tolentino (May 3), and the kingdom of Naples (20). The three legations restored to the Pope (29). Bonaparte leaves Paris (June 19) to oppose the allies. Conflicts at Charleroi, Quatre Bras, Ligny (15, 16, 17). Battle of Waterloo (18). Bonaparte abdicates in favour of his son (24). The allies enter France. Capitulation of Paris (July 3). Return of Louis XVIII. to the capital (8). Bonaparte surrenders to Captain Maitland, H. B. M. S. Belleroophon (15). Ney, Labedoyere, shot. Holy alliance concluded (September 26). Bonaparte at St Helena (October 13). Ionian republic established (November 3). New treaties, providing for the military occupation of France by foreign troops for five years, and further contracting the French frontier, concluded between the allies and Louis XVIII. (November 20). Congress of Vienna adjusts the boundaries of the states formerly dependent on the French empire; fixes the federative constitution of Germany.

1816 Majority of thirty-seven in the House of Commons against the property-tax (March 19). Princess of Wales married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (May 2). Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth (August 27). Declaration of South American independence issued at Buenos Ayres. Duke of Cambridge governor-general of Hanover (Nov. 2). Distress; riots in England. Spa Fields Mob (December 2).

1817 Habeas Corpus Act suspended (March 7). Insurrection at Nottingham. Convention between Louis XVIII. and the pope; privileges of the Gallican church secured. Spain disturbed, and Portugal threatened with popular tumults. Waterloo Bridge opened (June 18). Bolivar supreme chief of the government of Venezuela. Death of the Princess Charlotte (November 6). Pindarri war in India; ended (December 17).

1818 Habeas corpus suspension act repealed (January 31). Bernadotte king of Sweden (February 30). Censorship of the press enforced by Louis XVIII. France, Spain, and the Netherlands, agree to measures proposed by England for the suppression of the slave trade. Duke of Clarence marries the Princess of Saxe-Meiningen; Duke of Kent the Princess of Saxe-Coburg (July 13). A papal bull allows benefices in Spain to remain two years vacant, and yields the revenues to the service of the government (August 12). Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (September 29). Army of occupation withdrawn from France (October 9). Death of Queen Charlotte (November 17).

1819 Southwark Bridge opened (March 26). Princess Victoria born (May 23). Radical reform meetings (June 23). Congress of Carlsbad (August 1). Manchester massacre (16). Chili, Buenos Ayres, Colombia, de facto independent. The "Six Acts" sanctioned by the British legislature. Spain cedes the Floridas to North America. New South Shetland discovered.

1820 Revolution in Spain; Constitution of 1812 proclaimed (January 1). Death of George III. (29). The king of Spain swears to the constitution; inquisition suppressed (March 8). Expulsion of the Jesuits from Russia (25). Revolution at Naples (May 15). Carbonari. Constitutional junta in Portugal (October 1).

1821 Revolution in Brazil (January 1). Congress of Leybach. Austrian army occupies Naples (8). Disturbances in Piedmont; the king resigns in favour of his brother (April 10). Death of Napoleon Bonaparte (May 5). Coronation of George IV. (July 19). Austrian troops occupy the kingdom of Sardinia (29). George IV. visits Dublin (August 17), and Hanover (October 10). Catholic bill lost in the House of Peers.

1822 The Greeks declare themselves free (January 1). The Prince Royal of Brazil institutes a representative government (February 16). Spanish Cortes meet at Madrid (March 1). The Greeks victorious at Larissa, Salonica, and Thermopylae. The king of Portugal swears to the new constitution (October 1). Brazil independent; the Prince Regent proclaimed emperor (12). Congress of Verona (20). Great distress in Ireland. George IV. visits Scotland.

1823 Mediation of the holy alliance rejected by the cortes of Spain (January 9); removal of Ferdinand to Seville, thence to Cadiz (March 20). French army enters Spain (April 7), and Madrid (May 23). The king of Portugal suppresses the constitution (June 5). Cadiz invested by the French (25). Guatemala proclaims its independence (July 20). Battle of the Trocadero before Cadiz (August 31). Riego taken (September 15); executed at Madrid (November 27). Proceedings of the cortes from 7th March 1820 annulled; end of the Spanish revolution (October 1). Mexican constitution proclaimed (4). The government of Great Britain sends consuls to the new states of South America.

1824 The English troops defeated by the Ashantees (January 21). Bolivar dictator of Peru (February 10). Lord Hastings, the governor-general of India, declares war against the Burmese (March 5). Capture of Rangoon (May 5). The Ashantees driven from Cape Coast Castle (July 22). Charles X. king of France. Treaty between the United States and Colombia (Oct. 3). Provisional government in Greece (12). The Turks evacuate Moldavia (Nov. 23). Mechanics' Institutions formed. Union of the Scotch dissenters. Catholic rent.

1825 Great Britain concludes a treaty of commerce with the united provinces of Rio de la Plata (February 2). Mr Adams president of the United States of North America (9). Ibrahim Pasha invades Greece (26). Convention concluded between Russia and Great Britain for the freedom of navigation, commerce, and fishery on the Pacific Ocean, and the north-west coast of America (28). Independence of St Domingo confirmed by the king of France (April 17). Treaty between Great Britain and Colombia (18). Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Greeks near Forgi (19). Treaty between Great Britain and Mexico (April 29). Ports in the East Indies belonging to the Dutch opened to the ships of all nations (July 21). Resolution of the provisional government of Greece to have recourse to the protection of England (24). The provinces of Upper Peru declare their independence, and take the name of the Bolivian republic (August 6). Treaty of commerce and navigation concluded between Great Britain and the Hanse Towns (September 26). The Spaniards evacuate Mexico (November 18). Death of Alexander, emperor of Russia (December 1). General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome (1, 2, 5). Act against the Catholic association. Petitions against the Corn Laws. Joint stock company mania; Commercial distress; Failures.

1826 War between Brazil and Buenos Ayres (January 3). Bhurtpore stormed by the British troops under Lord Combermere. Sir A. Campbell defeats the Burmese near Malloum (20). Surrender of Callao (23); Peru evacuated by the Spaniards. Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and France (26). Peace concluded between the East India Company and the Burmese (February 24). Death of John VI. emperor and king of Portugal. Don Pedro grants the Portuguese a charter; confirms the regency (April 26); abdicates in favour of his daughter Donna Maria da Gloria (May 2). Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden (19). Departure of the Ottoman troops from Wallachia. Opening of the first congress of the Bolivian republic (25). Landing of the Greeks near Salonicci; battle with Omer Pasha (June 1). Importation of foreign silks into Great Britain permitted from June 5. Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople. New organization of the Ottoman army. Defeat of the Janissaries; suppression of the corps (14, 15, 16). Convocation of a general congress in Chili to frame a constitution (15). Death of ex-presidents Adams and Jefferson on the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of North American independence (July 4). The national congress constitutes Chili a confederative state (11). Ashantees defeated by the English (August 7). National assembly of Greece called together in the Isle of Paros (14). Bolivar president of Peru for life (19). Nicholas, emperor of Russia, crowned at Moscow (September 3). Russia declares war against Persia. Colombian flag admitted into French ports (September 28). The infant Don Miguel takes the oath of fealty to the Portuguese constitution at Vienna (October 4). Lotteries cease in England (18). Treaty between Great Britain and Brazil for the abolition of the slave trade. The Portuguese rebels take Lamego; Portugal entreats the assistance of Great Britain (Dec. 3). English troops arrive at Lisbon (25).

1827 Death of the Duke of York (January 5). The Duke of Wellington appointed commander-in-chief (22). Lord Liverpool becomes incapable of transacting public business (February 17). Subject of Catholic claims brought before the House of Commons by Sir Francis Burdett; majority against concession four (March 5, 6). Departure of the Hecla, Captain Parry, from Deptford, on the northern expedition (25). Mr Canning appointed first lord of the treasury (April 10); the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral (17). National guard of France disbanded by Charles X. (April 30). Unitarian marriage bill assented to by the House of Peers (June 26). Resolution of the Bank of England to discount bills at four per cent. (July 5). Death of Mr Canning (August 8). Lord Goderich appointed premier (11); Duke of Portland president of the council (17). Return of Captain Parry from the northern expedition (September 29). Battle of Navarino (October 20). French chambers dissolved; seventy-six new peers created (November 5). The bank of Lisbon suspends its payments (Dec. 7).

1828 Resignation of Lord Goderich (January 8). Duke of Wellington premier. British troops withdrawn from Portugal. Usurpation of Don Miguel. Finance committee appointed (February 15). Test and corporation acts repealed (26). Law commission appointed (29). Catholic relief bill rejected by the Upper House (January 9); majority forty-four. Mr O'Connell, a Catholic, elected M. P. for the county of Clare. Catholic association. Brunswick clubs.

1829 Settlement of the Catholic question recommended in a speech from the throne (February 5). Catholic association suppressed by act of Parliament (March 5). Catholic relief bill receives the royal assent (April 13). The Irish forty-shilling freeholders disfranchised. Agricultural distress. Partial disturbances in England (November and December).

1830 Measures of reform proposed in the House of Commons; by the Marquis of Blandford (February 18), by Lord John Russell (23), by Mr O'Connell (May 28), unsuccessfully. Death of George IV. (June 26); William IV. king of Great Britain. Revolution of July in France. Duke of Orleans becomes "King of the French." Revolution in Belgium. Riots in England; great destruction of agricultural produce. Reform associations and political unions formed at Birmingham, &c. Duke of Wellington resigns (November 16). Earl Grey premier; Mr Brougham lord high chancellor. Revolution of the 19th November in Poland.

1831 Reform bill announced to the House of Commons by Lord John Russell (March 1); read a first time (14); frustrated in committee by a motion of General Gascoyne; Parliament dissolved; debated in a new House of Commons from June 15 to September 22; carried by a final majority of 109; rejected by the Peers (October 7) by a majority of 41. Parliament prorogued. Riots at Derby, Nottingham, and Bristol. Prince Leopold accepts the crown of Belgium. Warsaw surrenders to the Russians; the Poles are reduced to complete submission. Insurrection at Lyons (November). Cholera Morbus breaks out at Sunderland.

1832 The Reform bill (introduced again into the House of Commons December 12, 1831), is debated until the 22d March; and endangered in the House of Peers by a motion of Lord Lyndhurst (May 7). Ministers resign. The House of Commons and the country present to the king addresses expressing confidence in the retired ministry. The Duke of Wellington attempts to form an administration; fails; Earl Grey and his colleagues are recalled (May 18). Royal assent given to the English Reform bill (June 7); to the Scotch (July 17), to the Irish (August 7). Hereditary peerage abolished in France. Prince Otho of Bavaria accepts the sovereignty of Greece (May 7). Carlist and republican insurrection in Paris (June 5, 6). The city declared in a state of siege. The diet of Frankfort publishes resolutions abridging the liberties of Germany (28). Don Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil, lands at Oporto (July 9); civil war for the possession of Portugal. Death of young Napoleon (July 22). Don Pedro defeats the Portuguese royalists at Valongo. Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Grand Vizier in Syria (July 30). The Miguelites repulsed from Oporto (Sept. 19). Formation of a French ministry under Soult (Oct. 10). Eruption of Mount Aetna (Nov. 18). The Grand Vizier defeated by the Pasha on the plains of Konieh (Dec. 21). Antwerp surrendered to the French after a bombardment of 20 days (Dec. 24).

1833 King Otho lands at Napoli (Jan. 31). Turkey applies to Russia for succours (Feb. 2). Miguelites twice repulsed from Oporto (March 4 and 24), and from Monte Cavello (April 9). Peace concluded between Turkey and Egypt (April 14). Don Carlos proclaims himself successor of the Spanish king (April 29). Mehemet Ali confirmed in his government of Egypt and Candia, with the annexation of Damascus, Tripoli, Seyd, and Safed (May 6). Ibrahim repasses the Taurus (May 9). Temporary settlement of the affairs of Holland and Belgium (May 21). Cortes convened to swear allegiance to the Infanta (June 20). Military disturbances in Rhenish Bavaria, in Basle, and Schwytz. Admiral Napier captures Don Miguel's squadron (July 2). Miguelites repulsed from Lisbon (Sept. 5). Death of the king of Spain (Sept. 29). The Mexican insurgents defeated by the president Santa Anna (Oct. 4). Various actions of the Carlists in Spain.

