Northern, an extensive province of Hindustan, lying on the western side of the Bay of Bengal. It is a narrow slip of territory, extending from 15° 2' to the 20th degree of N. Lat., but is little more than one degree in breadth. The sea bounds it on the E. along a coast 470 miles in length, from the port of Mootanilly to the town of Maloud in Orissa, on the borders of the Chilca Lake. From about 50 to 70 miles inland it is divided from the province of Hyderabad by a range of small detached hills, extending to the banks of the Godavary; and it is separated from Gundwana to the N. of that river by the great ridge of the Eastern Ghauts, impassable except in some few depressions for horse or wheel-carriages. From Goomsur the same unbroken chain curves to the eastward, reducing the breadth of the province at this point Circars, to a narrow tract of about 18 miles. Towards the south the small river Gondlacaana, which empties itself at Mootapilly, separates this territory from the district of Ongole.

The area of the Circars is 30,060 square miles, of which it is estimated that only one-fifth is in cultivation or fallow, twice that portion in pasture, and the remainder occupied by woods, water, towns, barren hills, and a sandy waste three miles in breadth, which borders the whole extent of the coast. The country for about 35 miles inland is a level plain, with only two remarkable interruptions in its greatest length along the shore. Beyond this about 15 miles farther inland, and parallel to it, the country is much more elevated, being agreeably variegated with hills easy of access, and remarkably fertile. Beyond these tracts of plain and hilly ground, to the north of the Godavary, a still higher region extends close to the great ridge of mountains which stretch far inland.

The grand divisions of this province are properly five. Of these the first is Guntoor, the most southerly division, bounded on the north by the river Kistnah, which, after running a curve of 600 miles from the Balaghat hills, near the coast of Malabar, separates this province on the north from the second division, namely, Masulipatam. Rajahmundry is the third division, succeeded in a northerly direction first by Vizagapatam and lastly by Ganjam. These divisions, which are of comparatively modern date, were introduced by the British to supersede the original distribution of the territory into the five Circars of Cicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Condapally, and Guntoor.

The climate of the Northern Circars, though it has a general resemblance to that of Hindustan north of the Kistnah, is well distinguished by local peculiarities arising from its maritime situation, and the extent and position of the inland hills. The S.W. monsoon usually sets in about the middle of June with a westerly wind, and continues with moderate showers until the latter end of August, which is the period of the small grain harvest. In October it is succeeded by a variable season, ushering in the N.E. monsoon, with cooler weather and greater abundance of rain. This continues to the middle of November, when it generally ceases, and is succeeded by a strong north-easterly wind, tempered by the mild influence of the sea over which it blows. The harvest for rice and bajree, which are the great productions of the country north of the Godavary, finishes about the middle of this latter season, early in January; and in like manner the vernal equinox terminates the harvest south of that river for the different species of maize as well as of other grains and pease. Then commences the hot season, which is always moderate towards the northern extremity of the Circars, near Ganjam, owing to the constant breezes from the sea. On the south the hot season is moderated for two months by sea-breezes from the south blowing along the shore; but afterwards, until the period of the rains, the wind blowing over a parched loose soil of great extent, and especially over the almost dry and sandy bed of the Kistnah, becomes so heated that it raises the thermometer for an entire week to 105, and frequently to 110 degrees. In the hilly regions the air is in a highly noxious state; and throughout the different seasons of the year the hill fever, which is prevalent, is frequently fatal to strangers. It is generally ascribed to the state of the atmosphere, contaminated with the exhalations of a fertile soil, pent up in valleys, or impeded in its circulation by the luxuriant growth of plants, or by the trees with which the villages are surrounded. All these provinces along the coast have a sandy soil, which improves gradually towards the hills; but seldom produces more than one crop annually, except in localities enjoying an abundant supply of water. The country is well irrigated by running streams, many of which are divided artificially into canals, and conducted into tanks and reservoirs; thus being rendered subservient to cultivation. Within the last few years the government have appropriated considerable sums to the purpose of extending the system of irrigation by means of the waters of the Godavary and the Kistnah. Through the advantages which in this respect it enjoys, the province abounds in all the different sorts of grain which have been already mentioned: it is properly the granary of the Carnatic during the N.E. monsoon. Fruits, roots, and greens are scarce, or reared with difficulty, to the south of the Godavary; nor towards the north are they so excellent as in some other provinces. Sugar, cotton, and tobacco are largely cultivated. Salt is manufactured on the coast, and in such abundance as greatly to exceed the home demand. The forests of Rajahmundry, from the commencement of the hills, along the banks of the Godavary, yield an inexhaustible supply of the best and largest teak timbers; and if proper use were made of this advantage, an article would be procured of great importance to commerce. The cocoa and the palmyn, or, in the more northerly provinces, the tree which produces the gum-arabic, are the materials from which are constructed those unwieldy vessels with two masts, called doonies, averaging from 60 to 300 tons each. The domestic animals found in this province are chiefly sheep and the larger species of horned cattle. The neighbouring sea and its numerous inlets abound with almost every species of Indian fish, together with some that are common to Europe, such as mullet, sole, and the pomphlet, a small fish resembling a turbot.

