one which shows the new vol. xi. Gregory VII is this accusation from being true as regards Gregory, that he is known to have reprimanded Serenus, bishop of Marseilles, for having given over the images in his church to the iconoclasts, and to have charged the missionaries whom he sent forth, to preserve and purify the pagan temples.

Gregory VII, one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs, was born, about 1013, at Soano in Tuscany, where it was said that his father was a carpenter. His own name was Hildebrand. He is first met in history as prior of the Abbey of Clugni, where he was held in high esteem for the depth of his learning, the sanctity of his life, and the severity of his self-discipline. Some services which he rendered to Bruno, bishop of Toul, who was on his way to Rome to take possession of the chair of St Peter (which he occupied under the title of Leo IX.), were the immediate causes of his rise. The grateful Pope made him a cardinal, sub-deacon of Rome, and superintendent of the convent and church of St Paul. Leo's successors, Victor, Stephen, Nicholas, and Alexander, were in reality nothing but tools in Hildebrand's hands, chosen by his influence to wear the insignia of the Papal rule till the time when he believed that he might himself assume them. At length, in 1073, the moment seemed favourable. Alexander died; and Hildebrand, as if in obedience to the tumultuous demands of the mob, was compelled, as it seemed against his will, to mount the vacant throne. But he refused to put on the tiara of St Peter without first obtaining the sanction of the Emperor of Germany. As soon as, by an act of adroit humility, he had gained this point, he was proclaimed Pope, by the title of Gregory VII. Once firmly established, Gregory determined to give practical effect to the two leading ideas of his life. The first of these was the reformation of the Church, whose ministers, especially in Germany and the north of Italy, had long practised simony without let or hindrance, besides leading grossly immoral lives. The second was the total emancipation of the Church from the interference of the civil power. In this way he saw that the sole right of distributing the valuable patronage of the Church would come to be vested in the Church herself. The latter of these ideas he determined to work out through the former, and a pretext for immediate action was not long wanting. One of the most flagrant of the sinners whom Gregory was bent on punishing was Henry IV., of Germany, a man of naturally fine qualities, but vain, licentious, grasping, and always in want of money. To meet the expenses of the wars he was constantly waging with his rebellious barons, he openly sold the most valuable sees in his empire to men whose only qualification was a round sum of ready money. Gregory, resolved on putting an end to the practice, first warned the emperor by letter; and, when no heed was given to his admonitions, sent legate after legate to bring the imperial sinner to reason. When these means failed, Gregory's next step was to assemble a council at Rome, in which it was resolved to excommunicate persons guilty of simony, to expel from the Church all married priests and such as were guilty of personal licentiousness, and not to admit into it as ministers any who would not take the vow of celibacy. Gregory foresaw the fierce opposition that would be raised to these measures, but he was inflexible, and his perseverance was finally rewarded with success. The most obstinate of his opponents was the young Emperor of Germany, and an occasion was not long wanting to bring them into open collision. Henry, holding in contempt the decrees and councils of Gregory, continued to exercise the patronage of the Church as before, and that not in Germany only, but in Italy. The see of Milan had become vacant, and the Emperor and the Pope both claimed the right of appointing a successor. While the dispute was still pending, Henry's Saxon and Thuringian subjects had broken out in open rebellion against the tyranny of their ruler, and were encouraged in their disaffection by Gregory. The Pope even went so far as to summon the German emperor to Rome, to answer before him for his sins towards his subjects. Henry's rage at this assumption knew no bounds. He summoned a diet of the leading clerical functionaries of his empire at Worms, declared Gregory deposed, announced this fact to the clergy at Rome, and took steps for appointing a successor to the deposed pontiff. Gregory, undaunted, assembled his counsellors, excommunicated the emperor, and absolved his subjects from their oath of allegiance to him. Henry's tyrannies had raised a host of enemies against him; and, backed by the authority of the Pope, they convened to elect a new emperor. Resistance was in the meantime impossible, and Henry hurried away to Rome to make his submission and obtain pardon for his contumacy. In the dead of winter, and amid hardships that might have appalled the chamois-hunter, Henry crossed the Alps, attended only by his wife and a