1834 Invasion of Savoy by Polish and other refugees (Feb. 1). Miguelites repulsed at Santarem (Feb. 18). Claims of the United States rejected in the French Chamber (Feb. 27). Riots at Lyons and Brussels. Carlists defeated in Lower Navarre (April 22). Treaty concluded at London between England, France, Spain, and Portugal, by the expulsion of Don Carlos and Don Miguel (April 22). Don Miguel capitulated (May 26). Don Pedro abolishes monastic establishments in Portugal (May 28). Cholera in Sweden and Denmark. Don Carlos retired to England (June 18), landed again in Spain (July 10). Lord Napier arrives at Canton (July 16). Insurrections in Syria (July 20). Slavery abolished in the British dominions (July 31). Death of Don Pedro (Sept. 24). Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire (Oct. 16). Sir Robert Peel prime minister (Dec. 8). Insurrection of the Caffres at the Cape of Good Hope (Dec. 25).

1835 Mohammed Mirza king of Persia. Emperor of Austria died (March 2). Lord Melbourne prime minister (April 18). The life of Louis Philippe attempted by Fieschi (July 28). Freedom of the press restrained in France. Spain recognised the independence of her American colonies (Aug. 9). Halley's comet seen (Aug. 20). Marshal Clausel takes the headquarters of Abd-el-Kader (Dec. 6).

1836 Marriage of Ferdinand Augustus Duke of Saxe-Coburg to Donna Maria Queen of Portugal (Jan. 1). Massacre of Carlist prisoners at Barcelona (Jan. 5). Queen of Naples died (Jan. 31). Madame Bonaparte died at Rome (Feb. 2). Mediation of Great Britain between France and America accepted (Feb. 8). French ministry organized under Thiers (Feb. 22). Cracow occupied by Russian and Austrian troops (Feb. 22). The British fleet co-operates with the Carlists on the coast (March 22). Revolt of the National Guard at Malaga, and proclamation of the Constitution of 1812 (Aug. 3). Revolution at Madrid, and acceptance of the Constitution by the Queen Regent (Aug. 12). Resignation of Thiers (Sept. 7). Repulse of the Carlists (Oct. 1). Insurrection of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Strasburg, and his dismissal to America (Oct. 29). Insurrection in Lisbon (Sept. 9). Bilbao invested unsuccessfully by the Carlists (Dec. 24).

1837 General Espartero drives the Carlists from Hernani (May 15). William IV. died (June 20). Queen Victoria proclaimed (June 22). The Duke of Cumberland becomes king of Hanover, and abrogates the constitution of 1833 (June 27). The Carlists defeated at Valencia (July 15). Parliament dissolved (July 17). The Carlists threaten Madrid (Aug. 11). Cholera raging in Rome, the Two Sicilies, &c. Don Carlos victorious near Herrera (Aug. 24). Saldanha and Terceira defeated in Portugal (Sept. 18). Canadian insurgents defeated at St Charles (Nov. 26). Insurrection extended to Upper Canada (Dec. 4).

1838 Bahia retaken by the Emperor of Brazil (March 16). Brazilian troops defeated by the insurgents (April 29). Great Western arrived at New York (June 17). Defeat of the Carlists at Penacerrada (June 22). Victory of the Carlists at Altura (25). Coronation of Queen Victoria (June 28). Hostilities commenced between France and Mexico (July 12). Revolution at Lima (July 29). Chilean troops enter Lima (Aug. 21). Coronation of the Emperor of Austria at Milan (Sept. 6). British troops enter Afghanistan to aid the legitimate king of Cabul. Rebellion in Lower Canada (Nov. 5). General Santa Cruz enters Lima (Nov. 10). The insurgents enter Monte Video (Nov. 11). The rebellion in Canada suppressed (Nov. 17). War proclaimed between France and the Mexican republic (Nov. 30). Chartist meetings throughout the country (Dec. 12).

1839 Eruption of Vesuvius (Jan. 2). Decision of Conference on the Dutch and Belgian question (Jan. 23). War declared between the Uruguay republic and Buenos Ayres (March 10). Arrest of British merchants by the Chinese government (April 15). Treaty between Holland and Belgium signed (April 19). Indian army occupies Candahar (April 21). Mexican Federalists defeated near Norocaro (May 7). Lord Melbourne resigned, but immediately reinstated (May 7). Riots at Paris (May 11). Hostilities commenced between Ibrahim Pasha and Hafiz Pasha (June 10). Sultan Mahmoud II. succeeded by Abdul Medjid (June 27). Riots in Birmingham (July 15). Anglo-Indian army capture Ghiznee (July 23). Treaty between France and Texas (Sept. 25). Newport attacked by Chartists (Nov. 4). Trade between England and China suspended by edict of the imperial commissioner (Nov. 24). King of Denmark died (Dec. 3).

1840 Penny postage established (Jan. 10). Marriage of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (Feb. 10). Morella the Carlist general surrenders (May 28). Death of Frederick William III. king of Prussia (June 7). Cabrera Carlist general is arrested (July 1). Capture of Chusan (July 5). Prince Louis Napoleon made prisoner at Boulogne (Aug. 6). Revolutionary outbreak at Madrid (Sept. 1). Beyrouth bombarded (Sept. 19). The king of Holland abdicates (Oct. 7). Dost Mohammed Khan defeated (Oct. 18), surrenders (Nov. 2). St Jean d'Acre bombarded (Nov. 3). Remains of Napoleon deposited in the Hôtel des Invalides (Dec. 15).

1841 Capture of the Bogue forts at Canton (Jun. 7). Union of the two Canadas proclaimed at Montreal (Feb. 10). Peace concluded between Mehemet Ali and the Sultan (March 5). Hostilities recommence at Canton (May 21). Plague in Egypt. Insurrection in Candia. Queen Christina declared no longer royal guardian (June 23). Amoy taken (Aug. 26). Recapture of Chusan (Oct. 1). Capture of Tinghai and Ningpo. Formation of new ministry under Sir Robert Peel (Aug. 30). Insurrection in Spain suppressed (Oct. 4). Fire in the Tower of London (Oct. 30). General rising in Cabul (Nov. 2). Birth of the Prince of Wales (Nov. 9).

1842 Massacre of British soldiers while evacuating Cabul (Jan. 8). The Afghans repulsed from Candahar (March 10), and Jellalabad (April 6). General Pollock forces the Khyber Pass. Insurrection of the Boers of Port Natal (May 4), defeated (June 26). Capture of Shang-hai (June 16). Riots in the manufacturing districts of England (Aug. 8). Peace concluded between Great Britain and China (Aug. 29). Ghiznee retaken by General Nott (Sept. 6). Cabul taken (Sept. 6), and evacuated (Oct. 12). Insurrectionists in Barcelona surrender after the bombardment of the city (Dec. 3).

1843 Defeat of the Amcers of Scinde by Sir Charles Napier, and capture of Hyderabad (Feb. 20). Insurrectionary movement of "Rebecca's daughters" in Wales. Thames Tunnel opened (March 25). "Disruption" of the Church of Scotland (May 18). Insurrection in Spain successful by the defection of the government troops (July 23). Pomaré, queen of Otaheite, compelled to place herself under the protection of France (Sept. 9). Revolution at Athens without bloodshed (Sept. 14). Government prohibits a repeal meeting, and Mr O'Connell and John O'Connell arrested (Oct. 14). Queen of Spain declared of age by the Cortes (Nov. 8).

1844 Death of the king of Sweden (March 8). A new constitution adopted by the National Assembly of Greece (March 16). Anti-Irish riots in Philadelphia (May 3 and July 5). Incendiary fires in Suffolk. Tangier bombarded by the Prince de Joinville (Aug. 6). Mogadorie bombarded (Aug. 15). Peace concluded between France and Morocco (Sept. 6). Spanish constitution of 1837 abrogated (Oct. 28). Rongé heads the "second re- formation in Germany. Revolution at Lahore (Dec. 18).

1845 Iowa and Florida annexed to the United States. Attack on Lucerne on account of the appointment of the Jesuits to be schoolmasters (April 1). New convention between France and England for the suppression of the slave trade (May 29). Attack on Madagascar on account of the expulsion of European traders (June 15). Annexation of Texas (June 19). A tribe of Moors destroyed by the French in Algeria (June 20). French detachment cut to pieces by Abd-el-Kader (Sept. 16). Insurrection in Rimini and Ravenna (Sept. 23). English and French squadrons destroy the batteries of General Rossa on the Panama (Nov. 19). Battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah (Dec. 18 and 19). Lord John Russell unable to form a ministry, Sir Robert Peel reaccepted office (Dec. 20). Revolt of Yucatan from Mexico (Dec. 31).

1846 Sir H. Smith checked by the Sikhs (Jan. 21). Defeat of the Sikhs by Sir H. Gough at the Sohraon (Feb. 10). Attempted revolution in Poland (Feb. 22). Treaty of Lahore signed (March 9). Provision riots in Tipperary and Clonmel (April 13). Eruption of Hecla (April 15). Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto by General Taylor (May 8). Louis Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from Ham (May 26). Corn-Law Bill passed the House of Lords (June 25). Lord John Russell forms a cabinet (July 6). Famine in Ireland. Monterey capitulated to General Taylor (Sept. 24). Revolution at Geneva (Oct. 7). Cracow restored to Austria (Nov. 16).

1847 Famine in Ireland. The king of Prussia grants a constitution (Feb. 3). Vera Cruz surrendered to General Scott (March 28). Capture of the Bogue forts at Canton (April 3). Cerro Gordo taken by General Scott (April 18). Peace restored in Portugal (June 18). Military occupation of Ferrara by the Austrians (Aug. 13). General Scott defeats the Mexicans near Mexico (Aug. 19). The Swiss diet decrees the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Catholic cantons (Sept. 3). Riot at Milan (Sept. 8). The territories of Lucca taken possession of by the Grand Duke of Tuscany (Oct. 10). The deputies of the cantons of the Sonderbund retire from the diet (Oct. 27). Friburg surrendered to the Federal troops (Nov. 13). The Federal troops enter Lucerne (Nov. 24). Abd-el-Kader surrenders (Dec. 22). Crime and Outrage Act enforced in several parts of Ireland (Dec. 23).

1848 Riot between the Austrians and Milanese (Jan. 3). Death of Christian VIII, king of Denmark (Jan. 20). Revolution in France and abdication of Louis Philippe (Feb. 24). French republic proclaimed (Feb. 26). Income-tax mob in London, and arrests (March 6). Insurrection at Berlin tranquillized by the appointment of a popular ministry (March 18). Abdication of the king of Bavaria in favour of his son (18). Successful insurrection in Milan against the Austrians (18). Schleswig and Holstein revolt from the Danish government (March 25). Revolution in Madrid crushed (March 26). The Danes defeated the Holsteiners and Germans near Flensburg, and entered Schleswig (April 10). Great Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common (April 10). Sitting of the Sicilian parliament at Palermo. Bombardment of Messina by the king (April 13). Capture of Schleswig and Flensburg by the Prussian army (April 22). Skirmishes of the Poles and Prussians in Posen (April 29). The national guard defeated by the king's troops at Naples (May 15). Emperor of Austria retired from Vienna (May 18). Treaty between Mexico and the United States ratified (May 19). Renewal of the insurrection at Vienna May 27). Defeat of the Austrians by the Sardinian army at Goito (May 29). Attack on the Danish position at Duppeln by the Prussians and Hanoverians (June 6). Bombardment of Prague, and suppression of the insurrection (June 15 and 19). Padua surrendered to the Austrians (June 15). Election of Prince Louis Napoleon to the French National Assembly (June 12). Renewed conflicts in Berlin (June 16). Insurrection in Paris suppressed after great loss of life and property (June 23). Venice and Trieste blockaded (July 3). Revolt of Slavonia and Croatia against Hungary (July 9). Duke of Genoa proclaimed king of the Sicilians by the Sicilian parliament (July 11). Sardinian army defeated by the Austrians and forced to retreat towards Milan (July 27). Skirmishes with the Irish rebels (July 29). The Sardinian army capitulated to the Austrians (Aug. 4). The Emperor of Austria returns to Vienna (Aug. 12). Armistice signed between the Danes and Prussians (Aug. 26). Rebellion at the Cape quelled by Sir H. Smith (Aug. 29). Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans (Sept. 7). Insurrection in Frankfort suppressed by the troops (Sept. 17). Prince Louis Napoleon again elected to the National Assembly (Sept. 20). Armistice concluded between Sardinia and Austria (Sept. 21). The Ban of Croatia defeated by the Hungarians at Valanze (Sept. 29). Insurrection at Vienna and assassination of Latour (Oct. 6). Prince Windischgritz attacks and captures Vienna (Nov. 1). Constitution of the French republic adopted (Nov. 4). The Sikhs defeated before Mooltan (Nov. 7). The Austrians defeated by the Hungarian insurgents (Nov. 8). Death of Ibrahim Pasha (Nov. 10). General Wrangel enters Berlin and dissolves the Assembly (Nov. 10). Berlin in a state of siege (Nov. 12). Count Rossi assassinated, and the Pope compelled to accept a democratic ministry (Nov. 15). Engagement between the Sikh and British troops on the Chenab (Nov. 22). The Pope fled in disguise from Rome to Gaeta (Nov. 24). Ferdinand I, emperor of Austria, abdicates in favour of his nephew (Dec. 2). The king of Prussia proclaims a new constitution (Dec. 5). Provisional government appointed at Rome (Dec. 11). Austrian forces enter Presburg, and the Hungarians defeated at Weisselburg (Dec. 18). Louis Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed president of the French republic (Dec. 20). Hungarians defeated by the Croats (Dec. 29). Gold discovered in California (Dec. 30).