Cotton is the staple produce, and from it are fabricated cloths of different degrees of fineness. The muslins of Masulipatam, and other places within the Circars, formerly in high esteem both at home and abroad, have been nearly superseded by the irresistible competition of British fabrics. The coarser plain cloths, which are made to the north and south of the Godavary, and coloured with chay root (which is the madder of the East, and grows in most perfection in the pure sands annually overflowed by the Kistnah,) are in great demand. Woollen carpets are manufactured at Ellore, and silks at Berampore. But these are rather objects of curiosity than of any great general advantage; as is also the art of painting or inlaying ivory and black wood in the cabinet work at Vizagapatam. Ship-building is carried on extensively in the ports of Coringa and Naraspare, the two principal mouths of the Godavary. Here ships of 500 tons are built, and about 50,000 tons of small craft are employed in the coasting trade.

The native inhabitants of the Northern Circars, with the exception of some thousand Mohammedans found chiefly in the principals towns, are wholly Hindus. They are composed of the two nations of Telenga and Orissa, formerly divided from each other by the Godavary, but, since their union under the same government, amalgamated to some extent with each other, as well as with some of the neighbouring tribes. They have each their peculiar dialect, apparently of the Sanscrit language, as well as their peculiar rites, customs, and national traits. The four great castes or divisions of the people are common in both countries, but with less deviations from original institutions in Orissa, where Brahminical abstinence from animal food is very general among all the higher tribes. The Brahmans continue to enjoy their pre-eminence and consideration among the other classes. The Rachewars, Rowars, and Velmas, of which denominations the principal Zemindars are composed, affect the warlike character and manners of Rajpoets. The Rachewars are of the ancient race of the Orissa sovereigns, who were forced to fly before the conquering arms of the Mohammedans from the plains to the highland woods. The Rowars, or Worians, being petty chieftains of the military tribe, were enabled, after the Mohammedan conquest, to acquire an independent jurisdiction in the moun- The Circassians, or Tschirkessians, are termed by themselves Adighé, or the noble. In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental qualities with which they are endowed, the beauty of form and regularity of feature by which they are distinguished, they surpass most of the other tribes of the Caucasus. They have long been celebrated for their warlike and intrepid character, their independence, their hospitality to strangers, and that love of country which they have manifested in their determined resistance to an almost overwhelming power during the period of a long and desolating war. They exhibit in their manners a strange mixture of chivalrous sentiment and savage customs.

The government under which they live is a peculiar form of the feudal system. The free Circassians are divided into three distinct ranks, the princes or puschi, the nobles or work (Tartar usden), and the peasants or hokothi. Like the inhabitants of the other regions of the Caucasus, they are also divided into numerous families, tribes, or clans, some of which are very powerful, and carry on war against each other with great animosity. The slaves, of whom a large proportion are prisoners of war, are generally employed in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic service of some of the principal chiefs.

The will of the people is acknowledged to be the supreme source of authority; and every free Circassian has a right to express his opinion in those assemblies of his tribe in which the questions of peace and war, almost the only subjects which engage their attention, are brought under deliberation. The princes and nobles, the leaders of the people in war, and their rulers in peace, are only the administrators of a power which is delegated to them. Having no written laws, the administration of justice is regulated solely by custom and tradition; and in those tribes professing Mohammedanism, by the precepts of the Koran. The most aged and respected inhabitants of the various aouls or villages frequently sit in judgments, and their decisions are received without a murmur by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and nobles are professedly Mohammedans; but in their religious services many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian worship are still preserved. The great body of the people have remained faithful to the worship of their ancient gods, Shible, the god of thunder, of war, and of justice, Tleps, the god of fire, and Seosseers, the god of water and of winds. Although the Circassians possess minds capable of the highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the exception of poetry and music, are completely neglected. They possess no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge they have acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds, are preserved in verses, which are repeated from mouth to mouth, and descend from father to son.

