a general name applied to various forms of speculative heresy in the early Church, from the Greek γνώσις, a verbal derivative of γνώριζω, I learn. The term is now only used in this heretical sense; but in the early ecclesiastical writers it had also a favourable signification. A Gnostic did not then necessarily denote a heretic. The enlightened and philosophical Christian was also called by this name. The expression abounds in this latter use in the writings of Clemens Alexandrinus. In the seventh book of the Stromata of that father, the Gnostic is considered to be the true and perfect Christian.

its different heretical forms, sprung out of the mixture of Oriental and Hellenic elements of culture with Christianity towards the close of the first, and throughout the second century. In one and all of these forms it may be said to represent the systematic attempts made by the prevailing religious philosophies to understand Christianity, and adapt themselves to it. Refusing to accept it in its simple historical character, in its simple majesty of divine truth, and having with it in these respects no affinity, these philosophies could not yet help recognising in Christianity a sublime spiritual power of which they must give an account. They sought, therefore, to find, from their own point of view, a theosophic meaning in it, and to bring it into alliance with their own wild and fantastic schemes of cosmogony.

The fundamental questions with which Gnosticism concerned itself are the same which in all ages have agitated inquiry and baffled speculation, viz., the origin of life and the origin of evil. How life sprang from the Infinite Source? How a world so imperfect as this could proceed from a supremely perfect God? The Oriental notion of matter as utterly corrupt is found to pervade all Gnostical systems, and to give so far a common character to their speculations. It may be said to be the ground-principle of Gnosticism.

Setting out from this principle, all the Gnostics agree in regarding this world as not proceeding immediately from the Supreme Being. A vast gulf, on the contrary, is supposed to separate them. In the general mode in which they conceive this gulf to be occupied they also agree, although with considerable varieties of detail.

The Supreme Being is regarded as wholly inconceivable and indescribable—as the unfathomable Abyss (Valentinus)—the Unnameable (Basilides). From this transcendent source existence springs by emanation in a series of spiritual powers (δύναμεις). It is only through these several powers or energies that the Infinite passes into life and activity, and becomes capable of representation. To this higher spiritual world is given the name of ἀνάγκη, and the divine powers composing it, in their ever-expanding procession from the Highest, are called Ἀόνες.

So far a common mode of representation characterizes all the Gnostic systems. All unite in this doctrine of a higher emanation-world. It is in the passage from this higher spiritual world to the lower material one, that a speculative distinction of an important character begins to characterize them. On the one hand, this passage is apprehended as a mere continued degeneracy from the Source of Life, at length terminating in the kingdom of darkness and death—the bordering chaos surrounding the kingdom of light. On the other hand, this passage is apprehended in a more precisely Gnosticism. Dualistic form, as a positive invasion of the kingdom of light by a self-existent kingdom of darkness. According as Gnosticism adopted one or other of these modes of explaining the existence of the present world, it fell into two great divisions, which, from their supposed origin, have received the respective names of the Alexandrian and Syrian Gnosis.

The one obviously presents more a Western, the other more an Eastern type of speculation. The Dualistic element in the one case scarcely appears beneath the Pantheistic, and bears resemblance to the Platonic notion of the ἀόρατος—a mere blank necessity, a limiting void. In the other case, the Dualistic element is clear and prominent, corresponding to the Parsic doctrine of an active principle of evil as well as of good—of a kingdom of Ahuramazda as well as a kingdom of Ormuzd.

In the Alexandrian Gnosis a link of subordination is preserved between the two kingdoms, separated as they are. For the ἀόρατος only becomes a living and active power of evil through the quickening impartment of some element from the higher kingdom in its progressive descent from the supreme Source. The stream of being in its ever-outward flow at length comes in contact with dead matter, which thus receives animation, and becomes a living source of evil. Its life and power, however, are withal only derived from the higher kingdom. But in the Syrian Gnosis the kingdom of darkness has no such dependence upon the kingdom of light. There appears from the first a hostile principle of evil in collision with the good.

Out of this main distinction other more special distinctions arise, still more clearly defining the one form of γνώσις from the other. According as the two kingdoms are recognised as subordinate the one to the other, or as opposed to each other, it is obvious that different views will prevail as to the character of the Δημοκράτης, or maker of this world, whose name and functions are so prominent in all systems of Gnosticism. In the one case, his relation to the supreme Source of life will be apprehended as more dependent—in the other, as more hostile. In the former view, the γνώσις, while rising in its pride of speculation far above all mere earthly relations and historical religions, could yet find in these a point of contact, whereby the higher spiritual truth, penetrating this lower world, would gradually raise it to its own elevation. In the latter, no such point of contact is left between nature, or history, and the γνώσις. Accordingly, while the Alexandrian form of Gnosticism was found to embrace Judaism as a truly divine institution, although very inferior and defective in its manifestation of the Divine character, the Syrian rejected it as being wholly the work of the spirit of the lower world—the Δημοκράτης warring with the supreme God. This anti-Judaical spirit is found developed to its extreme in Marcion.

