There is perhaps no branch of commerce that has drawn forth a more daring and adventurous spirit, or given rise to a more patient and courageous endurance of personal dangers, privations, and hardships, than the fur trade, as is manifest throughout its whole history. By its means we have become accurately acquainted with nearly three-fourths of the continent of North America. The indefatigable exertions of the fur merchant, stimulated by the prospect of large gains from his hazardous pursuits, have made known numerous tribes of men and nations partially acquainted with the arts and refinements of civilized life, who otherwise might have remained many ages, or for ever, immersed in heathen darkness, and sunk in barbarity. Nor are the general advantages derived from the fur trade confined to a more accurate geographical knowledge of a vast range of country, and the extension of the arts of peace and social happiness. The adventurous fur trader has often been the precursor of the gospel missionary, and has enabled him to pursue his important labours with comparative security and success.
The use of furs seems to have been introduced into Europe by the northern invaders of the Roman empire. In the sixth century the skins of sables were brought to Rome from the shores of the Arctic Ocean through the intervention of numerous parties, so that the cost to the consumer was very high. During several centuries after that time furs were not at all common in western Europe. In 1252 A.D., Marco Polo mentions, as a subject of curiosity, that he found the tents of the khan of Tartary lined with the skins of sables and ermines, which had been brought from countries far north, "from the land of darkness." In less than a century, however, from that time, the wearing of furs as a part of fashionable dress had become rather prevalent in England, since in 1337 Edward III. commanded that all persons among his subjects should be prohibited the use of furs unless they could spend L100 per annum.
Early in the seventeenth century the shores of the Arctic seas were found tenanted by furred animals of great value; and the idea of forming a settlement was suggested by Grosseleiz, a Frenchman. The suggestion was made first to his own government; but as it was coolly received, he obtained, through the English ambassador, an interview with Prince Rupert, before whom he laid his plans. The prince warmly entered into the project, and assisted in fitting out a vessel, which reached in September 1668 the river then called Nemisco, to which the adventurers gave the name Rupert in honour of the prince. After wintering there with less difficulty and suffering than they had anticipated, they returned and gave so favourable a report that Prince Rupert, the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of Craven, Lord Ashley, and others, formed themselves into a company, and subscribed L10,500 for the purpose of commencing a traffic in furs. A charter of incorporation was granted by Charles II. in 1670, giving to the Hudson's Bay Company full possession of "All the lands and territories upon the countries, pany, coasts, and confines of the seas, bays, lakes, rivers, creeks, and sounds, in whatsoever latitude they shall be, that lie within the entrance of the straits, commonly called Hudson's Straits, that are not already actually possessed by or granted to any of our subjects, or possessed by the subjects of any other Christian prince or state." And the charter proceeds to grant further, that "The whole and entire trade..." and traffic to and from all havens, bays, creeks, rivers, lakes, and seas into which they shall find entrance by water or land out of the territories, limits, or places aforesaid; and to and with all the natives and people inhabiting, or which shall inhabit within the territories, limits, and places aforesaid; and to and with all other nations inhabiting any the coasts adjacent to the said territories, limits, and places which are not already possessed as aforesaid, or whereof the sole liberty or privilege of trade and traffic is not granted to any other of our subjects." On Rupert's river the company immediately formed a settlement; and in 1674 stations were settled on Moose river, and a few years later on the Albany, and soon after two more on the Nelson and the Severn. By these vigorous measures the French court was awakened to a sense of its neglect, and Grosseliez, already detached from the English service, was sent out in the year 1682 to found a factory on the river Hayes, which he accomplished, and also surprised the British factory on the Nelson. After this time hostilities became frequent between the French and the English settlers; yet notwithstanding immense losses sustained by the company from 1682 to 1688 (amounting to L118,014), they were able in 1684 to pay to the shareholders a dividend of 50 per cent. Again in 1688 an equal dividend was made, and in 1689 one of 25 per cent. In 1690, without any call being made, the stock was trebled, while at the same time a dividend of 25 per cent. was paid on the increased or newly created stock. By other captures of their factories by the French in the years 1692, 1694, 1696, and 1697, the company suffered further loss to the amount of L97,500. At the peace of Utrecht (in 1713), however, these captured factories were restored to the company, who by 1720 had again trebled their capital, with a call of only 10 per cent. on the shareholders. Now they strengthened the old forts and formed several new ones in the interior; but in 1749 a question arose in parliament concerning the rights of the company, which was decided in their favour. Again in 1782 several of their factories were taken by the French under La Perouse; still their traffic seems to have continued very lucrative until the invasion of their rights and North-west territories by a strong rival association, designated the North-west Company, whose fierce competition caused much animosity and bloodshed. This was not only very destructive to the fur trade, but most injurious to the Indians.