few followers. Gregory was in waiting for him at Canossa; but when his humbled and suppliant rival reached that town he refused to admit him into his presence for three days, and compelled him, though it was the depth of winter, and intensely cold, to spend the time in an outer court of the palace without shoes, and with no clothes but a single woollen garment. The Pope was at length pleased to absolve his royal penitent, who had no sooner left the Papal presence than he began to plot his revenge. Stung to madness by his humiliation, he threw himself on the generosity of his Lombard vassals, and, supported by them, recrossed the Alps, defeated his rebel subjects in several battles, and finally conquered and slew Rudolf of Swabia, who had been chosen emperor in his stead. Having restored his fortunes at home, he determined to take a signal vengeance on him whom he believed to be the cause of all his disgraces. In 1081 he entered Italy at the head of a powerful army, declared Gregory deposed, elected as his successor Guibert, bishop of Ravenna, and would have taken the Eternal City itself, had not the scorching heats of summer, and the advance of Robert Guiscard with his Normans and Saracens from Apulia, forced him to retreat. In each of the two following years he renewed his attack upon Rome, but he did not gain possession of it till, in 1084, the treachery of some of the inhabitants threw open the gates to him, when Gregory was obliged to take refuge in the castle of St Angelo. After being publicly acknowledged by the Romans, and establishing Guibert on the pontifical throne, with the title of Clement III., Henry determined to return to Germany, especially as the terrible Robert Guiscard was again at hand. Gregory, at length released from his confinement by the arrival of this freebooter, excommunicated Henry and Clement; but not deeming himself secure at Rome, he retired to Salerno, where he died in 1085. His last words were, "I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." Hildebrand has been called by Guizot the Czar Peter of the Roman Catholic Church. On this illustration it has been remarked that the Czar wrought in the spirit of an architect who invents, arranges, and executes his own plan; Hildebrand, in the spirit of a builder, erecting by the Divine command a temple of which the Divine hand had drawn the design and provided the materials. His faith in what he judged to be the purposes and the will of heaven was not merely sublime but astounding. He is everywhere depicted in his own letters the habitual denizen of that bright region which the damps of fear never penetrate and the shadows of doubt never overcast. Could we accept this self-subordination as genuine, it would go far to redeem a character, formidable indeed as a whole, but presenting some weak, and it may be a few base points. But if we grant that it subsisted at all, it must be in a very different measure, and of a very different quality, from that noble faith which sustained Luther, or Cromwell, or Knox, or even Gregory, the higher spirits of Hildebrand's own Church, such as Xavier and others of his type. It was alloyed, too, with a large admixture of dross, such as found no place in the moral natures of the men we have just named. They could not, like him, act a part. They could not, as he often did, turn round from denouncing the terrors of the Church against recusants discreetly selected for their weakness to cringe and fawn upon the mighty of the earth. His conduct towards William the Conqueror, Philip of France, Robert Guiscard, and others that might be named, puts it beyond a doubt that he seldom allowed his principles to interfere with his interests. But though we may deny him the praise of integrity, truthfulness, and the higher kinds of courage, we must still admit him to have been perhaps, on the whole, the ablest of all the successors of St Peter. The amount of work which he did, and the imprint which he stamped upon the Church, will more than bear out this assertion. In the words of Sir James Stephen,—“He found the papacy dependent on the empire; he sustained her by alliances almost commensurate with the Italian peninsula. He found the papacy electoral by the Roman people and clergy; he left it electoral by a college of papal nomination. He found the emperor the virtual patron of the holy see; he wrested that power from his hands. He found the secular clergy the allies and dependants of the secular power; he converted them into the inalienable auxiliaries of his own. He found the higher ecclesiastics in servitude to the temporal sovereigns; he delivered them from that yoke to subjugate them to the Roman tiara. He found the patronage of the Church the mere desecrated spoil and merchandise of princes; he reduced it within the dominion of the supreme pontiff. He is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and profane abuses of his age; he is more justly entitled to the praise of having left the impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages which have succeeded him.”