The Gnostic conception of Christ, in so far uniform, is also of course greatly modified by the different relations which the systems thus bore to Judaism. In all he is recognised as a higher Αἰών, proceeding from the kingdom of light for the redemption of this lower kingdom of darkness. But, in the one case, however superior, he is yet allied to the lower angels and the Δημοκράτης, governing this lower world. His appearance, accordingly, admits of being historically connected with the previous manifestations of the Divine presence upon earth. But, in the other case, he is apprehended as a being wholly distinct from the Δημοκράτης, and his appearance takes place in this lower world without any previous preparation, in order that he may draw to himself all kindred spiritual natures held in bondage by the Power of this lower world. If any point of connection is admitted in this latter case betwixt Christianity and the lower world, it is certainly not found in Judaism or any historical religion, but in the theosophic schools, where an esoteric knowledge of the Supreme was cultivated.

The rise of Gnosticism can be traced back even to the apostolical age. Simon the Samaritan appears to have been a Gnostic. He appears, in fact, not merely to have taught a kind of Gnosticism, but to have represented himself as an impersonation of the Divine. This is implied in the statement of the Acts of the Apostles (viii. 10), and is plainly asserted by Irenæus (Adv. Haer. i. 23, § 1) and Jerome. Cerinthus, according to well-known tradition, disputed with St John; and the opening chapter of the fourth gospel was probably directed against his false Gnostical conception of the doctrine of the Logos. He is regarded by Neander as forming the connecting link between the Judaizing and the Gnostic sects. He taught that this world was created by an Αἰών proceeding from the supreme God, and that this Αἰών was to be considered as the special ruler of the Jewish people, and the being through whom the supreme God revealed himself to them. The divine character of the Mosaic economy was thus recognised, but in a subordinate degree. In order to complete it, and to raise those under it to the full knowledge of the truth, Christ came a second Αἰών from the Source of Light. This higher Αἰών became united with the man Jesus at his baptism, and abode with him till his last sufferings and death. The human being was simply the organ or vehicle of the Divine; and the former alone suffered, or could suffer—the notion of the true Christ suffering being altogether abhorrent to Gnosticism. This higher Αἰών or Christ, Cerinthus further taught, would again unite himself to the man Jesus, and establish a blessed millennium in Jerusalem. The mixture of purely Gnostic and Jewish conceptions throughout this scheme of Cerinthus is obvious at a glance.

It was only, however, in the course of the second century that Gnosticism became developed under a succession of able teachers into definite and elaborate systems. Throughout the whole of this century, and onward into the third, Gnosticism constituted a very powerful element of disturbance, and, to some extent, of advancing culture in the Christian Church. It appears to have exercised a living sway over some of the highest minds drawn to the truth. Whatever absurd opinions may have long prevailed as to the Gnostic teachers, these are now entirely exploded under the more impartial and more critical labours of modern historians; and, wild as we may still think their speculations, such men as Basilides and Valentinus stand out in the pages of Neander and Bunsen as truly noble and earnestly thoughtful men.

These two teachers are the most illustrious representatives of the Alexandrian or Hellenic Gnosticism. Basilides, probably born in Syria, taught in Alexandria about the year 125. He represented existence as springing from the infinite and unnameable Source (θεὸς ἄνωνονος) in a sevenfold series of Αἰῶνες, under the several names, Νόες, Δέργος, Φρόντιστας, Σοφίας, Δίναρις, Διακοσμίας, Εἰρήνης. These, with the unknown and inexpressible Original, constituted the first octave (πρώτη ὀξύς) of existence. From this first kingdom of spirits (σεφάρδες) emanated a second, and so on in unbroken gradation, each successive kingdom forming a less perfect expression of the original. This sevenfold emanation is supposed to have repeated itself no fewer than 365 times, so that the whole spirit-world or Αἰώνια was represented by the days of the year. From this correspondence he applied the mystical name of ἀβραάδες or ἀβραάδες (whose letters denote 365) to this completed manifestation of the Primal essence. Through the contact of the lowest range of this spirit-world with the bordering chaos, and especially through the operation of the Archon (ἀρχών) or chief angel of this lowest kingdom, arose the present world. The Archon is the immediate creator of men, and the spiritual ruler of the Jews. He is not evil, but only limited, and unable in his strife with dead matter to raise those under his rule to a true communion with the Divine. Gnosticism. To effect this, the highest Αἰών, the Νοῦς, descended to earth and united himself with the man Jesus at his baptism. The higher aims of the redeeming Αἰών are not opposed by the Archon when made known to him; and being successfully accomplished, he separates from the man Jesus before his crucifixion, and ascends again to his kingdom of light, into which he has provided an entrance for all kindred and purified natures. The followers of Basileides continued into the fourth century, and rendered themselves in certain cases particularly obnoxious by their impious indifference to the crucified One, and the slackness of their moral code.