The North-west Company consisted of 23 partners, comprising some of the most wealthy and enterprising settlers in Canada, and employed about 2000 persons as clerks, interpreters, guides, and boatmen (voyageurs), who were stationed over the vast regions of Canada ceded in 1763 by the French to the English. Shareholders who engaged actively in the trade were called agents, some of whom resided at the different posts established by the company in the Indian territory, and others at Quebec and Montreal, each attending to the affairs of the Company in his appointed district. These active partners met annually at Fort-William, one of their stations on Lake Superior, where they discussed matters connected with the affairs of the association, and arranged future plans. The clerks of the North-west Company were mostly young Scotchmen, of respectable families, who were willing to undergo the hardships attendant upon a residence of some years in these inhospitable regions, in order that they might thus secure the advantage of succeeding in turn to a share of the profits of the undertaking, the custom being to take from among the clerks as partners those who had acquired the experience necessary for the management of the business. The hunters of this company crossed the Rocky Mountains about the year 1805, and established stations on the north-east head-waters of the Columbia. In 1813 they purchased Astoria on this river, which was relinquished by Mr. Astor of New York and his partners in consequence of the war between the United States and Great Britain. At War between Hudson's Bay Company, being roused by the activity of the North-west Association, exercised for the first time its chartered right to colonise, and sold in 1812 a tract of land on Lake Winnipeg and the Red River to Lord Selkirk, who introduced a considerable number of persons from Scotland. The consequence was an open war between the partizans of the rival companies. After a war of two years the Red River settlement was destroyed by the massacre of the governor, Mr Semple, and many of his associates, while the survivors were driven away. But this melancholy and barbarous state of matters was put an end to by the union of the rival companies in 1821, since which the trade Union has been peacefully and successfully prosecuted. When the rival partnership of the North-west Company was about to expire in 1821, the three London representatives of the firm offered to merge their interests in those of the Hudson's Bay Company. This was agreed to, and an act of parliament was passed (1st and 2nd Geo. IV., cap. 66), under which the crown grants to the Hudson's Bay Company and to the three representative partners of the North-west Company in London and Montreal a license of exclusive trade for twenty-one years in the "Indian territories"; that is, over all those tracts that might not be included in the charter given by Charles II., and also over those tracts which by mutual consent were open to the subjects of England and to those of the United States. The three North-west Company agents merged into the Hudson's Bay Company; the exclusive trading license was surrendered in 1838; and, after careful investigation on the part of the government, the crown granted on the 30th of May 1838 another license for twenty-one years of exclusive trade over the Indian and neutral territories.
The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company are at present conducted by a governor, deputy-governor, and a committee of 7, elected by 239 proprietors, representing a capital of L400,000. Of the 239 proprietors 55 have more than two votes. L900 of stock must be held for six months by each voter previous to voting, except such stock be acquired by bequest or marriage; and each member of the committee must hold not less than L1800 stock. The mode of election, oaths to be administered, government, &c., are prescribed by the charter of Charles II. already referred to. Accordingly, the Company has established at the Red River settlement a governor, seat of government of the affairs of the Assiniboina, or Red River Territory, and for the careful and legal administration of justice throughout Rupert's Land. Though not enjoined by the charter of 1670, trial by jury was introduced by Sir George Simpson under the direction of the Hudson's Bay authorities in England. Crime is comparatively rare in Rupert's Land; and justice is administered under the same safeguards that exist in England.
The traffic of the Company in furs and peltry is regulated by a Deed Poll, dated March 26th, 1821, when the North-west Company and it united; and by another Deed Poll, dated June 6th, 1834, "for ascertaining the rights and prescribing the duties of the chief factors and the chief traders, and for conducting the trade." The business of the Company is superintended by the twenty-five chief factors at the respective stations; and under them the twenty-eight chief traders carry on the traffic with the Indians. The clerks serve under both the factors and the traders; and the very humblest clerk, by good conduct,
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1 A most interesting account of the North-West Fur Company is given by Washington Irving in his ASTORIA. may rise to the chief positions in the service of the Company. The salaries of the clerks range from L20 to L100 per annum. Three chief factors and two chief traders are allowed to leave the country annually for one year.
The Hudson's Bay Company have no monopoly, as some suppose, of the importation of furs into England; they have to compete with the furs of the United States, of Russia, of Norway, &c.; and if other traders can undersell the Company the public have of course the benefit. Beaver and other skins are now much lower in price than formerly when so much used in the manufacture of hats; and the gradual reduction in the price of foreign furs has been chiefly brought about by the steady supply from the Hudson's Bay territories. Hence London is the most extensive fur market in the world. The fall in the prices of all furs has been very great; but as beaver constitutes the largest item in value, the reduction of profit to the Company will be seen by comparison with the prices and amount of sales. In 1839 a beaver skin was worth 27s. 6d.; in 1846, 3s. 5d. The number of skins sold in 1839 was 55,486 for L76,312; those sold in 1846 were 45,389 for L78,566. There is also great variety in the prices of articles of similar denomination; but the Company are obliged to pay the same price to the Indians for all skins according to tariff; whether the skins are good or bad the Company must buy them. Hence the profits of the shareholders are not to be estimated by the difference in price between the cost of a skin at one of the Company's forts in the interior, and its sale price in London. The annual dividend is (1855) about 6 per cent.
The Hudson's Bay Company have now about 140 establishments besides hunting expeditions and shipping, employing 25 chief factors, 28 chief traders, 152 clerks, 1200 regular servants, besides employing in occasional labour the services of a large number of the natives; a steam vessel and five sailing vessels of from 100 to 300 tons, all armed. Their forts or stockaded positions extend from the coast of Labrador to the Pacific, and from the northern boundaries of Canada to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. At every large trading establishment there is an "Indian Hospital," from which the natives derive the greatest benefit; and several medical men are maintained by the Company at different forts. Ministers of the gospel of every denomination are encouraged and protected by the Company, and a bishop of the Church of England now presides over the diocese of Rupert's Land.