1849 Mooltan stormed (Jan. 2). Hungarians driven across the Waag. Buda-Pesth taken by the Austrians (Jan. 5). Sikhs defeated at Chillianwallah (Jan. 13). Conspiracy in Paris suppressed (Jan. 29). Brazilian insurgents repulsed from Pernambuco (Feb. 2). Constituent assembly meets in Rome (Feb. 5). The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies from Sienna, and provisional government proclaimed in Florence (Feb. 7). Republic proclaimed at Rome (Feb. 8). Sikh army defeated at Goojerat by Lord Gough (Feb. 21). King of Naples accepts the ultimatum of France and Spain (March 4). Austrian diet dissolved and a new constitution proclaimed (March 6). The Sardinian government renews hostilities with Austria (March 12). The Sikh chiefs surrender (March 14). Death of William II, king of Holland (March 17). Sardinians defeated by the Austrians (March 21). Rout of the Sardinian army at Novara (March 25). Bombardment of Brescia by Haynau (March 30). Insurrection at Genoa (April 2). Surrender of Syracuse to the Neapolitan troops (April 8). Defeat of the Danes by the German army opposite the island of Alsøen (April 13). Danish forces again defeated by General Bonin (April 23). Pesth evacuated by the Austrians. Insurrection in Montreal (April 26). Civita Vecchia occupied by the French under Oudinot (April 26). Insurrection at Dresden (May 3). Dresden bombarded and taken (May 7). Capture of Leghorn by the Austrians (May 12). Convention signed between the French and Argentine republics (May 23). Ancona bombarded by the Austrians (May 28). Battle of Eperies between the Hungarians and Russians (June 23). Death of Mehemet Ali (July 2). French troops enter Rome (July 3). Insurrection in Bosnia; Germans defeated by the Danes at Fredericia (July 6). Armistice between Prussia and Denmark (July 10). Defeat of the Croats by the Hungarians at St Thamas (July 14). Battle of Waitzen (July 17). Pope restored to temporal power (July 15). Battles of Komorn, Miskolcz, and Schlossburg between the Russians and Hungarians. Defeat and surrender of the Hungarian army (Aug. 13). Surrender of Venice to the Austrians (Aug. 22). Insurrection in Cephalonia and Corfu (Aug. 27). Riots near Montreal (Sept. 15). Komorn surrenders to the Austrians (Sept. 28). Cholera rages in England. Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarians from Turkey (Nov. 5). British fleet anchors in Basika bay (Nov. 13). Hungarian refugees sent to Koniech, and friendly relations resumed between Russia and Turkey (Dec. 31).

1850 Admiral Sir W. Parker blockades the Piraeus (Jan. 18). Death of the Emperor of China (Feb. 25). Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg (Feb. 27). Submission of the Greek government (April 25). A buccaneering party take possession of Cuba (May 19). Insurrection in Bulgaria (June 12). Death of Sir Robert Peel (July 2). Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Sweden guarantee the integrity of Denmark (July 4). The Danes occupy Flensburg (July 17). Defeat of the Schleswig-Holsteiners by the Danes at Idstedt (July 25). California added to the United States (Aug. 15). Elector of Hesse-Cassel declares his dominions in a state of siege (Sept. 13). The Schleswig-Holstein army repulsed by the Danes at Missunde (Sept. 13). Pius IX. issues a bull establishing a hierarchy in England (Sept. 24). Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg establish an alliance (Oct. 4). Schleswig-Holsteiners repulsed from Friedrichstadt by the Danes (Oct. 6). An Austro-Bavarian force enters Hesse-Cassel (Nov. 9). Prussian troops retreat from Cassel (Dec. 5). Martial law established at the Cape of Good Hope.

1851 Turkish Croatia in rebellion (Jan. 29). Bosnian insurgents defeated by Omar Pasha at Mostar (Feb. 9). Russell ministry resigns (Feb. 22); but is immediately reinstated (March 3). Revolt in Senaar against the pasha (March 16). Census in England, Ireland, and Scotland (March 31). Insurrection in Lisbon headed by the Duke of Saldanha (April 10). Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations opened (May 1). Chinese rebellion. Austro-Bavarian army evacuate Hesse-Cassel (Aug. 1). General Lopez invades Cuba (Aug. 12). Coup d'Etat at Paris. Louis Napoleon perpetual President of the French republic (Dec. 2).

1852 The Emperor of Austria revoked the constitution of 1849 (Jan. 1). Buenos Ayres capitulated to an Argentine and Brazilian force, and a provisional government appointed (Feb. 3). Austrians evacuate Holstein and Hamburg. The Derby ministry supplants the Russell (Feb. 27). Martaban and Rangoon stormed. The Duke of Tuscany re-establishes constitution previous to 1848 (May 7). General Urquiza assumes extraordinary powers as provisional director of the Argentine republic (June 23). Capture of Prome (July 9). Independence of Paraguay conceded by the Argentine republic (July 17). Cholera rages at Warsaw. General Urquiza deposed (Sept. 10). Death of the Duke of Wellington (Sept. 18). Recapture of Prome (Oct. 9). Capture of Pegu (Nov. 21). Louis Napoleon proclaimed Emperor (Dec. 2). The Derby ministry succeeded by that under the Earl of Aberdeen (Dec. 28). Vera Cruz blockaded (Dec. 30).

1853 Revolution in Mexico. Insurrection suppressed in Milan (Feb. 6). Termination of the Caffre war (Feb. 22). Nankin taken by the insurgents (March 21). Prince Mensikoff claims for the Czar the protectorate of the Greek Christians in Turkey (May 3). The Porte rejects the Russian ultimatum (June 16). Russian army crosses the Pruth (July 2). Exportation of grain prohibited in Naples, Italy, France, &c. Chinese imperialists attack Amoy (Aug. 25). Cholera breaks out in England. The Porte declares war with Russia. Anglo-French fleet enters the Bosphorus (Oct. 22). Russians occupy the Danubian principalities, and Turks cross the Danube. Disaster at Sinope (Nov. 30).

1854 Alliance concluded between Great Britain, France, and Turkey. Declaration of war between Great Britain and Russia (March 24).

LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.

In the following Table, b denotes the year of birth, d of death, and l an approximation to the medium year of the author's life. The letters immediately following the name denote the country in which the author was born; thus, R. stands for Roman; It. for Italian; Ger. for German, &c. Where no indication is given, the country to be supplied is Greece.

| B.C. | Name | Poems/Works | |------|------------|-------------| | 1253 | I. Musæus | Poems | | 907 | I. Homer | "Iliad," "Odyssey," &c. | | 907 | I. Hesiod | "Works and days." | | 690 | I. Archilochus | Satires, Elegies. | | 681 | I. Tyrtæus | Elegies. | | 610 | I. Alcæus | Poems. | | 610 | I. Sappho | Lyrics. |

| B.C. | Name | Poems/Works | |------|------------|-------------| | 592 | I. Anacharsis | Scyth. Philos., Hist., Law. | | 630 | I. Mimermus | Elegies. | | 636-546 | Thales | Astronomy, Philosophy. | | 638-558 | Solon | Laws of Athens. | | 558 | I. Epimenides | Epic Poem. | | 633-553 | Stesichorus | Lyrics. | | 540 | I. Pythagoras | Math., Philosophy. | LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.

B.C.

536 l. Thespis. Tragedy. 478 d. Anacreon. Lyrics. 508 l. Ocellus Lucanus. Philosophy. 479 d. Confucius, Chinese. Philosophy. 556-467 Simonides. Lyrics. 476 d. Hecataeus. History. 464 l. Zeno of Elea. Philosophy. 525-456 Aeschylus. Tragedy. 472 l. Bacchylides. Lyrics. 522-442 Pindar. Odes. 480 b. Gorgias. Orations. 500-428 Anaxagoras. Philosophy. 467 l. Andocides. Orations. 495-405 Sophocles. Tragedy. 484 l. Herodotus. History. 480-406 Euripides. Tragedy. 364 l. Isocrates. Orations. 469-399 Socrates. Philosophy. 471-391 Thucydides. Hist. Pelopon. War. 440 l. Antiphon. Orations. 444-380 Aristophanes. Comedy. 398 l. Ctesias. History. 458-378 Lysias. Orations. 444-359 Xenophon. History. 460-357 Hippocrates. Medicine. 460-361 Democritus. Philosophy. 429-347 Plato. Philosophy. 436-338 Isocrates. Orations. 397-323 Lycurgus. Orations. 384-322 Aristotle. Philos., Nat. Hist., Criticism. 385-322 Demosthenes. Orations. 389-324 Eschines. Orations. 336 l. Dinarchus. Orations. 320 l. Diphilus. Comedy. 298 l. Euclid. Geometry. 342-291 Menander. Comedy. 288 d. Theophrastus. Ethics. 240 d. Callimachus. Hymns, Epigrams. 272 l. Theocritus. Idyls. 259 l. Lycophron. "Cassandra." 272 l. Aratus. "Poem on Astronomy." 341-270 Epicurus. Philosophy. 279 b. Zenon of Citium. Philosophy. 261 l. Manetho. Egypt. "History of Egypt." 240 l. Apollonius. "Comic Sections." 238 d. Livius Andronicus. R. Tragedy. 287-212 Archimedes. Sphere and Cylinder. 203 d. Cn. Naevius. R. Poems.

276-196 Eratosthenes. Math., Cosmogony, &c. 194 l. Apollonius Rhodius. "Argonautics." 184 d. M. A. Plautius. R. Comedy. 272 l. Bion. Idyls. 168 d. Statius Caecilius. R. Comedy. 250 l. Moschus. Idyls. 169 d. Q. Ennius. R. Epics. 195-159 P. Terentius, Afer. Comedy. 220-130 M. Pacuvius. R. Tragedy. 234-149 M. P. Cato, R. Hist., Agriculture, &c. 137 l. Nicander. "Theriaca." 180 l. L. Attius. R. Tragedy. 129 l. C. Lucilius. R. Satires. 204-122 Polybius. Universal History. 140 l. Apollodorus. "Bibliotheca," Mythology. 60 l. Meleager. Epigrams. 95-51 Titus Lucretius, R. "De Rerum Natura." 50 l. Conon. Mythology. 74 d. Scymnus. Poetical Geography. 100-44 C. J. Caesar, R. "Commentaries."

B.C.

44 l. Diodorus Siculus. General History. 43 d. A. H. Pansa, R. Gallic War. 107-43 M. T. Cicero, R. Orations, Philosophy. 86-47 Catullus, R. Lyrics. 85-35 C. Sallustius, R. History. 110-33 T. Pomponius Atticus, R. Epistles. 30 d. Cornelius Nepos, R. Biography. 115-28 M. T. Varro, R. "De Lingua Latina," "Re Rustica." 7 d. Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities. 20 l. Dionysius Periegetes. Geography. 70-19 P. Virgilius, R. "Aeneid." 18 d. Albius Tibullus, R. Elegies. 59-16 Propertius, R. Elegies. 10 l. Vitruvius, R. Architecture. 65-8 Q. Horatius Flaccus, R. Odes, Satires, &c. 4 d. Verrius Flaccus, R. "Fasti Capitolini."

A.D.