The education of the young Circassian is confined to riding, fencing, shooting, hunting, and such exercises as are calculated to strengthen his frame, and prepare him for a life of active warfare. The only intellectual duty of the atalik or instructor, with whom the young men live until they have completed their education, is that of teaching them to express their thoughts shortly, quickly, and appropriately. One of their marriage ceremonies is very strange. The young man who has been approved by the parents, and has paid the stipulated price in money, horses, oxen, or sheep, for his bride, is expected to come with his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force from her father's house. Every free Circassian has unlimited right over the lives of his wife and children. Although polygamy is allowed by the laws of the Koran, the custom of the country forbids it, and the Circassians are generally faithful to the marriage bond. The respect for superior age is carried to such an extent, that the young brother rises from his seat when the elder enters an apartment, and is silent when he speaks. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the Circassia. Circassians are distinguished for two very opposite qualities, the most generous hospitality, and implacable vindictiveness. Hospitality to the stranger is considered one of the most sacred duties. Whatever be his rank in life, all the members of the family rise to receive him on his entrance, and conduct him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host is considered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest, upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict no injury while under the protection of his roof. The chief who has received a stranger also grants him an escort of horse to conduct him in safety on his journey, and confides him to the protection of those nobles with whom he may be on friendly terms. The law of vengeance is no less binding on the Circassian. The individual who has slain any member of a family is pursued with implacable vengeance by the relatives, until his crime be expiated by death. The murderer may, indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of money, or by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-born child, bringing it up as his own, and restoring it when its education is finished. In either case, the family of the slain individual may discontinue the pursuit of vengeance without any stain upon its honour. The man closely followed by his enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, has merely touched her hand, is safe from all further pursuit so long as he remains under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the Circassians regarding theft resemble those of the ancient Spartans. The commission of the crime is not considered so disgraceful as its discovery; and the punishment of being compelled publicly to restore the stolen property to its original possessor, amid the derision of his tribe, is much dreaded by the Circassian who would glory in a successful theft. The greatest stain upon the Circassian character is the custom of selling their children. The Circassian father willingly parts with his daughters, many of whom are bought by Turkish merchants for the harems of eastern monarchs. No degradation is implied in this transaction, and the young women themselves are generally willing partners in it. However contrary this custom may be to the ideas of Christian nations, it is certain that none of the more revolting features of American slavery are practically connected with it. Herds of cattle and sheep constitute the chief riches of the inhabitants. The princes and nobles, from whom the members of the various tribes hold the land which they cultivate, are the proprietors of the soil. Although the Circassians are desirous of devoting their attention to commerce, the warlike attitude which they are compelled, by the presence of the Russians, to maintain, has hitherto prevented them from cultivating any of the arts of peace.

The early periods of Circassian history are exceedingly obscure. Several Greek colonies appear to have been established at a remote period upon the coasts of the Black Sea, which were inhabited by savage tribes not fitted for practical expeditions. By these colonies commercial activity and regular government were to some extent introduced into that wild and uninitiated region. To them the Romans afterwards succeeded, who maintained their authority during the period of their power and prosperity. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the princes of Georgia were successful in reducing Circassia to the condition of a province of that kingdom. Thamar, one of the Georgian princesses, is said by some to have been the first to introduce Christianity among the inhabitants, while by others it is maintained that the Christian faith was the prevailing religion from the fifth century. The Circassians having succeeded in the fifteenth century in throwing off the Georgian yoke, many of them settled on the coasts of the sea of Azof, where, coming in contact with the Tartars, they were subdued by the khans of the Crimea. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Russian Czar, Ivan I., having married a Circassian princess, was able to compel or throw off the Tartar yokes, and became master of a considerable portion of the country. But the Russian monarchs do not appear to have regarded its conquest as a matter of much importance until the time of Peter the Great. That powerful monarch perceiving how much the possession of the Caucasus would contribute to his political and commercial influence in western and central Asia, made an unsuccessful attempt to reduce it permanently under his dominion. Catherine II. pursued a similar line of policy, Georgia having been harassed by the successive invasions of the Persians and Turks, the prince of that country at last threw himself under the protection of the Russians, and became tributary to their power. The river Kouban being afterwards fixed as the southern boundary of the Muscovite empire, the Russians became ambitious of extending their dominion uninterruptedly to the extreme limits of Georgia. The Circassians, meanwhile, surrounded by Mohammedan nations, visited frequently by Turkish merchants, and galloped over by the impressive eloquence of a fanatical devotee, the sheik Mansur, had embraced the faith of Islam, and acknowledged the Sultan as chief of their religion. In the wars which now took place between the Circassians and the Turks, the latter used every exertion by exciting the fanatical feelings of the Circassians against the infidels, to induce them to harass the Russians by frequent incursions into their territory. After having experienced the various fortunes of war, the Turks were worsted, and compelled by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829 to cede a considerable portion of their territory to the Czar. Assuming a right of political sovereignty which they had never possessed, Circassia was included in this cession. The Circassians refusing to acknowledge the right of the Sultan (whom they had never recognised as their sovereign) thus to dispose of their country, were now exposed to the hostility of the Russians, who determined to become masters of the territory on the coasts of the Black Sea, and indeed of the whole Caucasian region, by force of arms. This was the origin of that remorseless warfare which has been carried on with such success under various leaders to the present day, and has cost the Russians an incredible amount of blood and treasure, and which is still apparently as far from ultimate settlement as it was at its commencement. See CAUCASUS.