The fur trade is prosecuted in the north-western territories of the United States by an association called the North American Fur Company, of which the chief managers reside at New York. Its principal station is Michilimackinac, to which are brought all the peltries collected at the other ports of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Yellowstone rivers, and all over the vast range of country extending thence to the Rocky Mountains. This Company is admirably organized and managed: it employs steamboats for ascending the rivers, which also penetrate with ease to regions which could formerly be explored only through the most painful efforts in barges and keel-boats, or by small parties on foot or on horseback.
About 5,000,000 skins of animals applicable as furs are annually imported into Britain. The subjoined table gives the imports and exports of fur-skins in the year 1851.
| Animals | Total imported into England | Exported | Consumed in England | |---------------|-----------------------------|----------|--------------------| | Lynx | 55,000 | 50,000 | 5,000 | | Marten | 120,000 | 15,000 | 105,000 | | Minx | 245,000 | 75,000 | 170,000 | | Musquash | 1,000,000 | 150,000 | 850,000 | | Otter | 17,000 | 17,500 | None | | Seal, Fur | 15,000 | 12,500 | 2,500 | | Wolf | 15,000 | 15,000 | None | | Marten, Stone and Baum | 120,000 | 5,000 | 115,000 | | Squirrel | 3,000,000 | 100,000 | 2,900,000 | | Pith | 65,091 | 28,276 | 36,815 | | Kolinski | 53,410 | 200 | 53,210 | | Ermine | 187,104 | None | 187,104 | | Rabbit | 120,000 | None | 120,000 | | Wolverine | 1,200 | 1,200 | None | | Skunk | 1,200 | 1,200 | None | | Sea-Otter | 100 | 100 | None |
Fur-Skinned Animals.—The northern and arctic regions abound with races of animals, which are thickly covered with fine hair or fur, and whose skins are very beautiful and valuable as articles of clothing. The animals that are captured for their fur, are:—The Russian Sable (Mustela zibellina).—This rich and beautiful skin has long been esteemed one of the most valuable and useful furs that have been brought to our country. About 200,000 are annually collected in the Russian territories, of which only a small number is imported into England. The fur is brown, with some gray spots on the head. The darker varieties are the most highly valued, a single skin being frequently sold for L9, though the average value does not exceed L2 or L3. Naturalists are not agreed whether to consider the animal from which the skin is procured as a distinct species. Some are of opinion that the Russian sable, the stone and pine martens, as well as the Hudson's Bay sable, are but one species, on which the differences of food and climate have produced some slight variations in form and colour. To the furrier, however, the Russian sable is easily distinguishable, from the length and fulness, as well as the darker colour of the fur. The use of this choice variety is necessarily limited to the wealthy, on account of its scarcity. In the reign of Henry VIII., by a law which sought to regulate the expenses of the different classes, and to distinguish them by peculiarity of costume, the use of the sable was confined to the nobility above the rank of viscount.
The Hudson's Bay Sable (Mustela canadensis).—The sable skins next in repute to the Russian are those imported by the Hudson's Bay Company, of which no less than 120,000 are annually brought into this country. As the natural colour of the skins is much lighter than the prevailing taste, it is the practice to dye many of them a darker colour, and the furs thus treated are scarcely inferior to the natural sable. The Baum or Pine Marten (Mustela abietum).—The sables imported under this name are the produce of Europe. The animal is found in extensive forests remote from the habitations of man, and preying on birds and the smaller animals. They are distinguished from the stone marten by the yellow colour of the throat; other parts of the skin are brown. When dyed, they have a similar appearance to the best sable. The Stone Marten (Mustela saxorum).—This marten is generally found in mountainous and stony places, though a frequent visitor to farm-yards and homesteads. It is generally distributed through most European countries. The under fur is a bluish-white, with the top hairs a dark brown. The throat of this variety is usually of a pure white, by which character it is generally distinguished. The French manufacturers excel in dyeing this fur, from which circumstance it is frequently called French sable. It is also dyed in this country, the excellent qualities of the skin adapting it to a great variety of purposes to which furs are applied. The Fisher.—There are about 11,000 of these skins annually brought to this country from North America; they are larger than the sables, and the fur is longer and fuller. The tail is long, round, and full, gradually tapering to a point, and quite black; a few years since it formed the common ornament to a national cap worn by the Jew merchants of Poland, and at that time was worth from 6s. to 9s., but its present value does not exceed 6d. to 9d.
The Minx (Mustela vison).—There were 245,000 skins of this little animal brought to this country in 1850 from the possessions of the Hudson's Bay Company and North America. The fur resembles the sable in colour, but is considerably shorter and more glossy. It is a very durable and useful fur, and is exported in large quantities to the Continent. The Ermine (Mustela erminea).—This animal is similar in form and habit to the common weasel of this country; but in Siberia, Russia, and Norway, from whence the skins are imported, the little animal, during winter, becomes as white as the snowy regions it inhabits, and is esteemed as the whitest fur known, though its summer dress is a dingy brown. The tail of the skin, of which the lower half is jet black, is generally introduced as an ornament to the purely white fur. It is worn on state occasions, and in the reign of Edward III., its use was restricted to the royal family. The Fitch or Polecat (Mustela putorius).—These skins are produced throughout Europe, and in no place of better quality than in our own country. The ground of the fur is a rich yellow, while the top hair is a jet black. This fur is at present very little used in this country, but is much worn in America. It is very durable, but the natural smell of the fur, which is rather unpleasant, is difficult to counteract. The North American Skunk (Mephitis americana).—The skins known under this name are imported by the Hudson's Bay Company. The animal from which they are taken is allied to the polecat of Europe, and, from the fetor it emits when attacked, which has been known to affect persons with sickness at 100 yards distance, has received the sobriquet of "I Enfant du Diable." It has a soft black fur, with two white stripes running from the head to the tail, which is short and bushy. The skins, though imported into England in small numbers, are usually re-exported to the continent of Europe.