Fifteen Gregories in all have occupied the chair of St Peter. The name is one well adapted for a Pope as the Watchman of Sion, being derived from ἐποπτεῖα (the 2 p. a. of ἐποπτεύω), which signifies to keep watch, to be wakeful or vigilant. Of the fifteen by far the most eminent are the first and the seventh, whose lives have been given above in some detail. The second and third, whose reigns fell within the first half of the eighth century, became involved in unprofitable broils with the Longobards. The fourth came to the throne in 827, and is known from his efforts to patch up the quarrels between Louis le Debonnaire of France and his rebellious sons. The fifth and sixth were not remarkable either for their personal qualities or the events that took place in their reign; and the eighth was equally characterless. The ninth was noted for the uncompromising haughtiness of his views on the subject of the Papal supremacy, which involved him in serious collision with the Emperor Frederick II of Germany. Open war soon broke out between the two potentates, the Pope being supported by his Guelphic partizans on the one side, and the Emperor, assisted by the Ghibelline faction, on the other. The tenth Gregory was respected in his day for some reforms which he effected in the discipline of the church; while the eleventh, whose name was Pierre Roger, though personally nowise remarkable, is noteworthy as being the last Frenchman that sat on the Papal throne. It was in the time of Gregory XII. that the schism which had divided the Roman Church since 1379, by the simultaneous reign of two popes, was brought to a close. Gregory XIII. is renowned for his learning, his liberal spirit, and his reformation of the Calendar in 1582. He had no share in the massacre of St Bartholomew, which happened during his reign; but he is believed to have countenanced the conspiracies against the life of Elizabeth of England. His successor was the famous Sixtus V. Little is known of Gregory XIV.; but the last of the name, Gregory XV., was Gregory of Nazianzum, born about the beginning of the fourth century. Both the exact time and place of his birth, however, have been disputed. His father, hearing the same name, became ultimately Bishop of Nazianzum, in the south-east of Cappadocia, from which the more illustrious son derives his surname. His mother Nonna, an eminently pious woman, appears to have exercised a powerful influence over the opening mind of her son. He was dedicated by her to the service of God from his birth; and, trained up under this consciousness, he is said to have early manifested strongly religious feelings, and to have even shown as a boy that ascetic tendency which marked his riper years.

In pursuit of a more liberal and extended culture than he could procure in the insignificant little town of Nazianzum, he went first of all to Cesarea, the capital of his native province, and then successively to Cesarea in Palestine, to Alexandria, and finally to Athens. Having embarked for Athens at an unfavourable season of the year, he very nearly perished in a storm. Here he renewed his acquaintance with Basil of Cesarea, between whom and himself sprang up that warm and devoted friendship which has closely associated their names in the history of the Church. Here also he formed acquaintance with another person of a very different character, the prince Julian, destined afterwards to play so prominent a part in the world's history. This acquaintance has special significance in relation to the future conduct of Gregory. He seems thus early to have penetrated the true character of Julian, and to have imbued towards him that hostility (for it can scarcely receive any milder name) which he afterwards strongly manifested.

Gregory remained at Athens for a lengthened period. He entered it when a youth, and only quitted it when he was about thirty years old. He returned to his father's house at Nazianzum; and being now for the first time baptised, he renewed on his own part his dedication to the service of religion. He still continued, however, for some time, and indeed more or less throughout his whole life, in a state of hesitation as to the special form in which he should apply himself to this service. Strongly inclined by nature and education to a contemplative and ascetic life, he was yet continually urged by circumstances to active pastoral labour. The monastic spirit clung to him through life, and never ceased to struggle for the ascendency. It was strongly encouraged by his correspondence with his friend Basil, who, after various travels, had betaken himself to a solitude in Pontus, and there gathered around him a group of like-minded devotees. It is this continually recurring desire for a monastic life that alone explains the vacillation and inconsistencies of Gregory's public career.