The system of Valentinus is perhaps the most elaborate and ingenious of all the Gnostic systems. This teacher came from Alexandria to Rome about the year 140, and died in Cyprus about 160. The principles of life, or Αἰώνια, were conceived by him to proceed from the ineffable Source (Βεβός πρωτότητος) in pairs. In the evolution of the primal being, there is first of all the consciousness of himself (άυτον, συγγένη). Thence spring, on the one hand, three male or formative Αἰώνια, respectively named Νοῦς, Λόγος, and Αἰώνιος, and three female or receptive Αἰώνια, respectively named Ἀλήθεια, Ζωή, Εκκλησία. From the Λόγος and the Ζωή there spring further ten Αἰώνια, and from the Αἰώνιος and Εκκλησία twelve, making in all thirty, which form together the πλήρωμα. They were all duly arranged according to their nature and power, each occupying its proper position to all the others; and this order and proportion (δοκεία) it was which constituted the harmony of the πλήρωμα. But through the passionate desires of the last Αἰών, the Σοφία, to attain to the full knowledge of the Βεβός, which is only given to the Νοῦς, disturbance was introduced into the πλήρωμα. Out of the same undue desire of the Σοφία arose the Αχαμοθ (ἡ και σοφία), an untimely being, who, wandering outside of the πλήρωμα, came in contact with the surrounding void or dead matter, and communicated life to it. Hence sprang various orders of existence, some more allied to the spiritual, others more allied to the material element. The Demiurge, who is the production of the Σοφία, and represents her, is the immediate former of this mixed world, according to the course of which the spiritual natures are to be evermore separated from the material, and restored to the higher kingdom of light. In the meantime there arose a restorer of the disturbed harmony of the πλήρωμα, a saviour, variously represented as the Νοῦς or highest Αἰών, the Λόγος, the Christ. His redeeming power is first exercised in the Αχαμοθ, who, becoming united to him, inspires the Demiurge with the same exalted ideas, and thus prepares the way for the redemption of the lower world. This is effected by the manifestation of the αὐτός in the man Jesus, the psychical Messiah, with whom, as usual, he becomes united at baptism.

The most illustrious disciples of the Valentinian Gnosticism, which prevailed on till the sixth century, were Ptolemaeus, Heraclon, and Marcus. Each of these had of course their own peculiarities of system—such theosophic dreams admitting of endless confusion and diversity.

Carpocrates of Alexandria, with his son Epiphanes, stand in some degree by themselves. Their Gnosticism appears, upon the whole, to have been of a simple character, arising more directly out of a mixture of Platonic ideas with Christianity. The Divine Being they conceived as simple unity (μόνος). Hence proceeded a succession of spirits, or angels, by the lowest of whom the world was formed and governed. The spirit of man is confined in the body as in a prison, and it is the aim of the γνώσις to liberate the spirit from this confinement, and to enable it to attain to a truly divine communion. Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle are all representatives of such a γνώσις—of that mystical contemplative spirit, by which man frees himself from bondage to the Demiurgi, or rulers of this world. Jesus was merely the man in whom this spirit was developed in the Gnostic highest degree. The mystical abstract views of the sect are said to have led to great laxity of social and moral principle.

Among the most singular of the Gnostic sects were the Ophites or serpent-worshippers, whom we may mention here, as considered by Neander, to form the connecting link between the Alexandrian and the Syrian Gnostics. Very different opinions, however, prevail as to their proper position in a classification of the Gnostic systems. Bunsen, founding on the lately-discovered treatise of Hippolytus, would trace their origin even to the apostolical age. According to their doctrine, so far as it seems possible to find any consistent meaning in it, life sprung from the Abyss in a threefold order of emanation, viz., the first man, the second man, or Son of man, and the Holy Spirit. The last gave birth, by means of the first two, to the perfect masculine or heavenly nature—the Christ, and the defective female Σοφία. From this latter, in her descending contact with the lifeless void, proceeds the Δημογενής, Jaldabaoth, who is an evil spirit or demon, altogether hostile to the higher world. Jaldabaoth, by means of the living principle transmitted to him, calls into being six planet-spirits, and, through their agency, men. In man, however, there was also implanted some portion of a higher spirit, and of a longing after the higher order of things. It is the aim of Jaldabaoth to crush and destroy this better spirit in man; but the Σοφία, awakened to a renewed consciousness of her heavenly origin, watches over him, and never ceases to impart to him fresh supplies of the spiritual influence. His redemption is at length completed by the manifestation of the heavenly nature, or Christ of the Αἰών-world, in the man Jesus. In this mystical process of conflict and redemption there is also in the Ophitic system a further agent, under the name of Ὁριστήρας. The distinct function of this agent seems involved in confusion, but the etymology of the term suggests that it must have been, in such a sect, of an important character.