The Kolinski (Mustela siberica).—The Kolinski or Tartar sable is of a bright yellow colour, and is sometimes used for ladies' dress in its natural state, but it is more frequently dyed brown to imitate other sable, to which it bears a strong resemblance. It is remarkable for the uniformity of its colour, having no spot or difference of shade in any part of the body. The tail, which is of the same colour, is exclusively used for the best artists' pencils. The Musquash or Musk Rat (Fiber zibethicus).—The animal known under this name is found in great numbers in North America, frequenting swamps and rivers, and, like the beaver, building its habitations of mud with great ingenuity. Dr Richardson states, that it has three litters of young in the course of the summer, producing from three to seven at a litter. The animal has a peculiar smell, similar to that of musk; but it must not be mistaken for the animal from which the musk of commerce is procured, which is a native of Tibet. About one million skins are brought to this country annually; the fur resembles that of the beaver, and is used by hat manufacturers. The skins are also dyed by the furrier, and manufactured into many cheap and useful articles.
The Nutria, or Coypou (Myopotamus coypus).—This rodent, quadruped is an expert swimmer, and frequents the neighbourhood of water, where it lives in burrows; it is smaller than the beaver, and considerably larger than the musquash, but has a resemblance to both these animals in its natural habits, and in the qualities of its fur. Until lately this fur was very much used by hat manufacturers, and as many as 600,000 skins have been annually imported from Buenos Ayres and Chili, in which countries the animal abounds. Owing to the wars that continue to be carried on between the different states of Buenos Ayres, and the consequent withdrawal of the trappers from their accustomed occupations, the importations have fallen to 3000 skins, which are dressed and dyed as a substitute for the costly fur seal. The Hamster (Cricetus vulgaris).—About 100,000 of the skins of the hamster are annually collected in central Germany, where the animal abounds; it has a poor, short, and coarse fur, and is almost exclusively used for cloak linings by the Greeks; the colour of the back is a reddish-brown, the belly black, with a few light spots. The animal is about 9 inches in length, and lives underground, forming several apartments for storing grain separate from its own hybernaculum. It is so industrious and provident, that when the peasants go "hamster nesting" in the winter, they possess themselves not only of the skin but of the valuable store of good grain, which is said frequently to exceed two bushels. The Perwitzky.—The skin of this animal is beautifully marked like tortoiseshell, and is brought from the south-eastern territories of Asiatic Russia; the fur is short, giving little warmth, and is chiefly made into cloak linings, and used by the Russians. The Beaver (Castor americanus).—Beaver skins are imported by the Hudson's Bay Company in less quantities than formerly; the use of the fur in our hat manufactories has greatly diminished since the introduction of silk hats, and a considerable depreciation has taken place in their value. This beautiful fur is sometimes used for articles of dress. In order to prepare the skin for this appropriation the coarse hairs are removed, and the surface is very evenly cut by an ingenious machine, somewhat similar to that used in dressing cloth. The fur thus prepared has a beautiful appearance, not unlike the costly South Sea otter, and has the advantage of lightness, with durability and cheapness. The white wool from the under part of the beaver still obtains a high price, and is largely exported to France, where it is manufactured into ladies' bonnets. There is no doubt that the beaver was formerly an inhabitant of the British Isles, and Pennant remarks that two or three waters in the principality of Wales still bear the name of Llyn yr afang, or the Beavers' Lake. The Otter (Lutra vulgaris, Lutra canadensis).—The large supply of otter skins used by the Russians and Chinese is derived principally from North America. The quality of the fur is in most respects similar to the otter of the British Isles, of which there are about 500 skins collected annually. This animal has frequently been tamed, and from its extreme agility in the water, has been rendered serviceable in catching fish for the use of its owner. The American otter is much larger in size than the European, being about five feet from the nose to the tip of the tail; a smaller variety abounds in the East Indies, the fur of which is very short. The Sea Otter (Enhydra marina).—The sea otter has a very thick, soft, woolly fur, and is most highly prized by the Russians and Chinese, to whom most of the skins are exported. In its habits it is allied to the seal, but has never been met with in large numbers. It is found in the North Pacific, from Kamtschatka to the Yellow Sea on the Asiatic coasts, and from Alaska to California on the American coast. The annual production is about 1000 skins, of which 100 are imported into this country by the Hudson's Bay Company. Seal (Phoca).—There are numerous varieties of these animals, some of which are found on the western coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. They frequent, in immense numbers, the coasts of Newfoundland, Greenland, and Labrador, and the importations into this country frequently exceed 500,000 in one season. The young seals of some species increase in size with great rapidity, and it is asserted by the seal fishers that they double their bulk in eight days. The greater portion are tanned and enamelled with black varnish for ladies' shoes; other descriptions are well adapted for fur, especially the seal of the South Seas and the north-west coast of America. Before they can be used as a fur, it is necessary to remove the very coarse hairs which cover a beautifully fine and silky fur. The roots of these hairs are deeply seated in the substance of the thick pelt, while the fur is strongly attached to the upper surface of the skin. By shaving the pelt to half its natural substance the roots of the coarse hairs are cut through, and they easily fall out; but the same effect is produced by a natural process of fermentation, which ensues when the skins are properly prepared and allowed to remain together. The soft curly fur of the seal is now rarely used in its natural state, but is dyed a deep Vandyke brown, and has the appearance of the richest velvet. The Fox.—Of foxes' skins brought to this country there are many varieties; the black and silver foxes (Vulpes fulves, var. argentatus) from the arctic regions are the most valuable. Many of the skins when highly dressed are worth from 10 to 40 guineas. They are purchased for the Russian market, being highly prized in that country. The cross and red foxes (Vulpes fulves) are used by the Russians, Turks, and Greeks for cloak-linings and collars. The blue and white foxes are used in this and other countries for ladies' dresses. The white foxes (Vulpes lagopus) are represented by arctic voyagers as exceedingly numerous, and migrating in troops over the frozen seas at the approach of the rigorous season. They are easily caught, fifteen having been taken from one trap in four hours. The Wolverine (Gulo luscus).