The united states of the Ionian Islands, protected by Great Britain, consist of the following seven larger isles:—Corfu, Cephallonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxo, with their minor dependencies; and are situated off the western coast of Albania and Greece, except Cerigo, which lies to the S. of the Morea; all being within N. Lat. 36. and 50., and between E. Long. 19. 40. and 23. 10. Official returns, obtained in 1836, give, as the entire native population, 204,242; of whom 110,496 were males, and 93,746 were females. In 1831 the returns showed—males 122,422, females 104,276=226,698; and in 1854—males 123,254, females 105,727=228,981.

The islands, whose names have been given, are computed to contain an area of 1097 English square miles, to each of which there appear rather more than 208 persons; the population, however, is very unequally distributed.

The geological formation of the islands, as examined by Dr Holland and Dr Davy, is mostly calcareous, like that of the opposite continent. In Zante volcanic action is thought still to manifest itself in earthquakes, from which there is never many months' repose. In Corfu and some of the other islands excellent stone for building is abundant; and marble of various hues, and susceptible of high polish, has been quarried, although not for export.

Throughout all the islands the principal soils are these three—calcareous marl, red clay, and sand, which are given in the order of their general abundance.

The ebb and flow of the tides, which are very marked at Venice, are little perceptible on the shores of the Ionian Islands; but the sea around them is greatly affected, in both its set and its level, by currents and winds, whose course and effects have not been carefully investigated.

The climate of the several islands is not quite the same, but probably does not differ much, in the chief characteristics, from that of Corfu, regarding which accurate observations have been made and published. A table of the extreme variations of the thermometer in each month, for ten years ending 1848, gives a mean temperature of 62°, and shows a surprising uniformity in the temperature of the same month in different years. It indicates the average yearly quantity of rain = 45-83½ inches, which is not more than falls in the chief parts of Cumberland or Westmoreland, and is less than in one or two points in these counties; but it shows that the sirocco or S.E. wind blows 1263 days in the year; and a register of the weather, for every day of 1846, marks great vicissitudes of temperature, equal to 20 deg. within 24 hours, at various seasons—the greatest heat being 93° in July. Frost is rarely severe, or of long duration. In 1846 the thermometer never fell below 40°. Snow has occasionally been known to lie on the flat country, but in general it is confined to the hills, from which it melts after a day or two. But the dry cold winds, passing over the snow which covers the hills of the continent, cause a sensation of cold more piercing than is common in more northern regions.

The mortality among the garrisons is found to be rather less than that at Malta or Gibraltar; but pulmonary patients are speedily cut off, and all those complaints passing under the name of nervous are soon aggravated, particularly in females, by the Ionian climate. The chief local disease is intermittent fever, to which the natives are extremely subject, particularly in damp situations. Cholera first visited the islands in 1850, when it was very fatal in Zante and Cephallonia. Corfu was by some supposed to owe its escape to the highly electrical state of its atmosphere; but in 1855 Corfu too was attacked, along with the other islands, and suffered severely. Instances of longevity occur in the Ionian Islands, particularly in Ithaca, and Dr Davy met with some instances of very protracted life in Zante in 1824, and one at Paxo in the same year; and a poor man, supported chiefly by charity, died a few years ago at Corfu having attained, as was said, the age of 104 or 105 years. Such cases, however, are far from common throughout the states; and in the absence of more precise data, we must rather incline to judge that the usual term of life is not long, where the species comes early to maturity, and fourscore is spoken of as a wonderful period of life among those who are exempt from exposure and privation. The old registers are not to be implicitly relied on, any more than the vague impression of the common people as to their ages. A table drawn up

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1 Parliamentary Papers, Despatches of Sir G. Ward, 3rd August 1852, and Blue Book for 1854. 2 Travels in Greece; Notes on Ionian Islands and Malta, 1842. 3 By Mr D. M'Kenzie, sub-librarian to Garrison Library, Corfu. 4 Above 100 inches, it is said. 5 Bowen's Ithaca, p. 4, Corfu, 1850. 6 Dr Davy's Notes, &c., on Ionian Islands and Malta, vol. i., chap. x., pp. 313-315. 7 Ibid., vol. i., chap. viii., pp. 175, 176; 181, 182. by Dr Benzer, an eminent medical practitioner, shows indeed among the Roman Catholics in the town of Corfu, between 1790 and 1820, several cases of persons passing 100 years, and six men attaining 90; but it is not descriptive enough to afford much information.

Their chief products may be considered, in one sense, common to the seven islands, although they have not been cultivated everywhere with equal success or to the same extent. Olive oil and wine are produced in all; currants in Zante, Cephalonia, and Ithaca; silk chiefly in Zante; and cotton in Cephalonia; flax, wheat, maize, and other cereals, are grown everywhere; oranges, lemons, and citrons, with all the fruits of southern Europe, are abundant throughout.