4 l. Hyginus, R. "Poeticon Astronomicon." 16 l. Phaedrus, R. Fables. 43 B.C.-17 Publius Ovidius Naso, R. Metamorph., Fasti, &c. 59 B.C.-19 Titus Livius, R. History of Rome. 20 l. C. Celsus, R. "De Medicina." 25 d. Strabo. Geography. 26 l. Valerius Maximus, R. Anecdotes of Great Men. 19 B.C.-30 Velleius Paterculus, R. History of Rome. 42 l. Columella, R. Agriculture. 45 l. Pomponius Mela, R. Geography. 49 l. Quintus Curtius, R. History of Alexander. 36-62 Persius, R. Satires. 12-65 L. A. Seneca, R. Philosophy, Tragedy. 38-65 Lucan, R. "Pharsalia." 66 l. Dioscorides. Botany, Medicine. 67 d. Petronius Arbiter, R. "Satyricon." 74 d. Silius Italicus, R. "Punic War." 78 d. Valerius Flaccus, R. "Argonautics." 23-79 Pliny, the elder, R. Natural History. 86 l. Sulpicia, R. Satire. 93 d. Josephus, Jea. "Antiquities of the Jews." 95 d. Dion Chrysostom. Orations. 95 d. M. F. Quintilianus, R. Rhetoric, Criticism. 98 l. Epictetus. "Enchiridion," Philosophy. 99 d. Statius, R. "Thebais," "Achilles." 29-104 Martial, R. Epigrams. Valerius Probus, R. Grammar. 108 d. Tacitus, R. History. 109 l. Aulus Gellius, R. "Noctes Attice." 61-113 Pliny, the younger, R. Epistles. 115 l. Annarus Florus, R. History of Rome. 116 l. Suetonius, R. Biography, History. 119 d. Plutarch. Biography, Morals. 48-128 Juvenal, R. Satires. 130 l. Ptolemy. Geography, Astronomy. 135 l. Tertianus Maurus. "De Arte Metrica." 140 l. Arrian. "Expedition of Alexander." 140 d. Aelian. Varieties. 142 l. Justin, R. History. 148 d. Appian. History. 161 d. Hermogenes. Rhetoric. 161 l. Polynnus. Strategy. 163 d. Justin Martyr. Theology. 163 d. Pausanias. Description of Greece. 163 l. L. Apuleius, R. "Golden Ass." 167 d. Polycarp. Theology. 167 l. Hephaestion. "On Metres." 172 d. Athenagoras. "On the Resurrection." 177 d. Lucian. Dialogues. 180 d. M. Aurelius Antoninus, R. Philosophy. | A.D. | Chronology | |------|------------| | 186 | d. Julius Pollux. "Onomasticum," Rhetoric. | | 189 | l. Jamblichus. "Sinonos and Rhodanes," a novel. Phavorinus. Lexicon. | | 193 | l. Maximus Tyrius. Philosophy. | | 194 | d. Athenaeus. "Deipnosophistae" Anecdotes. | | 194 | l. Caius Jul. Solinus, R. "Polyhistor." | | 200 | d. Tertullian, R. Apology for Christianity. | | 207 | l. Minutius Felix, R. Dialogue in favour of Christianity. | | 213 | d. Oppian. Poems on Field Sports. | | 214 | l. Julius Obsequens, R. "De Prodigis." | | 222 | d. Diogenes Laertius. "Lives of Philosophers." | | 224 | d. Philostratus. "Life of Apollonius." | | 228 | d. Ulpian, R. Law. | | 229 | l. Dion Cassius. History of Rome. | | 238 | l. Censorinus, R. "De Die Natali." | | 243 | l. Ammianus. Philosophy. | | 247 | l. Herodian. History of Rome. | | 254 | d. Origen. Theology. | | 258 | d. Cyprian, R. Theology. | | 273 | d. Longinus. "On the Sublime." | | 284 | l. Nemesianus, R. "Cynegetica." | | 285 | l. Julius Culpurnicus, R. Eclogues. | | 293 | l. Elia Spartanus, Julius Capitolinus, Elia Lampridius, Val. Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, P. Vopiscus. R. Historiae Augustae. | | 301 | l. Arnobius, R. "Adversus Gentes." | | 304-304 | Porphyrius. Life of Pythagoras, Philosophy. | | 315 | l. Xenophon. "Anthia and Abrocomes," a novel, &c. | | 325 | d. Lactantius R. Defence of Christianity. | | 333 | l. Elia Donatus, R. Grammar. | | 340 | d. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History. | | 340 | l. F. Maternus, R. Astronomy, Theology. | | 356 | l. Ibanus. Orations and Epistles. | | 356 | l. F. Eutropius, R. History of Rome. | | 360 | l. Festus Avienus, R. Geographical Poem. | | 363 | d. Julian. Philosophy. | | 364 | l. Aurelius Victor. History. | | 298-371 | Athanasius. Theology. | | 372 | l. Diophantus. Mathematics. | | 372 | l. Eunapius. "Lives of Philosophers." | | 375 | l. Theon. Mathematics. | | 378 | l. Pappus. Mathematics. | | 380 | d. Ammianus Marcellinus, R. History of Rome. | | 386 | l. F. Vegetius Renatus, R. "De Re Militari." | | 315-336 | Cyril. Theology. | | 318-339 | Gregory Nazianzen. Theology. | | 392 | d. D. M. Ausonius, R. Idyls. | | 395 | l. A. Theod. Macrobius, R. Saturnalia. | | 396 | d. Gregory Nyssenus. Theology. | | 396 | l. Symmachus, R. Epistles. | | 397 | d. Ambrosius, R. Theology. | | 398 | l. A. Prudentius Clemens, R. Christian Poems. | | 399 | l. C. Claudianus, R. Poems. | | 400 | l. Nemesius. "Nature of Man," Philosophy. | | 405 | l. Stoibecus. Literary Collections. | | 357-407 | Chrysostom. Theology. | | 410 | d. Rufinus, R. Ecclesiastical History. | | 411 | l. Synesius. Orations and Epistles. | | 412 | l. Paulinus Petrocorius. Poem on Martin of Tours. | | 415 | d. Hypatia. Mathematics. | | 416 | l. Orosius, R. History of the World. | | 329-420 | Jerome, R. Version of the Bible. |

| A.D. | Chronology | |------|------------| | 420 | d. Sulpius Severus, R. Sacred History. | | 354-490 | Augustin, R. Theology. | | 435 | l. Sedulius, R. Poetical Life of Christ. | | 443 | d. Cyril. Homilies. | | 445 | d. Proclus. Theology. | | 389-446 | Socrates. Ecclesiastical History. | | 450 | d. Sozomen. Ecclesiastical History. | | 450 | d. Theodoret. Ecclesiastical History. | | 450 | l. Olympiodorus. History of Honorius. | | 457 | l. Martianus, Capella, R. Satire. | | 463 | l. Victorius, R. History of the Church in Africa. | | 469 | l. Iudicius, R. Chronicles to 468. | | 470 | l. Quintus Smyrnaeus. Continuation of Homer. | | 474 | l. Zosimus. History of Roman Emperors. | | 484 | l. Musaeus. Poem of Hero and Leander. | | 488 | d. Sidonius Apollinaris, R. Poems. | | 494 | l. Nonnus. "Conquest of India by Bacchus." | | 500 | d. Proclus. Platonist. | | 504 | l. Stephanus. Geography. | | 506 | l. Arrian, Sp. Law. | | 521 | d. Ennodius, R. Christian Poems. | | 525 | d. Boethius, R. Philosophy, Poems. | | 526 | d. Priscian, It. Grammar. | | 528 | d. Sex. Pomp. Festus, It. "De significatione Verborum." | | 529 | l. Tribonianus. Law. | | 529 | l. Achilles Tatius. "Clitophon and Leucipppe," a novel. | | 529 | d. Fulgentius Ferrandus, Sp. Canon Law. | | 530 | d. Non. Marcellus, It. Grammar. | | 532 | l. Coluthus. Poem on Rape of Helen. | | 468-533 | Fulgentius, It. Theology. | | 536 | d. Dionysius Exiguus, It. Christian Era. | | 547 | l. Simplicius. Comments on Aristotle. | | 552 | d. Jornandes, It. History of the Goths. | | 553 | d. Procopius. History of the reign of Justinian. | | 490-556 | Arator, It. "Acts of the Apostles," in verse. | | 481-562 | Cassiodorus, It. History. | | 565 | l. Agathias. Byzantine History. | | 570 | d. Gildas, Br. Conquest of Britain. | | 580 | d. Martin, Sp. Ethics. | | 594 | l. Evagrius, It. Ecclesiastical History. | | 554-595 | Gregory of Tours, Fr. History. | | 596 | l. Venan. Fortunatus, Fr. Hist., Poems. | | 612 | l. Theophylactus Simocatta. Byzant. Hist. | | 615 | d. Secundus, It. History of the Lombards. | | 617 | l. Philopenus. Grammar. | | 620 | d. John of Biglar, Sp. Chronicle. | | 569-632 | Mahomet, Arab. "Koran." | | 636 | d. Isidore, Sp. "Chron. de Goth." | | 641 | d. Geo. Pisidia. History, Poems. | | 622-657 | Lebbo, Arab. Poems. | | 667 | d. Ildefonso, Sp. Polemics. | | 673 | l. Callinicus. Mathematics. | | 695 | l. Cresconius, It. Collection of Canons, Verses. | | 709 | d. Aldhelm, Br. Latin Poems. | | 673-735 | Bede, Br. Ecclesiastical Hist. of England. | | 742 | l. Fredegaire, Fr. Chronicle. | | 750 | d. Damascenus. Scholastic Philosophy. | | 766 | l. Egbert of York, Br. Ecclesiast. Hist. | | 766 | Ja'far, Arab. Alchemy. | | 699-767 | Abu Hanifah, Arab. Theology. | | 795 | l. Theophanes. Byzantine History. | | 796 | l. Alnamon, Arab. Astronomical Tables. | | 800 | l. Mohammed-ben-Musa, Arab. Algebra. | LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.