—This animal, which is only met with in North America, Norway, and Sweden, is now generally considered by zoologists as identical with the glutton of old writers. It is extremely mischievous to the fur-trader, and will follow the marten-hunter's path round a line of traps extending forty or fifty miles, merely to come at the baits. The fur is generally dark nut-brown, passing, in the depth of winter, almost into black, and is chiefly used in Germany and other northern countries for cloak-linings. The Bear (Ursus).—There are several descriptions of bear-skins used by the furrier. The skin of the black bear of North America (Ursus americanus) is used in this country for military purposes, for rugs, and carriage hammockcloths. In Russia it is frequently manufactured for sleigh coverings, and the skin of the cub bear is highly valued for trimmings and coat-linings. That of the grizzly bear (Ursus ferox) is applied to similar uses. That of the white polar bear, of which the supply is very limited, is frequently made into rugs, bordered with the black and grizzly bear skins. The fur of the brown or Isabella bear (Ursus Isabellinus) has frequently been very fashionable in this country, when its value has been tenfold the present price. It is still considerably used in America for various articles of ladies' dress. The Hare.—The wool or under fur of the European gray hare (Lepus timidus) is extensively used for manufacturing felt hats, both in Europe and America. A few of these are dressed for the purpose of being worn as a protection to the chest. The white hare of Russia and the polar regions (Lepus glacialis) was formerly much worn in its pure white state as a lining for ladies' cloaks, and as a substitute for the white fox, but the skin being exceedingly tender, its use for this purpose has been discontinued. The white hare is also frequently dyed; it looks exceedingly rich, but is not very durable. The Rabbit (Lepus europaeus).—The English rabbit, both in its wild and domestic state, affords a very plentiful supply of useful fur. When dressed and dyed in imitation of other skins, it is manufactured into a great variety of cheap and useful articles for the middle classes. The wool has recently been manufactured into a peculiar cloth adapted for ladies' use, but by far the greater number of skins are still used for hatters' purposes. The English silver-gray rabbit was originally a breed peculiar to Lincolnshire, where great attention was paid to it; but warrens have since been formed in various parts of the country. Skins of this variety are continually exported to China and Russia, where they are much esteemed and command a comparatively high price. The Hudson's Bay rabbit is beautiful in the length and texture of its fur, but the skin is so fragile, and the fur so liable to fall off with slight wear, that it has little value as an article of dress. The white Polish rabbit is a breed peculiar to that country; its skin is often made into linings for ladies' cloaks, and being the cheapest and most useful fur for that purpose, the animal is imported in great numbers. The Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris).—This attractive little animal abounds in most countries, especially in Siberia and the north of Europe. It is from the Russian dominions that we derive our principal supply of the skins of this agile creature, which exceeds in number that of any of the fur-producing animals. It is said that 15,000,000 are every year captured in Russia, our supply from thence exceeding 3,000,000 annually. The fur of the squirrel, of which there are several varieties, is light, warm, and durable; some of the lighter colours are dyed in imitation of sable. The colour of the Siberian squirrels varies from a pearl gray to a dark blue gray; the under parts, which are white, are frequently cut out and made into cloak-linings, remarkable for their lightness; the tails are manufactured into boas for foreign markets; they are also extensively used in the manufacture of artists' pencils. The Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera).—There are two chief varieties of chinchilla, the produce of South America: those from Lima are short in the fur, and inferior in quality to those from Buenos Ayres and Arica; the colour is a silvery gray, Arica producing the darkest and best-coloured skins. The general appearance of the animal places it between the squirrel and the rabbit: in its natural abodes it has the agility of the former, and resembles the rabbit in living in holes and burrows. The extreme softness and delicacy of the fur adapt it only for ladies' use. Though much admired and frequently worn in this country, it is more extensively consumed in France, Germany, and Russia. The Raccoon (Procyon lotor).—The raccoon is an inhabitant of North America: the skins are imported into this country in immense numbers; but meeting with no demand for our home trade, are exported by merchants who purchase them at the periodical sales. They are used throughout Germany and Russia for lining shubes and coats, and, being of a durable nature and moderate in price, are esteemed among the most useful furs. The Common Badger (Meles vulgaris); American Badger (Meles labradoria).—The skin of the European badger, from the wiry nature of its hair, is generally used for the manufacture of superior kinds of shaving brushes; but the skins exported from North America have a soft, fine fur, which renders them suitable for many purposes for which the larger furs are used. The Cat.—In Holland the cat (Felis domestica) is bred for its fur; it is fed on fish, and carefully tended until the fur arrives at its greatest perfection; large numbers are also collected in England and many other countries. The wild cat (Felis catus) is much larger and longer in its fur, and is met with in extensive forests, particularly in Hungary; the colour is brownish-gray, mottled, and spotted with black. The softness and durability of the fur render it very suitable for cloak-linings, and it is also made into wrappers for open carriages and railway travelling. The Canadian Lynx (Felis canadensis); Lynx Cat (Felis rufa).—The fur of the lynx is long, soft, of a grayish colour, and sometimes, as in the Norway lynx, covered with brown spots; the belly is white, silky, and not unfrequently spotted with black. The change of fashion has for some time discarded it from this country; but it is dyed, prepared, and exported in considerable quantities for the American market, where it is much valued and admired. It is generally used for cloaks, linings, and facings, for which purposes it is very appropriate, being exceedingly soft and light.