No animals but goats and sheep are reared in the islands. Some cows are kept to supply the city of Corfu with milk, but they are obtained from Albania; and almost all the horses are imported from the same quarter. From Albania, too, come the oxen for the supply of butcher meat, but they are derived originally from districts farther to the north.

The less productive nature of the soil has stimulated to greater activity of cultivation in Zante and Cephalonia; but elsewhere there is little or no energy; old systems are rigidly adhered to; and the implements of husbandry are almost as primitive as in the days of Homer and Hesiod. The country people are even slow in taking advantage of the good toll-free roads made under British authority, and prefer transporting their produce on the backs of horses to using carts, in one of which the burdens of eight or ten animals could be carried with greater facility.

The oil crop is only biennial under the most favourable circumstances. For some years it has been sadly deficient, no full yield having been obtained between 1834 and 1855. The olive is always grafted, and begins to bear fruit in 15 years; it is commonly left to grow up without pruning or other care, except a little occasional manuring and loosening of the earth round the roots. The fruit is not gathered by hand, but allowed to fall, and then picked off the ground, frequently after it has begun to decay. When collected in sufficient quantity it is carried to the mill, where it is first crushed under a heavy stone worked by horses, and then the pulp is subjected to a screw-press, turned by men. This harvest begins in November, and lasts till March or April. Official returns show the last great crop of 1834 to have amounted to 253,923 barrels (of 16 gallons), of which were exported 197,777.

The currant of Northern Europe (Ribes) does not thrive in the Ionian Islands. What bears the denomination is the fruit of a dwarf vine (Vitis corinthiaca), which is thought to have originated the word currant, through the French name of Raisin de Corinthe, given it from the place of its first export to the West. The currant vine bears after three years, and the stocks last for 20 or 30 years. The fruit is ripe in August, and when gathered is spread out to dry on prepared spots; a process which occupies from 14 days to three weeks. The blight so prevalent in Europe did not spare the currants of the islands; but in all places seriously injured, and in most wholly destroyed, the crops of 1853–4–5. The disease is supposed (1855) to be on the decrease however, and the fumes of sulphur have been found a remedy of great efficacy, where the difficulty of applying it has been overcome. The export of currants in 1851 amounted to 40,198,126 lbs.; but in 1854 it was only 10,900,650 lbs., the quality being bad at the same time.

Neither raisins nor figs, nor other dried fruits, are exported; nor are fresh oranges sent away; although various kinds, including the Mandarin orange of Malta, succeed in the islands; nor the singular melons of Cephalonia, which, being hung up in October, remain good till April or May. But, though unimportant, it may be curious to mention, that as citrons ripen in no place nearer to Poland than the Ionian Islands, they have been sent to obtain high prices from the wealthy Polish Jews, who long for them as the choicest ornament of the arbors in which they celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles. The prickly pear (Cactus Opuntia), which is the food of the cochineal, thrives in all the islands, of which Zante alone collects the insect, exporting it to Tunis. Probably the same might be done in other parts of the states. Cotton will grow in any of the seven islands. In Cephalonia it is raised in some quantity, and of good quality. Valonea forms a considerable article of export from Santa Maura alone, but might probably be grown elsewhere. Madder (Rubia tinctorum) grows wild throughout the islands, and is used by the peasantry for dyeing; but it is not cultivated, as it no doubt might be, as a valuable export. A successful experiment has shown that, in Corfu at least, indigo can be grown, and the dye obtained from it; but no practical result has followed.

The Ionian seas contain abundance of fish, yet even the markets of the towns are by no means so well supplied as they might be, the fishermen not caring, in general, to put out far from land.

In all of the Ionian Islands coarse cloths are made in the Manufac-villages, for home use; and in most are potteries for a coarse tares earthenware, the best articles of which are the porous jars made in Zante, for cooling water by evaporation. In several places, but chiefly at Corfu, silver and gold are prettily worked into filigree and chased ornaments; and in Zante silk is dyed, and woven into scarfs and handkerchiefs. The sweetmeats of Zante and Cephalonia are esteemed, and the liqueurs of the latter, particularly an imitation of Zara Maraschino, are prized beyond the islands; and the soap of Zante has a good reputation through all the Levant. In the Venetian time the raising and weaving of cotton at Cephalonia is said to have been carried to a great extent, but they are now very limited. Salt is obtained in considerable quantity at both Corfu and Santa Maura by evaporation alone.

The chief export trade of the islands is that of oil to Venice and Trieste, and that of currants to England. The principal imports are of grain from Taganrog and other ports of the Black Sea, as the islands do not grow altogether above a fourth of a year's consumption; and of manufactured goods from England and the Austrian dominions, from both of which quarters they must be admitted at the same duties, according to a provision of the treaty of Paris.