A.D. 800 l. Synecletus. History. 801 d. Paul Wainefred. It. History of the Lombards. 804 d. Alcuin. Br. Theol., Hist., Poetry. 813 l. Kendi. Arab. Philosophy. 820 l. J. ben Serapion. Arab. Medicine. 821 d. Theodulph. Fr. Theology, Hymns. 821 l. Benois. Fr. Monastic Regulations, Homilies. 823 l. Otfrid. Ger. Harmony of the Gospels (in Rhyme). 759-826 Theodorus Studites. Sermons. 826 l. Abu Mohammed Abdallah. Arab. Geog., Literature. 758-828 Nicephorus. History. 740-830 Asmai. Arab. Theology. 835 d. Bahali. Arab. Grammar. 838 d. Abu Obeid. Arab. Fables. 839 d. Eginhard. Ger. Hist. of Charlemagne, Annals. 840 d. Agobard. Fr. Theology. 804-845 A. Temam. Arab. Poems. 845 l. Nasir Khoosar. Arab. Metaphysics. 848 l. Pachasius Radbert. Fr. On Transubstantiation. 849 d. Walafried Strabo. Ger. Poems, Theology. 853 d. Nethard. Ger. Hist. of Wars of France. 776-856 Rubanus Maurus. Ger. Theology. 858 l. Nennius. Br. "Origin of the Britons." 859 d. Eulogius. Sp. Martyrology. Alvarez. Sp. Biography of Eulogius. 862 d. Servatus Lupus. Fr. Epistles. 869 d. Gottschalk. Ger. "On Predestination." 810-870 Bochar. Arab. "The Sahib." Traditions. 874 d. Hounain-ben-Isaac. Arab. Translations from Greek. 875 d. Ado. Fr. Chronicle. 879 l. Alfragian. Arab. Astronomy. 882 d. Hincmar. Fr. Epistles. 821-882 Bocherti. Arab. Anthology. 883 d. J. Scotus Erigena. Br. "De Natura Rerum." 805-885 Albamazar. Arab. Math., Astronomy. 886 d. Anastasius. It. Lives of Popes. 887 l. Abbon. Fr. "Siege of Paris." 888 l. Other. Norway. Geography. 889 d. J. Kotalah. Arab. History. Wahab. Arab. Travels. 890 l. Abuzeid. Arab. Travels. 891 d. Photius. "Bibliotheca." 896 l. Erchempert. It. Hist. of the Lombards. 899 l. John Malalas. History. 900 l. Guido of Ravenna. Geography. 849-901 Alfred. Br. Saxon Poems, Translations, &c. 909 d. Asser. Br. Life of Alfred; Hist. of England. 911 d. Leo VI. "On Christian Faith." 912 l. Albategni. Arab. Astronomy. 915 l. Regino. Ger. Chron. of France and Germany. 838-922 Abu Jafar. Arab. History. 922 d. Ruses. Arab. Medicine. 931 d. Ibn Doraid. Arab. Poems. Ben Musa. Arab. Mathematics. 936 l. Azophi. Arab. Astronomy. 876-937 Said-ben-Batruck. Arab. General History. 940 l. Eutychius. Arab. History. 942 l. Genesis. History. 942 l. Simeon Metaphrastes. Lives of Saints. 954 d. Alfarabi. Arab. Aristotelian Philosophy. 957 d. Massudi. Arab. History and Geography. 905-959 Const. Porphyrogenita. Historical Selections. 961 l. Oda of Canterbury. Br. Eccles. Constitutions. 965 d. Almotannabe. Arab. Poems. 965 l. Geba. Arab. Alchemy. 896-966 Floeard. Fr. Chronicle. 968 l. Wittekind. Ger. Hist. of the Saxons. 968 l. Nolger. Ger. Translation of the Psalms. 969 l. Leoninus. History. 970 d. Luitprand. It. Hist. of his own times. 974 d. Batherius. Ger. Theology, Grammar. 977 l. Severus. Egyp. History of Alexandria and of the Saracens. 977 l. Ethelwold. Br. Hist. of Great Britain. 993 l. Dudon. Fr. Hist. of Norm. Conq. in France. 998 d. Genhari. Arab. Aristotelian Philosophy. Ibn Hankal. Arab. Geography. Hjalhi. Iceland. Poems. 1003 d. Gerbert. Fr. Mathematics. 1004 d. Abon. Fr. Arithmetic, Astronomy. 1008 d. Aimoin. Fr. History of France. 1014 l. Lambert. Ger. General History. 1017 l. Ibn Mesna. Arab. Medicine. 1018 d. Dithmar. Ger. Chron. of Saxon Emperors. 932-1020 Ferdusi. Pers. "Shah Nameh," Epic poem. 1025 l. Papias. It. Grammar. 1029 d. Fulbert. Fr. Epistles. 1030 d. Adalberon. Fr. Poems. 980-1038 Avicenna. Arab. Nat. Philos., Medicine. 1041 l. Hermannus Contractus. Ger. Universal Hist. 1043 l. Abdulcass. Arab. Medicine. 1055 d. Yaroslav. Russ. Code of Laws. 1057 l. George Cedrenus. History. 1058 l. Witpo. Ger. Praise of Hen. III., Biography. 1062 l. Michael Psellus. Mathematics. 1069 l. Theophylactus. Theology. 1073 l. Galaledin. Arab. Correction of the Calendar. 1079 l. Arzachel. Arab. Astronomy. 1080 d. John Xiphilinos. Abridgment of Dion Cassius. 1080 l. John Scylitza. History. 1028-1086 Mar. Scotus. Ger. Chronicle. 1088 d. Berengarius. Fr. Theology. 1089 d. Launfranc. Br. Theology. Eadmer. Br. Chronicle. Willeran. Ger. Francio Poems. Almuyadad. Arab. Hist.of the Saracens in Sicily. Achmet. Arab. Treatise on Dreams. 1100 l. Suidas. Lexicon. 1101 l. John of Milan. It. "Regimen Sanit. Saler." 1030-1109 Ingulphus. Br. History of Croyland. 1033-1109 Anselm. Fr. Scholastic Philosophy. 1110 l. Anna Comnena. Reign of Emperor Alexius. 1113 d. Sigebert. History. 1058-1113 Gazali. Arab. Aristotelian Philosophy. 1114 l. Alhazin. Arab. Optics. 1056-1115 Nestor of Kiev. Russ. Chron. of Russia. 1118 d. Florence of Worcester. Br. Chron. of Eng. 1118 l. Zonaras. Hist. of the Romans, Jews, &c. 1119 d. Tograi. Arab. Poems. 1120 d. Theodosius. Russ. Annals. 1054-1121 Hariri. Arab. Moral Poems. 1121 l. C. Theo. Prodromus. "Rhodanthé & Dosicles," a novel. 1121 l. Nicetas Acominatus. History. 1123 d. Sylvester. Russ. Chronicle of Russia. 1123 d. Marbodacus. Fr. Biography. 1053-1124 Gerbert. Fr. Hist. of First Crusade. Pierre Thietbode. Fr. Hist. of the Crusades. 1071-1126 William of Pouctiers. Fr. First troubadour. 1130 l. Athelard of Bath. Br. Mathematics. 1131 l. Euthymius Zygabenus. Theology. 1075-1132 Ordericus Vitalis. Br. Hist. of England. 1057-1133 Hildebert. Fr. Poems. | A.D. | Event/Author/Work | |------|------------------| | 1136 | d. Tabrizi, Arab. Commentaries. | | 1137 | d. Nicephorus Bicrenius, Byzantine Affairs. | | 1097-1142 | Hugh de St Victoire, Fr. Geog., Hist., Theol. | | 1099 | b. Ben. Idris, Arab. Geography. | | 1079-1142 | Pierre Abelard, Fr. Theology. | | 1143 | d. William of Malmesbury, Br. History. | | 1148 | d. Axo, Iceland. Ballads. | | 1148 | l. Geoffroi Gaimar, Fr. Anglo-Norm. Chron. in verse. | | 1150 | d. Robert Pulleyn, Br. Theology. | | 1150 | l. Gratian, It. Canons. | | 1150 | Bechada, Fr. Norman Poetry, "Gestes de Godefroi." | | 1082-1152 | Suger, Fr. Life of Louis le Gros. | | 1152 | l. Robert Wace, Fr. "Roman de Rou." | | 1152 | l. Geoffrey of Monmouth, Br. Hist. of Britain. | | 1091-1153 | Bernard of Clairvaux, Fr. Mystic. | | 1156 | l. Eustathius, Commentary on Homer. | | 1158 | d. Otto, Ger. Chronicles. | | 1160 | l. Isaac Tzetzes, Commentary on Lycophron. | | 1164 | d. Petrus Lombardus, Fr. Theology. | | 1164 | l. Henry of Huntingdon, Br. Chron. of England. | | 1168 | d. A. Zohar, Arab. Medicine. | | 1170 | d. Helmold, Ger. Chronicles of the Slavi. | | 1173 | d. Richard of St Victor, Br. Theology. | | 1175 | l. Falcandus, It. History of Sicily. | | 1176 | d. John Tzetzes, History in verse. | | 1179 | l. Constantine Manasses, History. | | 1180 | l. Ralph Glanville, Br. Collection of Laws. | | 1180 | Simeon of Durham, Br. Chron. of England. | | 1180 | l. Joseph of Exeter, Br. "Trojan War," "War of Antioch," Epics. | | 1180 | l. John Egidius, Fr. Poem on Medicine. | | 1181 | d. John of Salisbury, Br. Life of Becket. | | 1181 | d. Feleki, Per. Poems. | | 1182 | l. Cinnamus, History. | | 1183 | l. Walter Mapes, Br. Satires, Songs. | | 1100-1184 | William of Tyre, History. | | 1186 | d. Kharkani, Pers. Poems. | | 1189 | l. Giraldus Cambrensis, Br. Conq. of Ireland, Itin. of Wales. | | 1191 | l. Henry of Valdece, Ger. Minnesinger. | | 1191 | l. Berthold Constantiensis, Ger. Universal Hist. | | 1195 | l. Foukes, Fr. A troubadour. | | 1136-1197 | William of Newbury, Br. Chron. of England. | | 1198 | d. Jaafar eln Tofail, Arab. "Hai ben Yokdan," novel. | | 1199 | l. Campanus, It. Mathematics. | | 1199 | Giulio d'Alcama, It. Sicilian poetry. | | 1199 | Nigellus, Br. Speculum Stultorum. | | 1199 | Egaz Monez, Sp. Songs. | | 1199 | Gonzalo Hermiguez, Sp. Songs. | | 1156 | b. Sæmund, Iceland. The Elder Edda. | | 1156 | Sunesen, Dane. Law. | | 1156 | Sueno, Dane. History of Denmark. | | 1156 | Alchabit, Arab. Optics, Astronomy. | | 1200 | l. Roger Hoveden, Br. Chron. of England. | | 1202 | d. Alain de l'Isle, Fr. Theology, Ethics. | | 1203 | l. Gervase of Canterbury, Br. Hist. of Eng. | | 1204 | l. Geoffrey de Villehardouin, Fr. Conq. of Constantinople. | | 1206 | d. Avrores, Arab. Aristotel. Philosophy. | | 1208 | l. P. Gautier, Fr. Alexandriada. | | 1218 | l. Gunther, Ger. Poems. | | 1219 | d. A. Baca, Arab. Arithmetic. | | 1226 | d. Vinc. Kaillabek, Pole. Hist. of Poland. | | 1227 | d. Alex. Neckham, Br. Theology. | | 1241 | d. Snor Sturleson, Iceland. "Younger Edda." | | 1243 | l. W. Rubruquis, Fr. Travels. | | 1244 | d. Abulden, Arab. History. | | 1245 | El Harawi, Arab. Travels. | | 1245 | d. Alexander Hales, Br. Aristot. Philosophy. | | 1245 | d. Rodrigo Ximenez, Sp. Hist. of Spain. | | 1246 | d. Beitbar, Arab. Botany, Medicine. | | 1248 | l. Gilbertus Anglicus, Br. Medicine. | | 1248 | l. William the Breton, Fr. "Deeds of Philip," in verse. | | 1248 | l. Nicephorus Blennimidas, Theology. | | 1249 | d. Pietro dalla Vigne, It. History. | | 1250 | l. Vitellion, Pole. Optics. | | 1250 | l. John of Novgorod, Russ. Hist. of Russia. | | 1250 | Roger of Wendover, Br. Hist. of England. | | 1253 | d. Bogophalus, Pole. Chron. of Poland. | | 1253 | l. Wm. de Lorris, Fr. "Rom. de la Rose." | | 1254 | d. Robert Grosteste, Br. Natural Philosophy. | | 1196-1254 | Frederick II, Ger. "De arte Venandi." | | 1256 | d. John Hollywood, Br. Math., Astron. | | 1256 | l. Bonaventura, It. Scholastic Philos. | | 1257 | l. Richard of Chichester, Br. Chron. of Eng. | | 1257 | John Peckham, Br. Theology. | | 1259 | d. Matthew Paris, Br. History of England. | | 1182-1260 | Accursius, It. Law. | | 1264 | l. Vincentius de Beauvais, Fr. Encyclopaedia. | | 1264 | l. George Acropohta, History. | | 1271 | d. Robert of Sorbonne, Fr. Theology. | | 1201-1273 | Nasreddin, Pers. Astronomy. | | 1224-1274 | Thomas Aquinas, It. Theology. | | 1274 | d. Caswin, Arab. Natural History. | | 1175-1275 | R. de Penafort, Sp. Decretals. | | 1277 | d. John XIX., It. Poem on Medicine. | | 1278 | d. Martin Polonus, Pole. Chron. of Popes and Emperors. | | 1193-1280 | Albertus Magnus, Ger. Nat. Philosophy. | | 1281 | d. Michael Scot, Br. Alchemy, Philos. | | 1284 | d. Alphonso X., Sp. Astronomy, Alchemy. | | 1283 | d. Phil. Mousier, Fr. Hist. of France in verse. | | 1226-1286 | Abuflaragi, Arab. Universal History. | | 1288 | l. Guido of Colonna, It. Poems, History. | | 1291 | d. Brunetto Latini, It. "Il Tesoro." | | 1193-1291 | Saadi, Pers. "Gulistan," "Bostan," Poems. | | 1214-1292 | Roger Bacon, Br. Chemistry, Optics, &c. | | 1292 | l. Arnold of Lubeck, Ger. Chron. of the Slavi. | | 1296 | d. G. Durand, It. Law. | | 1298 | l. Marco Polo, It. Travels. | | 1298 | d. G. de Voragine, It. Legends of Saints. | | 1298 | Robert of Gloucester, Br. Chronicle in verse. | | 1298 | Sturla Thordisen, Dan. Hist. of Norway. | | 1298 | William Rishanger, Br. Hist. of England. | | 1298 | Richard Middleton, Br. Theology. | | 1298 | Thomas Lermont, the Rhymers, Br. "Sir Tristram," a Romance. | | 1298 | Bohadin, Arab. Life of Saladin. | | 1298 | Abdollatif, Arab. Topography of Egypt. | | 1298 | Elfaragi, Arab. Poems. | | 1298 | Melis Stoke, Dutch. Poetic Chronicle. | | 1235-1300 | J. Van Marliant, Dutch. Poems. | | 1300 | d. Guido Cavalcanti, It. Poems. | | 1302 | l. Ferdusi, Pers. Poems, History. | | 1304 | l. George Pachymer, History. | | 1305 | l. Bernard Gordon, Fr. Medicine. | | 1306 | d. John of Paris, Fr. Theology. | | 1308 | d. Duns Scotus, Br. Philosophy. | | 1308 | l. Torreg, Rustechelli, It. Commentaries. | | 1308 | d. John Fordun, Br. Chron. of Scotland. | | 1312 | l. Walter Burleigh, Br. Philosophy. | | 1312 | d. Theod. Melochita, History. | | 1313 | d. Arn. Villanova, It. Alchemy. | A.D.