In the meantime circumstances, apparently accidental, determined his lot. The Emperor Constantius, by a course of artful intrigue and intimidation, having succeeded in thrusting an Arian formula upon the Western bishops assembled at Ariminum in Italy, attempted the same course with the Eastern bishops. The aged Bishop of Nazianzum having yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose among the monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence of the younger Gregory. Shortly after, with a view to his permanent assistance, his father came forward before the assembled congregation, and unexpectedly ordained him to the priesthood. It appears to have been during this period of his life, while he continued as a presbyter in his father's diocese, that he distinguished himself by his opposition to Julian, and sent Gregory forth his two *Invectives* against that emperor. Subsequently he allowed himself to be nominated Bishop of Sasima, a small town between Nazianzum and Tyana. But he seems scarcely to have assumed his duties here, as we find him almost immediately again at Nazianzum, sharing there the episcopal duties, now grown too burdensome to his aged parent.

But a more important scene of duty awaited him. The small and depressed remnant of the orthodox party in Constantinople sent him an urgent summons to undertake the task of resuscitating the cause of truth, so long persecuted and borne down by the dominant Arians of the capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the imperial throne, the prospect of success to this cause was opened up, if it could only find some courageous and devoted champion. The fame of Gregory pointed him out as such a champion, and he could not resist the appeal made to him, although he took the step solely against his will, and was even obliged to be dragged forcibly from his retreat. Here, amid many contentions, he laboured so zealously that the orthodox party speedily gathered strength; and the small chapel in which they had been accustomed to meet became extended into a vast and celebrated church, which received the significant name of Anastasia, or the Church of the Resurrection. It bespeaks the true Christian character of Gregory, that his first object was to awaken among his flock a loving Christian spirit, and not merely to build up and defend their doctrinal position. This also, however, he did, and with such powerful success in his five famous Discourses on the Doctrine of the Trinity, that he received the distinctive appellation of "O Θεολόγος," "the Divine." He laboured in the Eastern capital till the arrival of Theodosius, and with this the triumph of the orthodox cause. The metropolitan see was then temporarily thrust upon him; but a spirit of discord and envy in reference to the promotion soon springing up in the episcopal council assembled by the emperor, Gregory resigned his dignity, and withdrew again into retirement. The remainder of his days he appears to have passed peaceably on his patrimonial estate near Arianzum. Here he devoted himself to his favourite studies—poems, discourses, and epistles, still extant (Edit. Morelli, Paris 1615), attest his diligence and activity as a student. The best account of his life and writings is to be found in the monograph of Dr Ullmann—*Gregory of Nazianzus; a Contribution to the Ecclesiastical History of the Fourth Century*, Darmst. 1825; Translated by G. F. Cox, M.A., Oxon. London : J. W. Parker, 1851.

(J. T.—II.)

**Gregory of Nyssa**, one of the fathers of the church, was brother of St Basil, and was born probably at Caesarea in Cappadocia about A.D. 331 or 332. He received the best education that could be got at that time; and when of suitable years, married Theosebia, a lady whose virtues are highly extolled by her husband's friend and namesake of Nazianzus. After his marriage Gregory entered the church, but after holding for some time the office of a reader he once more devoted himself to the pursuits of secular life. However, the remonstrances of Gregory of Nazianzus led him to reconsider this step; and he was finally ordained by his brother, the great Basil, to the bishopric of Nyssa, a small town of Cappadocia. Here he adopted the opinion then gaining ground in favour of the celibacy of the clergy, and his wife became a deaconess in the church. His stern orthodoxy made him obnoxious to the Arian faction, then on the ascendant through the protection of the Emperor Valens; and in 375 he was driven into exile, whence he did not return till Gratian ascended the throne in 378. In the following year he took part in the council of Antioch, and was commissioned by the synod of that city to inspect the churches of Arabia and Jerusalem. The results of his journey and the shocking discoveries he made regarding the state of religion and morality, he published in a letter, in which he inveighed against the practice of pilgrimages to the holy city. At the second ecumenical council, held at Constantinople in 381, Gregory made himself conspicuous by his zeal against the Arians, and read his elaborate work in twelve books against Eunomius, in which he establishes the divinity and co-substantiality of the Word. It was chiefly through his means that the Catholic doctrine on the subject of the Holy Spirit was added to the Nicene Creed. The exact date of his death is unknown. Some authorities refer it to 396; others to 400.