The chief representatives of the Syrian or Oriental Gnosticism are Saturninus, Tatian, and Bardesanes, although some have classed the latter as a follower of Valentinus. The general characteristic of this Gnosticism, as we found already, was the more definite development of the doctrine of Dualism. This was associated with a more rigid practical asceticism, and altogether with a deeper and more earnest moral spirit.

In the system of Saturninus, who lived at Antioch under the emperor Hadrian, the Αἰών-world proceeded from the original Source (Παράγοντος) in a successive development, much the same as that of the preceding systems; but opposed to this spiritual kingdom stood a living principle of evil (ὁ Σαρακενός). The lowest stage of the emanation-world consists of seven planet-spirits, at whose head is the God of the Jewish. These, removed to a distance from the supreme Source of Light, create the present world and men, and strive to defend them from the power of the prince of darkness. This, however, in their weakness and distance, they are unable to do, when God himself infuses into man sparks of the true light, and especially sends down an Αἰών fully animated by this light to be their redeemer. It remains for man, through ascetic self-denial, particularly through abstinence from marriage and the eating of flesh, to separate themselves from all contamination of the evil principle, and render themselves capable of sharing in the higher kingdom.

Tatian was an Assyrian, and a disciple of Justin Martyr at Rome. He distinguished himself, while yet an adherent to the common doctrines of the Church, by a well-known discourse on behalf of Christianity, addressed to the Greeks. It was after his return to Syria, about the year 170, that he appears to have adopted Gnostic views, and to have become particularly remarkable for his ascetic abstinence from mar- riage and the use of flesh, and of wine even in the celebration of the Lord's Supper.

Bardesanes flourished towards the end of the second century, in Edessa. Although he seems clearly to have adopted certain Gnostic tenets, and especially that of the independent existence of the evil principle, he yet retained his connection with the church, and even acquired a high reputation in it as a learned and accomplished man—one of the first of those hymn writers to whom, reaching down to Ephraim Syrus in the fourth century, the Syrian Church owed so much.

In Marcion and his school, as we formerly observed, is to be seen the extreme development of the Syrian Gnosticism on that side on which it naturally stood opposed to Judaism. Excommunicated, as is commonly alleged, by his father, who was bishop of Sinope, Marcion attached himself to a Gnostic of Antioch, of the name of Cerdon, and founded with him a Gnostic school. He taught that there were three principles (ἀρχαί), viz., the Θεός αὐτοῦ, the Διαμορφωτέος διάκονος, and the Σατανᾶς, with its ruler Satan. The Demiurge is of course the creator of this world and men, and the special guardian of the Jews, to whom he gave the Mosaic law. This law, however, was quite ineffectual to deliver them from the evil principle, and guide them to moral purity; and for this purpose Christ descended to earth with the appearance of a body, and proclaimed to men the good God, hitherto unknown. The God of the Jews, or the Demiurge, opposed him in this redeeming mission, and thus it was that the opposition between Christianity and Judaism became sharpened on the system of Marcion. The cause of Christ, however, triumphed on his apparent death. All who have faith in him have power to rise above the thraldom of the Demiurge, and enter into communion with their Lord, the giver of a new pneumatic life. In conformity with the spirit of his whole system, Marcion rejected the Old Testament, and, of the New Testament, accepted only the gospel of St Luke and ten of the Pauline epistles, with corruptions, however, in both cases. In a work, bearing the title Antitheses, of which some fragments still exist, it was his aim to prove in detail the opposition between Judaism and Christianity.

Gnosticism survived throughout the third, and even into the fourth century, passing, in its Syrian type, into Manichaeism. Its influence on the Church, irrational in many of its aspects as it may now seem, is by no means to be considered wholly detrimental. It served by its opposition to impart depth and comprehensiveness to Christian science, to destroy the narrow spirit of Judaism, and to awaken the Church to a more expansive consciousness of its true doctrine and strength.