1236-1315 Raimund Lulle, Sp. Alchemy. 1250-1315 Pietro d'Albano, Astrology, Physics. 1260-1318 Jean de Joinville, Fr. History of Louis IX. 1319 l. Max. Planudes, Anthology. 1265-1321 Dante, It. "La Divina Commedia." 1327 d. Cecco d'Ascoli, It. Astronomy. 1328 d. Nicolas Triveth, Br. Hist., Med., Theology. 1331 d. Novairi, Arab. Universal History. 1273-1333 Abulfeda, Arab. Geography, History. 1333 d. W. Durand, Fr. Law. 1275-1340 Manuel Phillis, Poems. 1341 l. Callistus Xantopoulus, Eccles. History. 1343 l. Leo Pilatus, Literature. 1344 d. E. Hajam, Arab. Grammar. 1281-1345 R. Aungerville, Br. "Philobiblion." 1347 d. W. Occam, Br. Law. 1348 d. G. Andreas, It. Canons. 1260-1348 F. Barberino, Br. Poems. 1348 l. Bartolus, It. Law. 1350 d. Niceph. Gregoras, History. 1350 l. John Tauler, Ger. Sermons. 1352 d. Lawrence Minot, Br. Historical Poems. 1357 l. John Cantacuzenus, History. 1358 d. Ibn al Wardi, Arab. Geography. 1360 d. Ralph Higden, Br. Chron. of England. 1362 d. Juan Manuel, Sp. Romances. 1368 d. Jafei, Arab. Biography. 1370 d. Henry Knighton, Br. Chron. of England. 1371 l. Gerard Groot, Dutch. Theology. 1372 d. John Maundeville, Br. Travels. 1304-1374 Petrarcha, It. Sonnets, Epic, Literature. 1313-1375 Boccaccio, It. "Il Decameron." 1377 d. Turan Shah, Pers. Hist. of Persia. 1388 d. Matthew of Westminster, Br. Flowers of History. 1324-1384 J. Wickele, Br. Theology. Trans. of the Bible. 1395 d. Hatiz, Pers. Odes. 1326-1396 John Barbour, Br. "The Bruce." Peter Langtoft, Br. Anglo-Norman Chronicle. Philippe de Vitri, Fr. Translation of Ovid. Juan van Helen, Dutch. Chronicles. Mohammed Ibn Batuta, Arab. Travels. Geo. Codinus, History. Mon. de Luzzii, It. Anatomy. Adam Davie, Br. Metrical Romances. Hugh de Brachon, Br. Law. R. Langlande, Br. "Pierce Plowman," a satire. Heinrich von Rebdorf, Ger. Chronicles. Jacob von Konigshopen, Ger. Chronicles. John Scheldberger, Ger. Hist. of Timour. 1328-1400 Geoffrey Chaucer, Br. Canterbury Tales, &c. 1400 l. Eman. Moscaupulus, Mathematics. 1402 d. John Gower, Br. Elegies, Romances, &c. 1337-1402 John Froissart, Fr. Chronicles. Andrew of Wyntoun, Br. Chron. of Scotland. 1404 l. Gobelin Persona, Ger. General History. 1412 l. Eric Olai, Siced. Hist. of Goths and Swedes. 1329-1414 Firuzabadi, Arab. "The Camoos." 1415 d. Eman. Chrysolorus, Grammar. 1375-1415 John Huss, Ger. Theology. 1416 l. Paul de Castro, It. Law. 1416 l. J. W. Gansflext, Fr. Theology. Felix Hammerlein, Ger. Satires. 1420 l. N. Gasparini, It. Commentary on Cicero. 1421 l. W. Lynwood, Br. Law. 1424 l. Luca de Burgo, Sp. Mathematics. 1424 l. Cherefeddin-Ali, Pers. Life of Tamerlane, &c. 1350-1425 Peter d'Ailly, Fr. Astronomy. 1356-1429 Ferreti, It. History of his own times. 1363-1429 John Gerson, Ger. Scholastic Philosophy. 1430 d. Bryn Karlsson Sceede. "Instruction to Kings and Princes." 1432 d. Raymund de Sebunda, Fr. Theology. 1395-1437 James I. of Scots. "King's Qahair," &c. 1367-1438 Makrizi, Arab. History. 1439 d. Henry of Balma, Fr. Mystic. 1439 l. Michael Glycas, Annals to 1118. 1380-1440 John Lydgate, Br. Poems. 1440 d. T. Walsingham, Br. History of Normandy. Harry the Minstrel, Br. "Sir W. Wallace." 1443 l. Leonardo Bruni, It. Hist. of Florence. Leonard of Pisa, It. Algebra. 1393-1444 Ulug Beg, Arab. Astronomy, Chronology. 1444 l. Ferdinand de Cordova, Sp. "De Artificio omnis Scibilis." 1445 l. Nicolas Tudeschi, It. Law. 1448 d. Edmund Dinter, Dutch. Chron. of Brabant. 1450 d. Arabshah, Arab. Life of Tamerlane. 1450 d. Pletho, Philosophy. 1450 l. John Fortescue, Br. Laws of England. 1453 l. Andrelini, It. Poems. 1407-1457 Lorenzo Valla, It. Literature. 1458 d. Alain Chartier, Fr. Poems. 1380-1459 Poggio, It. Literature. 1396-1459 Gianozzo Manetti, It. Oriental Literature. 1370-1460 Guarino, It. Trans. of Plutarch. 1460 d. Bart. Montagnana, It. Medicine. 1423-1461 Geo. Von Peurbach, Ger. Theory of Planets. 1461 l. Corbeuil, Fr. Satire. 1462 d. Mich. Savonarola, It. Medicine. 1388-1463 Flav. Blondus, It. History of Venice. 1405-1464 Eneas Sylvius, It. History, Poems. 1464 l. Nic. von Cas, Ger. Mathematics. 1415-1466 B. Accolti, It. History of Holy War. 1396-1468 Geo. of Trebizond, Aristot. Philosophy. 1468 l. Monstrelet, Fr. Continuation of Froissart. 1470 l. Const. Lascaris, Grammar, &c. 1374-1471 A. Beccadelli, It. "Hermaphroditus." 1393-1471 Beccat. Panormita, It. Biography. 1380-1471 Thomas à Kempis, Ger. Theology. 1395-1472 Bissarion, Theology. 1472 l. Martin de Ilkus, Pole. Math. Almanac. 1393-1473 P. Vander Heyden, Dutch. Chronicle. 1474 l. William Caxton, Br. Translations from Latin, French, &c. 1476 l. George Phranza, History. 1478 d. Theodore Gaza, Origin of the Turks, &c. 1410-1480 John Argyrophilus, Aristot. Philosophy. 1415-1480 Droghussius Pole. History of Poland. 1480 d. Bacai, Arab. Biography. 1421-1481 Bart. Platina, It. Lives of Popes. 1482 d. Paul Toscanello, It. Astronomy. 1442-1485 Rud. Agricola, Dutch. History, Philosophy. 1486 d. Jami, Pers. Poems. John Hardyng, Br. Chron. of England to 1428. 1487 d. Thomas Littleton, Br. Law. 1432-1487 Pulci, It. "Morgante Maggiore." 1489 l. Khondemir, Pers. Gen. Hist. to A.D. 1474. 1491 l. Laonicus Chalcondyles, History of the Turks. 1490 d. M. Boiardo, It. "Orlando Inamorato." 1492 d. Lorenzo di Medici, It. Poems, Literature. 1493 l. Mar. Behaim, Ger. Geography. 1493 l. Conrad Botho, Ger. Chronology. 1463-1494 Pico de Mirandola, It. Metaphysics. 1425-1495 Pomponius Lactus, It. Lives of Cesar, &c. 1495 d. Gabriel Brie, Ger. Theology. 1437-1496 F. Buonaccorsi, It. Biography. 1452-1498 Girolamo Savonarola, It. "Triumphus Crucis." From this point the Literary Chronology of Britain is given in a separate table.

1502 d. Bonfinius, It. History of Hungary. 1445-1509 Philippe de Commynes, Fr. History of his times. 1433-1513 Demetrius Chalcondylies, Philology. 1462-1516 John Trithemius, Ger. Natural Philosophy. 1437-1517 Francis Ximenes, Sp. Polyglot Bible. 1452-1529 Leonardo da Vinci, It. "Treatise on Painting." G. Abrosi, It. Astronomy. 1482-1528 Machiavelli, It. Politics, History. 1478-1529 B. Castiglione, It. "The Courtier." 1530 d. Baber, Arab. Autobiography. 1484-1531 Zuinglius, Ger. Theology. 1474-1533 Ariosto, It. "Orlando Furioso." 1486-1535 Cornelius Agrippa, Ger. Physics, Theology. 1476-1536 Erasmus, Dutch. Theology, Literature. 1503-1536 Garcilasso de la Vega, Sp. Poems. 1482-1540 Guicciardini, It. History of Italy. 1492-1540 J. Luis Vives, Sp. Philosophy, Theology. 1493-1541 Paracelsus, Ger. Chemistry. 1472-1543 N. Copernicus, Pole. Astronomy. 1544 L. Damian Goez, Port. History, Travels. 1544 L. Nic. Tartaglia, It. Mathematics. 1544 d. Olau Magnus, Suede. "Customs of the Northern Nations." 1483-1546 Martin Luther, Ger. Theology. 1470-1547 Bembo, It. History of Venice. 1483-1553 F. Rabelais, Fr. Satires. 1555 L. A. Zarate, Sp. "Discovery of Peru." 1484-1558 J. C. Scaliger, Fr. Philology. 1503-1559 R. Stephens, Fr. Philology. 1497-1560 Melanchton, Ger. Theology. 1523-1563 Fallopius, It. Medicine. 1475-1564 M. Angelo Buonarroti, It. Poems. 1509-1564 John Calvin, Fr. Theology. 1516-1565 Conrad Gesner, Ger. Natural History. 1500-1570 Benvenuto Cellini, It. Autobiography. 1516-1571 G. Fabricius, Ger. Topography. 1515-1572 P. Ramus, Fr. Logic. 1512-1574 P. Manutius Aldus, It. Commentaries. 1493-1575 Bernardo Tasso, It. "Amadis." 1509-1575 F. Commandino, It. Mathematics. 1501-1576 Cardan, It. Mathematics, Philosophy. 1524-1579 Camoens, Port. "The Lusiad." 1580 d. Gonsalvo Illescas, Sp. "Lives of Popes." 1515-1580 V. Borghini, It. History. 1513-1590 A. de Morales, Sp. History of Spain. 1590 d. Al Jannabi, Arab. Universal History. 1529-1590 Hen. Stephens, Fr. Philology. 1533-1592 Michel de Montaigne, Fr. Essays. 1512-1594 Gerard Mercator, Ger. Geography. 1544-1595 Torquato Tasso, It. "Gierusalemme Liberata." 1537-1600 J. Accosta, Sp. History of West Indies. 1535-1600 Luis Molina, Sp. Metaphysics. 1546-1601 Tycho Brahe, Dane. Astronomy. 1519-1603 Andrea Cassalpino, It. Botany. 1540-1603 F. Vieta, Fr. Algebra. 1543-1603 Pierre Charron, Fr. Theology. 1553-1603 F. Bracciolini, It. "La Croce Racquistata." 1603 L. John Bayer, Ger. "Uranometria." 1522-1605 U. Aldrovandi, It. Natural History. 1529-1606 B. Davanzati, It. History of the English Reformation. 1606 L. Jan van Heemskerk, Dutch. "Arcadia." 1538-1607 C. Baronius, It. Ecclesiastical Annals. 1607 L. Ferishta, Arab. History of India. 1519-1609 Theodore Beza, Ger. Theology, Philology. 1540-1609 J. J. Scaliger, Fr. History, Criticism. 1545-1609 Orazio Torsellino, It. Grammar. 1533-1611 Possevini, It. Description of Muscovy. 1611 L. G. Marini, It. Romances. 1538-1613 Guarini, It. "Il Pastor Fido." 1560-1613 C. Ritterhus, Ger. Law. 1573-1613 M. Regnier, Fr. Satires. 1565-1614 Marq. Freher, Ger. History of Germany and France. 1549-1616 Cervantes, Sp. "Don Quixote." 1616 d. C. Schevenkield, Ger. Natural History. 1553-1617 J. A. de Thou, Fr. History of France. 1570-1617 B. de Brito, Port. History of Portugal. 1585-1619 L. Vanini, It. Theology. 1619 d. J. Fabricius, It. Comparative Anatomy. 1542-1621 Bellarmine, It. Polemics. 1544-1621 P. Matthieu, Fr. History of France. 1555-1621 J. Buxtorf, Ger. Philology. 1541-1622 J. Guevara, Sp. Publicist. 1552-1623 P. R. Sarpi, It. Hist. Council of Trent. 1580-1623 P. Clavier, Ger. Geography. 1537-1624 Juan Mariana, Sp. History, Chronology. 1565-1625 Her. y. Tordesillas. History of Spain. 1556-1628 F. Malherbe, Fr. Odes. 1585-1629 G. Bartholine, Suede. Anatomy. 1566-1631 Bart. di Argensola, Sp. Tragedy, History. 1571-1631 John Kepler, Ger. Astronomy. 1576-1631 E. C. Davila, It. Hist. Civil Wars of France. 1633 d. A. de Andrade, Port. Travels in Thibet and Cathay. 1561-1635 A. Tassoni, It. "Secchia Rapita." 1562-1635 Lope de Vega, Sp. Drama. 1576-1635 M. Goldasti, Ger. History. 1636 L. Matheo Riberia, Port. Romance. 1567-1637 Ab. Bzovins, Pole. Ecclesiastical Annals. 1568-1639 T. A. Campanella, It. Philosophy. 1639 L. de Vasconcellos, Port. Poems. 1545-1640 Arn. Jonas, Iceland. History of Iceland. 1584-1640 An. Du Chesne, Fr. Collection of Historices. 1591-1640 J. I. Pontanus, Dane. Danish History. 1609-1640 Paul Fleming, Ger. Poems. 1597-1641 C. Acuña, Sp. Description of the Riv. Amazon. 1564-1642 Galileo, It. Astronomy. 1568-1643 Hen. Spondanus, Fr. History. 1577-1644 J. B. van Helmont, Dutch. Chemistry. 1579-1644 G. Bentivoglio, It. Hist. Civ. Wars, Flanders. 1644 d. B. Castelli, It. Mathematics. 1644 d. John Macror, Pole. Theology. 1570-1645 F. Quevedo, Sp. Tales, Satires. 1583-1645 H. de Groot (Grotias) Dutch. "De Jure Belli et Pacis." 1646 d. L. V. de Guevara, Sp. "El Diablo Coxuelo." 1646 d. E. de Almezya, Port. History of Ethiopia. 1567-1647 Fabio Colonna, It. Botany. 1587-1647 P. C. Hooft, Dutch. Drama, History of Netherlands. 1594-1647 Beverwyk, Dutch. Medicine. 1647 d. B. Cavalieri, It. Mathematics. 1571-1649 F. Strada, It. History of Wars in Flanders. 1576-1649 C. Scipioius, Ger. "Ars Critica." 1596-1650 Des Cartes, Fr. Metaphysics, Mathematics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.