PRESERVATION OF FURS.
The fur of most animals is in its greatest perfection at the approach of winter, and before the animal has attained its greatest age. It is the object of the furrier, by dyeing the inferior skins, to imitate the more perfect specimens. Some difficulty has attended this process, as the nature of the skin will admit of the dyes being used only in a cold state; but the method which has been practised in Paris and London has been so far successful, that the permanence of the colour in the dyed sable is frequently found of equal durability to that of skins of the natural colour. Considerable excellence has been attained also in dyeing rabbit and inferior furs of those colours which are more suitable to the prevailing taste.
The first process of the fur dresser is to prepare the skins from the raw state, and render them fit for ornamental dress. In this country, the usual practice is to trample them in closed tubs with a little salt butter, turning them over and over for several hours. By this means the skins are made into soft and pliable leather. The next process is to rub them on the flesh side over a blunt iron in order to remove loose pieces of integuments, and to reduce the substance, after which it is necessary to cleanse the fur and skin completely from the grease. For this purpose it is again trampled with sawdust—usually that from mahogany—which being beaten out and repeated several times, conduces to render the fur glossy and clean, and to fit it for the cutter to fashion into any shape that may be necessary.
Furs are subject to injury by several species of moths, whose instincts lead them to deposit their eggs at the roots of the fine hair of animals. Linnæus mentions five species that prey upon cloth and furs, of which *Tinea pellionella*, *T. vestionella*, and *T. topetzella* are the most destructive. No sooner is the worm hatched than it eats its way through the fur, and continues increasingly destructive until it arrives at its full growth, and forms itself a silken covering, from which in a short time it again emerges a perfect moth. Another cause of the decay of furs is the moisture to which they are frequently exposed; the delicate structure of the fine under-fur cannot be preserved when any dampness is allowed to remain in the skin. This fact is well known to the leather manufacturer, who, having wetted his skins, allows them to remain in a damp cellar for a few days for the purpose of removing the hair, which is pulled out with the greatest facility after remaining only one week in a moist condition. It follows from these observations that to preserve furs it is necessary to keep them dry, and to protect them from moths; if exposed to damp or rain, they must be dried at a moderate distance from the fire; and when put by for the summer should be combed and beaten with a small cane, and very carefully secured in a dry brown paper or box into which moths cannot enter. During the summer they should be examined once a month, to be again beaten and aired, if the situation in which they have been placed be at all damp. With these precautions, the most valuable furs may be preserved uninjured for many years.
**Manufacturing of Fur for Felting Purposes.**
In the manufacturing of furs for the making of hats, the principal kinds of skins used are the hare, rabbit, beaver, and matria. All these kinds of skins, in the northern parts of Europe, as well as in America, are divided by furriers into two distinct sorts, namely, the *seasoned* and *unseasoned* skins. The former are those which are taken off the animal in winter, when the fur is at its full growth, and in the highest state of perfection as to fineness; the latter are those obtained in spring, summer, and autumn. The fur in the unseasoned skins is short, coarse, and hairy, and is generally not worth more than a third of the value of furs cut off the best-seasoned skins. The mode of manufacturing both descriptions is, however, the same; of which we shall now endeavour to give a brief account.
**Hare-Skins.**—The first mechanical operation performed on the hare-skin is to open it with a knife down between the middle of the forelegs, taking great care that the skin be not torn; for there is a considerable waste of the fur if this precaution be not attended to. The skin must now be rubbed with what is called a *rahe*, which resembles a common dinner knife, with teeth like a saw. This is used for the purpose of clearing away all impurities and dried blood which may happen to be upon the skin. This cleaning is of very great importance; for the smallest particle of dirt or blood will greatly injure the fur for felting purposes. The operation requires to be carefully and judiciously performed for another reason. If the workman be not attentive, he will tear up, along with the bloody and dirty parts, a considerable part of the good and clean fur, and thus great loss will be incurred.
Hare-skins, after being thus opened and cleaned, must be dampened on the pelt-side with a little water, and placed under a heavy weight, pelt to pelt, to press them, so that all ridges and inequalities in the pelt may be removed. The skins are now fit for what is called *shearing*. Their outsides are all covered over with a kind of hair, which possesses no felting properties whatever; and this must be taken off with hand shears. These are of two kinds; the one the common shears used for clipping the wool off sheep; the other kind resembles the cutting shears of tailors, only the bowl is made equally large on both sides, for the admission of all the fingers. Some furriers prefer one kind of shears and some another. Those like tailors' shears make the neatest work when skilfully used; but the other requires less time for their management. The shearing of the skins forms a very important part of their manufacture; for if one cuts too far down, he will seriously destroy both quality and quantity of the fur, as well as disfigure its appearance. On this account many furriers confine a part of their work-people to this branch of the business alone; for the greater part of the profits of a master depends upon the manner in which this shearing process is performed.