Gregory's works may be classified under six heads,—1st, Treatises chiefly on doctrinal theology, with especial reference to the Arian heresies; 2d, Homilies; 3d, Sermons; 4th, Controversial writings, including the refutation of the Manichaeans and Apollinarists; 5th, Biographies and Funeral Orations; and 6th, Letters. There have been numerous editions of some of Gregory's separate works, but the only complete edition of the whole works is that by Fronton du Duc, Paris, 1615; reprinted with additions in 1618; and again, though less correctly, in 1638.

**Gregory, Thaumaturgus**, or worker of miracles, whose Christian name was Theodorus, was born of heathen parents at Neocaesarea, in Cappadocia, in the third century of the Christian era. He was destined by his parents for the bar, and after studying at Athens, Alexandria, and Berytus, removed to Caesarea in Palestine, where he became the pupil and finally the convert of Origen. On returning to his native town he displayed so much learning, piety, and zeal, that Phaedimus of Amaseia, his metropolitan, resolved to consecrate him to the episcopate. Gregory long declined the honour, and even fled into the desert to escape Phaedimus' importunities. At length he yielded, and (about A.D. 240) became bishop of his native town. He worked in this new sphere with so much zeal and success that, whereas at the outset of his labours there were only seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only seventeen persons who had not embraced Christianity. This result he achieved in the face of the Decian persecution and the inroads of the barbarians, who laid waste his bishopric A.D. 260. Gregory was strictly orthodox in his creed, and in 264 was present at the council of Antioch, convoked to investigate the heresies of Paul of Samosata. To him also was due the extirpation of Sabellianism throughout the province of Pontus. The miracles which he wrought, and which earned for him the surname of Thaumaturgus, are attested by Gregory of Nyssa and St Basil. They caused him to be venerated as a second Moses, and would be beyond the sphere of human credence unless certified by testimony which it is difficult utterly to reject. Gregory is believed to have died in the reign of Aurelian about the year 270, though some accounts place his death six years earlier. His principal works are his *Panegyricus ad Originem*, which he wrote when on the point of leaving Origen's school; *Expositio Fidei*, a summary of the doctrine of the Trinity; *Metaphrasis in Ecclesiastes*, criticised by St Jerome as "short but useful;" and an *Epistola Canonica*, for the benefit of those converts who had relapsed into paganism and desired to be once more admitted into the church. There have been several editions of Gregory's works, of which may be mentioned that of Gerard Voss, in Greek and Latin, Mayence, 1604; the Paris edition of 1622; and that contained in Galland's *Bibliotheca Patrum*, Paris, 1788.

**Gregory of Tours**, who may be called the father of French history, was born in Auvergne in 539, or, according to other authorities, in 544. His family was noble and powerful, and his uncle Gallus, or St Gal, who took care of his education, was Bishop of Clermont. At the age of 34 he already enjoyed a wide reputation for piety and wisdom in virtue of which he was appointed Bishop of Tours. The Gregory, new bishop distinguished himself by his unflinching opposition to the ambitious designs of Chilperic, king of Soissons, whom, in his *Historia Francorum*, he denounces as the Nero of his age, while his royal spouse Fredegonda is hardly more gently dealt with. After governing his diocese with great ability and success during many years, he died in 593 at the age of 54.

Gregory's *History* is the work of a truthful, impartial, and enlightened observer of men and manners. His style is indeed not only barbarous in its Latinity, but feeble and devoid of colour or expression; his descriptions are lifeless, and his reflections commonplace. The information, however, which he conveys is valuable; and his work, which embraces a period of 174 years after the first establishment of the Franks in Gaul, throws abundance of light on the origin of the French nation. Besides his *History*, Gregory has left some other works on the glory of martyrs, the glory of the confessors, the miracles of St Martin, &c. The best edition of his works is that of Ruinart, Paris, 1699.