1796-1838 Möhler, Ger. "Symbolism." 1781-1838 A. von Chamisso, Ger. Natural Science. 1793-1839 Nikander, Svede. Poems. 1767-1839 J. Michaud, Fr. History. 1742-1840 Blumenbach, Ger. Natural History. 1758-1840 Olbers, Ger. Astronomy. 1753-1840 Bonald, Fr. Philosophy. 1797-1840 C. O. Müller, Ger. Archæology. 1778-1841 A. P. de Candolle, Fr. Botany. 1770-1842 Krug, Ger. Philosophy. 1780-1842 P. O. Brondsted, Dane. Archæology. 1796-1842 T. S. Jouffroy, Fr. Philosophy. 1760-1842 A. H. L. Heeren, Ger. History. 1773-1842 Sismondi, Switz. History. 1783-1842 W. Gesenius, Ger. Hebrew Literature. 1772-1842 M. J. Degerando, Fr. Metaphysics. 1777-1843 De la Motte-Fouqué, Ger. Poems. 1781-1843 Hahnemann, Ger. Homœopathy. 1807-1843 H. N. Ulrichs, Ger. Archæology. 1803-1843 Maurenbrecher, Ger. Jurisprudence. 1763-1845 Rover Collard, Fr. Philosophy. 1767-1845 A. W. von Schlegel, Ger. "Lectures on Dramatic Art." 1764-1847 F. C. Jacobs, Ger. Philology. 1771-1848 H. Zschokke, Ger. History, Fiction, &c. 1769-1848 Chateaubriand, Fr. "Génie du Christianisme." 1779-1848 Berzelius, Svede. Chemistry. 1849 d. J. G. Orelli, Philology. 1792-1849 K. G. Zumpt, Ger. Philology. 1774-1849 C. F. Becker, Ger. Philology. 1780-1849 W. M. L. De Wette, Ger. Philology. 1850 d. Ed. Biot, Fr. Natural Philosophy. 1850 d. Gay Lussac, Fr. Chemistry. 1789-1850 J. A. Neander, Ger. Ecclesiastical History. 1779-1850 Oehlenschläger, Dane. Poems. 1797-1850 W. Beer, Ger. Astronomy. 1790-1850 H. de Balzac, Fr. Fiction. 1779-1850 Schumacher, Ger. Astronomy. 1782-1851 J. J. Audubon, Fr. Ornithology. 1777-1851 Ørsted, Dane. Natural Philosophy. 1793-1851 Lachmann, Ger. Oriental Languages. 1760-1851 H. G. G. Paulus, Ger. Philology. 1778-1851 L. Oken, Ger. "Physio-philosophy." 1852 d. Scholz, Ger. Oriental Literature. 1753-1853 Orfila, Fr. Toxicology. 1774-1853 C. L. von Buch, Ger. Geology. 1773-1853 L. Tieck, Ger. Poems. 1768-1853 K. R. Lepsius, Ger. Archæology. 1786-1853 F. Arago, Natural Philosophy. 1854 L'Abbé Lamennais. Politics and Social Philosophy.

BRITISH LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FROM THE 16TH CENTURY.

1512 R. Fabyan. Chron. of England and France. 1475-1522 Gawin Douglas. Trans. of Virgil. 1460-1524 Thomas Linacre. Philology, Medicine. 1529 John Skelton. Satires, Odes. 1465-1530 Wm. Dunbar. "Thistle and Rose." 1480-1535 Thomas More. "Utopia." 1538 d. Anth. Fitzherbert. Husbandry. 1541 Thomas Wyatt. Sonnets. 1546-7 d. Earl of Surrey. Poems. 1547 T. Halls. Hist. of Houses of York and Lancaster. Thomas Elyot. Philology. 1552 John Leland. English Antiquities. 1475-1555 H. Latimer. Sermons. 1505-1557 W. Cavendish. Life of Wolsey. 1506-1558 Robert Recorde. Arithmetic.

A.D.

1495-1563 J. Ball. Lives of British Writers. 1565 John Heywood. Drama. 1515-1568 Roger Ascham. "The Schoolmaster." 1522-1570 J. Jewel. Divinity. 1577 Geo. Gascoigne. Drama. 1580 Thomas Tusser. Husbandry. 1581 Ralph Hollingshed. Chronicles. 1581 Thomas Wilson. Logic and Rhetoric. 1506-1582 Geo. Buchanan. History of Scotland, &c. 1544-1586 Philip Sydney. Arcadia. 1517-1587 J. Fox. Book of Martyrs. 1593 Christopher Marlowe. Drama. 1553-1598 Edmund Spenser. "Fairy Queen." 1550-1600 John Lylye. Euphues. 1553-1600 R. Hooker. Ecclesiastical Polity. 1540-1603 W. Gilbert. "On the Loadstone." 1527-1605 John Stowe. Chronicles, Topography. T. North. Translation of Plutarch. 1610 Richard Knolles. History of the Turks. 1550-1612 N. Fitzherbert. Biography. 1561-1612 J. Harrington. Transl. Ariosto. 1612 John Owen. Latin Epigrams. 1586-1615 F. Beaumont. Drama. 1553-1616 R. Hackney. Naval History. 1560-1616 J. Pits. Biography of Kings, Bishops, &c. 1564-1616 W. Shakspeare. Drama. 1552-1617 Walter Raleigh. Hist. of the World. 1550-1617 John Napier. Logarithms. 1562-1619 J. Daniel. Poems. 1567-1619 Samuel Daniel. Hist. of England. 1551-1623 Wm. Camden. Antiquities. 1576-1625 John Fletcher. Drama. 1560-1626 Francis Bacon. Philosophy, History. 1565-1626 L. Andrews. Sermons. 1627 d. John Haywood. English History. 1586 d. J. Ford. Drama. 1577-1628 S. Purchas. Collection of Voyages. 1555-1629 J. Speed. Hist. of Great Britain. 1563-1631 M. Drayton. Poems. 1570-1631 R. B. Cotton. Antiquities. 1632 d. E. Fairfax. Translation of Tasso. 1550-1634 Edward Coke. Law. 1574-1637 Ben Jonson. Drama. 1576-1639 Robert Burton. "Anatomy of Melancholy." 1585-1639 P. Massinger. Drama. 1562-1641 Henry Spelman. Antiquities. 1580-1641 Thomas Roe. Travels in the East. 1609-1641 J. Suckling. Poems. 1577-1643 G. Sandys. Translations, Poems. 1602-1644 W. Chillingworth. Theology. 1645 d. R. Baker. Chronicle of England. 1581-1648 E. (Lord) Herbert. Hist. of Henry VIII. 1585-1649 W. Drummond. Poems. 1650 d. Thomas May. History of Parliament. 1584-1654 John Selden. Antiq., Law, Hist. 1580-1656 James Usher. Divinity, History. 1578-1657 William Harvey. Circulation of the Blood. 1600-1661 Brian Walton. Polyglot Bible. 1608-1661 Thomas Fuller. History, Biography. 1573-1662 John Donne. Satires, Essays. 1591-1666 James Shirley. Drama. 1588-1667 George Wither. Satires. 1667 d. Jeremy Taylor. Divinity. 1618-1667 A. Cowley. Poems. 1667 d. W. Prynne. History, Politics. 1615-1668 John Denham. Tragedies, "Cooper's Hill." Mrs Lucy Hutchinson. Biography. 1608-1673 Clarendon. History of the Rebellion. 1608-1674 John Milton. "Paradise Lost." A.D.

1605-1676 B. Whitlocke. History. 1611-1677 J. Harrington. "Oceana." 1630-1677 Isaac Barrow. Divinity, Math. 1620-1678 A. Maxwell. Poems. 1588-1679 Thomas Hobbes. Metaphysics. 1648-1680 Rochester. Satires. 1605-1682 Thomas Browne. "On Vulgar Errors." 1593-1683 Isaac Walton. Biography, Angling. 1617-1683 Algernon Sydney. "Discourse on Gov't." 1613-1684 Archbishop Leighton. Divinity. 1633-1684 Roscommon. Poems. 1651-1685 Thomas Otway. Tragedy. 1685 d. Edmund Castell. Lexicon Heptaglotton. 1605-1686 W. Dugdale. Antiquities, History. 1612-1686 J. Pearson. Divinity. 1605-1687 Edmund Waller. Poems. 1614-1687 H. More. Theology. 1612-1688 Samuel Butler. "Hudibras." 1617-1688 R. Cudworth. Metaphysics. 1628-1688 John Bunyan. "Pilgrim's Progress." 1624-1689 T. Sydenham. Medicine. 1689 d. W. Sherlock. Divinity. 1615-1691 R. Baxter. "Saints' Everlasting Rest." 1627-1691 R. Boyle. Theology, Chemistry. 1656-1691 Nat. Lee. Drama. 1630-1694 J. Tillotson. Sermons. 1629-1700 Wm. Temple. History. 1700 d. R. Brady. History of England.