After a hare-skin has been submitted to the process of shearing, it presents an appearance altogether different from what it did before. A novice would not know it to be the same skin. Previously, it was of a uniform brown colour; now, it is down the whole of the back of a most beautiful jet black, which gradually becomes fainter as it approaches the sides of the skin. After it undergoes the process of *rounding*, which consists in taking off all the irregular or angular pieces of skin, and making the pelt smooth and even, it is then fit for the cutting-board.
The cutting-boards of furriers are made of the willow tree, and are commonly about twenty inches wide, and from two to three feet broad. They ought to be moistened with water at short intervals, when used, to make the wood soft, and prevent the edge of the cutting-knife from being taken off too soon. These knives are sometimes made of common sheet-iron, but more frequently of steel, which are to be preferred to the former, on account of keeping their edge longer, and being much lighter for the hand. A fine edge will not cut the fur off the skins; it must be a rough edge, which is obtained from rubbing the knife about every two or three minutes upon a piece of common freestone, of not too fine a grain. These knives are from five to six inches in length and three in breadth, and resemble in some measure those knives used by grocers for the cutting up of cheeses. The skins are all, before cutting, split down the middle of the back into halves. The cutting then commences at the head or cheeks of the skin, and always in the line of direction in which the fur lies. The cutting-knife is run quickly backward and forward against the first joint of the fingers across the skin; whilst at every two or three strokes the hand must be lifted up, to gather in the fur that has been cut, and preserve it in as fleecy a form as possible. Care must be taken against chopping the fur; because when this takes place, the felting principle in all furs is considerably weakened, and in some entirely destroyed.
An important point in the getting up of furs for sale is, to keep them in as unbroken or fleecy consistency as possible. This, abstractly considered, is of no consequence to their felting power; but the practice of the trade as to this matter has arisen from a desire to keep the different kinds of fur from being mixed with one another, and thereby in some degree to prevent adulteration. From this cause the above mode of cutting the hare-skin has been long since much improved by the use of instruments made of tin, against which the cutting-knives run, and which are so contrived as to gather in the whole fur off the largest skin with as much ease as the fur of a half skin could be gathered by the hand when the knife runs against the fingers. This simple invention preserves all the most valuable parts of the skin in one lump or fleece, and enables the workman to sort the fur with more ease and readiness than before.
Rabbit-Skins.—The rabbit-skin is cut in precisely the same manner as that of the hare, only there is a considerable difference in the mode of dressing or preparing the former. The rabbit-skin is covered over on the pelt side with large quantities of grease or fat, from which the hare-skin is comparatively free. This must be removed when the rabbit-skin is first opened. The knife used in opening the skin must be pressed down upon that part of the pelt where the fatty substance is, till it gets beneath the cuticle on which it rests, when the whole of the greasy matter may be removed, and a little whitening rubbed on the spot. If this operation be not well attended to, the grease will get mixed with the fur, and damage it considerably. The rabbit, like the hare skin, is covered over with hair upon the top of the fur; but this hair cannot be taken off by shearing, as in the case of the former, but must be removed by pulling it out. This is done with a short knife about three inches long, which is held so as to grasp the hair between the thumb and it, which is secured from injury by having a piece of buckskin leather placed over it. The hand of the workman ought to fall lightly upon the skin, otherwise the hair will be cut and the fur pulled out also, which will deteriorate its quality and diminish its quantity very considerably.
Beaver-Skins.—The skin of the beaver is manufactured in the same way as that of the rabbit. The fat, however, in the former is much greater in quantity and more firmly imbedded in the pelt than in the latter; and of course greater care and trouble are required to remove it. Fuller's earth mixed with whitening is used to imbibe the fatty particles. The pulling the outside hair off is of great importance. The cutting of the beaver has been for some years performed by machines; the thickness and regularity in the pelt affording facilities for this mode of operation, which the generality of other skins do not.
The fur of the beaver is sorted into three or four different kinds; but that which is cut off the cheek of the skin bears the highest price. White beaver is comparatively scarce, and is much esteemed for fine drab hats.
Nutria-Skins.—These are dressed like rabbit-skins, only the hair on the outside of the skins is much stronger than in the rabbit, and requires a sharper knife and greater strength to remove it. Nutria-skins are full of fat; and before they are submitted to the pulling process, they must be well washed with soap and boiling water. The skin is laid with the pelt downwards, and well scrubbed on the fur side with a brush, till the grease is entirely removed. They must then be well washed in cold spring water, which is extracted from amongst the fur by a piece of wood made for the purpose. After this they are placed before a stove or hot fire to dry, and are then fit to go through the other manufacturing processes.
Both the beaver and nutria furs, before they are used for hat purposes, must go through the operation of blowing. This is done for the purpose of clearing them of those short black hairs which remain amongst the fur after it is separated from the pelt. A blowing machine consists principally of a cylinder, into which the fur is placed; and by means of a fly-wheel, situated within it, the stuff is thrown up, and the hairs, by reason of their greater specific gravity, fall to the bottom, and leave all the fine fur upon the top. Hare and rabbit furs are also partially used in a blown state for the nap or outside covering of hats.