1631-1701 John Dryden. Tragedy, Satire, "Virgil." 1635-1702 R. Hooke. Nat. Philos., Chemistry. 1616-1703 John Wallis. Geometry. 1667-1703 J. Pomfret. "The Choice." 1632-1704 John Locke. Metaphysics, &c. 1628-1705 John Ray. Natural History. 1620-1706 J. Evelyn. "Sylvia." 1678-1707 Geo. Farquhar. Comedies. 1676-1700 John Philips. "Splendid Shilling." 1713 d. Thomas Rymer. "Federa." 1643-1715 Gibb. Burnet. "Hist. of his time." 1633-1716 R. South. Divinity. 1682-1716 Roger Cotes. Mathematics. 1679-1717 Thomas Parnell. "The Hermit." 1673-1718 Nicholas Rowe. Tragedy. 1642-1719 Isaac Newton. "Principia." 1646-1719 J. Flamsteed. Astronomy. 1672-1719 Joseph Addison. "Spectator," "Cato." 1678-1720 S. Ockley. Oriental History. 1664-1721 Matthew Prior. Poems. 1726 d. J. Vanbrugh. Comedy. 1672-1728 W. Congreve. Comedy. 1729 d. Richard Steele. Drama, Essays. 1671-1730 L. Echard. History of England. 1660-1731 Daniel Defoe. "Robinson Crusoe." 1685-1731 Brook Taylor. Mathematics. 1688-1732 John Gay. "Beggar's Opera." Fables. 1670-1733 B. de Mandeville. "Fable of the Bees." 1678-1735 Thomas Hearne. History and Antiquities. 1643-1737 John Strype. Ecc. History, Biography. 1682-1739 Nicolas Sanderson. Mathematics. 1661-1740 R. Bentley. Divinity, Philology. 1683-1740 D. Waterland. Divinity. 1740 d. Eph. Chambers. Cyclopaedia. 1651-1742 Abraham Sharp. Astronomy. 1656-1742 Edmund Halley. Astronomy. 1696-1742 A. Clarke. Divinity, Philosophy. 1710-1742 James Hammond. Elegies. 1692-1743 W. Somerville. "The Chace." 1698-1743 Richard Savage. Poems. 1688-1744 Alexander Pope. Poems.

A.D.

1667-1745 Jonathan Swift. Satires, Tales, &c. 1696-1746 Colin Maclaurin. Mathematics. 1699-1746 R. Blair. "The Grave." 1674-1747 John Potter. Antiquities. 1694-1747 F. Hutcheson. Moral Philosophy. 1674-1748 Isaac Watts. Hymns. 1700-1748 James Thomson. "The Seasons," &c. 1683-1750 C. Middleton. "Life of Cicero," &c. 1687-1750 A. Baxter. Metaphysics. 1672-1751 Bolingbroke. Politics, Literature. 1701-1751 P. Doddridge. Divinity. 1707-1751 Benjamin Robins. Mathematics. 1692-1752 Bishop Butler. Divinity. 1660-1753 Hans Sloane. Natural History. 1684-1753 G. Berkeley. Metaphysics, Ethics. 1686-1754 Thomas Carte. History of England. 1707-1754 H. Fielding. "Tom Jones," &c. 1720-1756 W. Collins. Odes. 1704-1757 D. Hartley. "Observations on Man." 1696-1758 Allan Ramsay. "The Gentle Shepherd." 1703-1758 Jon. Edwards. Theology. 1700-1758 John Dyer. Poems. 1676-1761 B. Hoadley. Polemics. 1678-1761 T. Sherlock. Divinity. 1689-1761 S. Richardson. "Clarissa," "Pamela," &c. 1710-1761 Thomas Simpson. Mathematics. 1690-1762 M. W. Montague. Letters. 1692-1762 James Bradley. Astronomy. 1714-1763 W. Shenstone. Pastoral, &c. 1763 d. Nathaniel Hooke. History of Rome. 1703-1764 R. Dodsley. Drama. 1681-1765 Edward Young. "Night Thoughts," &c. 1703-1767 John Swinton. History, Antiquities. 1687-1768 Robert Simson. Geometry. 1713-1768 Lawrence Sterne. "Tristram Shandy." 1698-1770 J. Jortin. Divinity, Criticism. 1721-1770 Mark Akenside. "Pleasures of Imagination." 1752-1770 T. Chatterton. Poems. 1716-1771 Thomas Gray. Odes, Elegies. 1720-1771 Tobias Smollett. Novels, History. 1690-1772 James Stirling. Mathematics. 1718-1772 John Canton. Experimental Philosophy. 1694-1773 Chesterfield. Letters. 1731-1774 Oliver Goldsmith. "Traveller," "Vicar of Wakefield." 1750-1774 R. Ferguson. Poems. 1776 d. James Granger. Biog. Hist. of England. 1711-1776 David Hume. Hist. of England, Essays. 1709-1778 Lord Littleton. History, Poems, Divinity. 1709-1779 W. Warburton. Theology, Criticism. 1716-1779 David Garrick. Drama. 1709-1780 J. Harris. Philology. 1723-1780 W. Blackstone. "Laws of England." 1696-1782 Lord Kames. "Elements of Criticism." 1782 d. John Blair. Chronology. 1701-1782 Wm. Emerson. Mathematics. 1706-1783 H. Brooke. "Pov of Quality." 1709-1784 Sam. Johnson. Lives of Poets Dictionary, &c. 1717-1785 Matthew Stewart. Mathematics. 1712-1786 Jonas Hanway. Travels in the East. 1704-1787 Soame Jenyns. Theology. 1710-1787 R. Lowth. Divinity, Philology. 1712-1789 R. Glover. "Leonidas." 1723-1790 Adam Smith. "Wealth of Nations," &c. 1728-1790 Thomas Warton. History of English Poetry, Poems. 1706-1790 Benjamin Franklin. Electricity, Philosophy. 1703-1791 J. Wesley. Divinity. 1723-1791 R. Price. Metaphysics, Divinity. 1723-1792 Joshua Reynolds. Art. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.

1721-1793 W. Robertson. "History of Charles V., &c." 1728-1793 John Hunter. Physiology. 1730-1794 James Bruce. Travels. 1733-1794 George Colman. Comedies. 1737-1794 Edward Gibbon. "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 1747-1794 Sir William Jones. Oriental Literature. 1716-1795 E. Balguy. Divinity. 1740-1795 J. Boswell. Biography. 1710-1795 Thomas Reid. Metaphysics. 1738-1796 J. Macpherson. "Ossian's Poems." 1759-1796 Robert Burns. Poems. 1725-1797 W. Mason. Poems, Biography. 1717-1797 H. Walpole. "Historic Doubts," "Royal and Noble Authors." 1730-1797 Edmd. Burke. "Treatise on the Sublime." 1744-1797 J. Milner. Ecclesiastical History. 1736-1798 Edward Waring. Mathematics. 1718-1800 Hugh Blair. Sermons. 1731-1800 William Cowper. Poems.

1737-1801 G. L. Staunton. Chinese Code. 1730-1802 J. Moore. "Views of Society and Manners." 1732-1802 Eras. Darwin. "Botanic Garden." 1748-1802 Joseph Strutt. Chronology, Antiquities. 1735-1803 James Beattie. "The Minstrel," Metaphysics. 1724-1804 W. Gilpin. Biography, Divinity. 1733-1804 Jos. Priestley. Chemistry, Metaphysics. 1727-1805 Arthur Murphy. Dramas, Literature. 1733-1805 John Robison. "Mechanical Philosophy." 1743-1805 Wm. Paley. Theology, Ethics. 1733-1806 S. Hershey. Theology. 1749-1806 C. J. Fox. History. 1724-1808 J. Home. "Douglas." 1735-1808 J. Whitaker. "History of Manchester." 1759-1808 Richard Porson. Philology. 1760-1808 Thomas Beddoes. Medicine. 1779-1808 J. Macdiarmid. Biography. 1732-1811 Nevil Maskelyne. Astronomy. 1732-1811 R. Cumberland. Dramas. 1775-1811 J. Leyden. "Scenes of Infancy." 1736-1812 J. Horne Tooke. Philology. 1726-1814 Charles Burney. History of Music. 1751-1816 R. B. Sheridan. Comedies. 1738-1819 J. Wolcot (Peter Pindar). Comic Poems. 1749-1819 John Playfair. Mathematics, Nat. Philos. 1741-1820 Arthur Young. Agriculture. 1743-1820 Sir Joseph Banks. Natural History. 1778-1820 Thomas Brown. "Philosophy of the Human Mind." 1738-1822 Sir W. Herschel. Astronomy. 1769-1822 E. D. Clarke. Travels. 1792-1822 P. B. Shelley. Poems. 1761-1823 Matthew Baillie. Anatomy, Medicine. 1764-1823 Ann Radcliffe. Novels. 1766-1823 R. Bloomfield. "Farmer's Boy." 1737-1823 C. Hutton. Mathematics. 1772-1823 D. Ricardo. Political Economy. 1731-1824 Baron Museses. Mathematics. 1788-1824 Byron. Poems. 1782-1825 R. C. Maturin. Dramas. 1743-1825 A. Rees. Cyclopaedia. 1746-1825 Dr Parr. Philology. 1773-1825 P. Elmsley. Philology. 1770-1827 George Canning. Political Miscellanies. 1778-1827 R. Woodhouse. Mathematics. 1759-1828 Sir J. E. Smith. Botany. 1747-1828 W. Coxe. "History of the House of Austria," and Travels.

1753-1828 Dugald Stewart. Mental Philosophy. 1766-1828 W. H. Wollaston. Nat. Philos. and Chemistry. 1778-1829 Sir Humphry Davy. "Chemical and Philosophical Researches." 1830 d. W. Hazlitt. "Spirit of the Age," Criticism. 1745-1831 H. Mackenzie. "Man of Feeling." 1763-1831 J. Abernethy. Physiology and Surgery. 1764-1831 Robert Hall. Sermons. 1751-1831 W. Roscoe. Hist. of Lorenzo de Medici and Leo X. 1754-1832 Geo. Crabbe. "Tales of the Hall," Poems. 1832 d. C. C. Colton. "Lacon." 1766-1832 Sir John Leslie. Nat. Phil. and Doctrines of Heat. 1765-1832 Sir James Mackintosh. Ethics, Hist., Politics. 1749-1832 Jer. Bentham. Political Economy. 1771-1832 Sir W. Scott. "Waverley Novels," Poems. 1769-1833 W. Wilberforce. "Prac. View of Christianity." 1774-1833 Hannah More. Tales and Sketches. 1791-1834 Ed. Irving. Sermons. 1770-1834 S. T. Coleridge. Poetry, Philosophy. 1775-1834 Charles Lamb. "Elia." 1798-1835 W. Motherwell. Poems. 1756-1835 T. R. Malthus. "Essay on Population." 1794-1835 Felicia Hemans. Poems. 1762-1835 W. Cobbett. "Register," Grammar, &c. 1772-1835 T. M'Crie. "Life of Knox." 1782-1835 James Hogg. "Queen's Wake." 1747-1836 John Gillies. "History of Greece." 1777-1836 Sir W. Gell. Topography, Antiquities. 1756-1836 W. Godwin. Novels, &c. "Political Justice." 1774-1836 James Mill. "Elements of Political Economy," History of India. 1762-1836 George Colman. Comedies. 1755-1836 W. Taylor. "Hist. of German Poetry." 1801-1837 R. Macnish. "Anatomy of Drunkenness." 1762-1837 Sir S. E. Brydges. "Censura Literaria." 1838 L. E. Landon. Poems. 1768-1839 W. Smith. Geology, British Strata. 1757-1839 Herbert Marsh. Biblical Criticism. 1757-1839 Archd. Alison. "Essay on Taste," Sermons. 1779-1839 John Galt. Novels. 1752-1840 Mme. d'Arblay. Novels. 1773-1840 Lord Holland. Spanish Literature, Lives of Lope de Vega and Guillen de Castro. 1788-1841 Theodore E. Hook. Novels. 1774-1842 Sir Charles Bell. "Anatomy of Expression," On the Nerves. 1790-1842 Thomas Arnold. "History of Rome." 1779-1842 W. E. Channing. Theology and Literature. 1786-1842 Allan Cunningham. Poetry, Biography. 1775-1843 Robert Southey. Poetry, History of Brazil. 1770-1843 John Foster. Essays, Lectures, &c. 1781-1843 J. C. Loudon. Botany, Landscape Gardening. 1776-1844 Thos. Campbell. Lyrics, "Pleasures of Hope." 1781-1844 John Abercrombie. "Intellectual Powers," Medicine. 1767-1844 John Dalton. Chemistry and Meteorology. 1774-1844 Francis Baily. Doct. of Annuities, Astronomy. 1771-1845 Sydney Smith. "Plymley's Letters," Criticism, Politics. 1798-1845 Thomas Hood. Poems. 1779-1846 Hugh Murray. Geography. 1794-1847 R. Liston. Surgery. 1780-1847 Thomas Chalmers. Theology and Political Economy. 1786-1847 Sharon Turner. History. 1766-1848 Isaac Disraeli. "Curiosities of Literature." 1790-1848 F. Marryat. Novels.