Though the hare, rabbit, beaver, and nutria furs are the staple articles of hat manufacture, yet there are other furs occasionally used in their stead, or in conjunction with them. These are the furs of the otter, the seal, musquash, and the mole. The otter is fully as fine as the beaver itself; but the principal objection haters have to its use is, that it does not retain a good black, but acquires a brown or coppery shade. The seal is not so fine as the otter. It finishes dull upon a hat, and, in consequence, is not much used at present. Musquash is a useful fur. The mole is the only skin known to furriers which for felting purposes needs no preparatory dressing before cutting. Its fur is alike fine throughout. But notwithstanding its fineness, it is so very short as to prevent its being extensively used in the hat manufacture.
Within the last century many attempts have been made to apply machinery to the cutting of the various kinds of fur, but, with the exception of the beaver fur, these attempts have hitherto been but partially successful. The great difficulties in the way of machinery for cutting purposes are, the unevenness on the surface, and the inequalities in the thickness of the pelt in different skins. The smallest particles of the fleshy part of the skin getting among the fur will injure it; so much so, that a piece of pelt not larger than a pin's head will destroy the finest hat. This circumstance has greatly increased the difficulty of bringing machinery to bear upon the fur trade. There are, however, at this moment some machines employed in the cutting of hare and rabbit skins in England; but until they undergo numerous improvements, they are not likely, from the obstacles above adverted to, to realize the expectations of gain at first entertained by those employing them, either in the saving of labour, or in the superior manner in which the fur is manufactured.
Many experiments have also been made to dispense with the usual processes of cutting the different kinds of fur with knives, by applying chemical substances to the pelts, so as to loosen the roots of the fur, and make it leave the pelt upon a slight application of force. Lime has often been tried for this purpose, by using it in the same manner as skinners do in the management of sheep-skins. Some furriers have also tried a partial state of putrefaction; but this, as well as the lime preparation, has proved abortive. The fur obtained off different kinds of skins by such means looks in every respect as well to the eye as if it had been manufactured in the usual manner; but the felting principle is by all such means entirely destroyed.
Carroted Fur.—Sulphuric acid has the property of increasing the felting power of most kinds of fur. When this is applied the fur is called carroted, from the colour which the acid gives it. The most common kind of fur submitted to this process is that belonging to the rabbit-skin; and it is generally employed in small quantities for the manufacture of all fine stuff hats. Carroted coney wool is made in the following manner:—Mix one part of sulphuric acid with two parts of pure spring water, in a dish of stoneware; then take and wet the rabbit-skin with a brush all over, making the liquid penetrate as near to the bottom of the fur as possible; care being used, in this process, not to touch the skin with the fingers, lest they be burned, but with a piece of iron hoop doubled so as to resemble a pair of tongs. When the skins are thus wet, they must be placed over a very hot fire to dry; but they must not be placed too near, lest they take fire, which they are very apt to do from the application of the acid. Instead of drying them before the fire in this manner, some run a hatter's finishing iron, heated to a certain degree, over the skins, and allow them to dry gradually in the sun. This is found to be a very good plan. When the skins are dry they ought to be gently beaten with a rod, and moistened on the pelt side with water, previous to their being put under the pressing stone. They are then cut in the usual manner. Skins prepared in this way attract a great quantity of moisture from the atmosphere; and carroted fur always feels to the hand as if partially wet.
The fur off the rabbit-skin improves in its felting capabilities by being kept a moderate length of time after being taken off the skin; but hare fur does not. Great attention ought to be paid by hat manufacturers, who keep considerable stocks of fur on hand, as to the place in which they are deposited. If it be too damp, they will rot; if too dry, they will diminish in weight; therefore a moderately dry and cool place ought to be chosen. The great enemy to all furs is the common moth. This destroys the felting principle. Whenever the slightest appearance in the fur indicates the secure lodgment of this little creature, it ought immediately to be used; or, if this cannot be done, it should be taken out of the paper bags, and broken all over with a small switch rod, or, what will answer the purpose still better, a hatter's bow. The same rules apply to the keeping of skins in good condition as to fur. The situation ought to be cool, dry, and well aired. They will seldom keep longer than twelve or eighteen months without running great risk of suffering injury from the moth or black beetle. Too many ought not to be heaped together, and particularly if they be rabbit-skins, because the fat or grease about these skins will get heated, run amongst the fur, and become of such an acrid nature as to corrode the very pelt itself. It was formerly the practice to keep hare and rabbit skins a long time, under the idea that the fur upon them will increase in length from the moisture left in the pelt. This is an entirely erroneous opinion. Any one who will make the experiment will find that the amount of fur obtained off any given quantity of skins is much greater in weight when manufactured immediately after they are taken off the animal, than after having been kept for six or twelve months.
The qualities of all kinds of furs differ very considerably, from climate and other local circumstances. The best rabbit fur, used for the manufacture of the finest London hats, is commonly considered as the produce of the east coast of England, particularly from Lincolnshire to Berwick inclusively. The rabbit fur is always stronger in the felting principle when got off rabbits bred on the sea-coast, than in those found in inland places, however favourable in other respects these places may be for the rearing of the animals. The skins along the tract of coast already mentioned seem all of the same size and quality. North of Berwick the rabbit-skin becomes smaller, and the fur weaker and shorter; and the further north, along the coast, the more inferior it is found. Hare fur in Great Britain is superior, for hat purposes, to any in the world.