The Ionians, especially those of Cephalonia, are much engaged in commerce, and a large share of the carrying trade of the Black Sea and the Levant is in their hands. The traffic between the sister islands is not important in point of value,

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1 Given by Mr Montgomery Martin, in his History of British Possessions in the Mediterranean, in Colonial Library, vol. vii., p. 332, ed. of 1837. 2 For a long term previous, till about 1790, the uneven number marked the oil year; but then it changed to the even number, as in the last great crop of 1834. Last year (1855) it returned to the uneven. 3 It is the acorn crop of the Valoni oak (Quercus, Euphros), a product chiefly imported to England from Turkey, to the extent of 8000 tons annually. 4 Dr Davy alludes to this experiment, and considers Indigo might succeed remarkably well, Notes, &c., chap. iv., pp. 7 and 8, note. 5 Domitian's turbot, celebrated by Juvenal, was caught off Ascania (Sat. iv., v. 40), but at the entrance to the Adriatic that fish is seldom caught. 6 Treaty of Paris (5th Nov. 1815), art. vii.; it is given in Jervis's History of Corfu (1852, London, Colburn), Appendix F. but is constant and employs a number of hands; and of small craft, which, in shape and various peculiarities, such as the wickerwork fence overlapping the bulwarks, recall the vessels of classical antiquity.

For short passages, in many places is used a very rude canoe, hollowed out of a single tree, and thence termed monoxylon.

A peculiar flag belongs to the Ionian republic, under which its vessels sail, and which is recognised by other powers.

The Ionian government, as the head of an independent state, issues money of its own, but gets it struck in England. The Ionian coins now in circulation are, silver pieces of 6 oboli, or 3 pence, and copper pieces of 1 obolo, or 4½d., and ½ obolo, or ¼d., with piccoli, or small bits equal to ¼d. of a halfpenny. Besides these, British money of all denominations passes at its full value, with a vast variety of foreign moneys, which become a legal tender after being included in an official tariff of the rates at which they will be taken by the government.

The legal interest of money is 6 per cent. on mortgages, and 10 per cent. on personal obligations. In loans on hypothec there is no limitation, and 3 per cent. a month is the general rate stipulated. Usury is very prevalent, and many ingenious expedients are adopted to evade the stringent laws against it. A most useful remedy has been found in the establishment of the Ionian Bank, set up in 1839 by a joint-stock company of British and Ionian shareholders, having the head office in London, and branches in Corfu, Cephalonia, and Zante, with corresponding houses in Athens and Patras; beginning with a capital of £100,000, which has since been increased to £150,000. The bank affords great facilities in discounts and advances, and allows interest on deposits. It enjoys an exclusive privilege of issuing promissory notes. These, being payable on demand, form a convenient and favourite circulating medium. The smaller growers of oil and of currants have been too prone to follow an improvident system in the disposal of their produce, by throwing it into the hands of agents. Oil, requiring some time to become clear from the vegetable matter suspended in it, ought to be kept in quantities in stone vats or troughs. But to save the expense of these and of a magazine, it is common to deposit the oil with a storekeeper, who receives it impure and delivers it pure, of the same quality, but in quantity diminished by his allowed per-cent-age for his trouble—commonly 3 per cent. In like manner, currants, when removed from the drying ground, need to be placed in a store, safe from damp and insects, where they have to be watched to prevent fermentation, and for this care a certain rate is charged. In both cases the storekeepers register what is taken in, for which they grant receipts, and the owners often draw upon them for money against the value of the deposits; an account-current being kept of such transactions till the sale of the articles, which is frequently managed by the storekeepers, whose first settlement often gives rise to dispute. In the oil-trade, too, it is common for growers to grant oil bills or notes, promising to deliver at a fixed term a stated quantity of oil at a certain price; which results in a gambling speculation on the future market-value of oil.

While money bears such a value as has been stated, it is rather surprising to find the price of land so high as it is, although no exclusive political privileges attach to that sort of property. Estimates of land are based on the average returns for the last 10 years, and are made up so as to allow 4 per cent. on the capital to be expended; but it is well known that, practically, buyers are satisfied if they draw 3 per cent. on their investments.

Insurance, with all its wonderful benefits, is little known to the Ionians. Of late years, the Austrian Lloyd Company of Trieste, whose activity is doing so much good in the Levant, has had a branch for insurance of various kinds in the chief Ionian Islands, but its operations seem to have been limited to insurance of ships and against fire. Practically, too, the Ionian Pension Scheme, organized in 1830, serves as a society of mutual assurance, and works well, by maintaining a fund which goes far to save the general revenue from liability to the public servants who retire after having contributed to the fund, the amount of which in 1854 was upwards of £50,000.

The Ionian revenues are mainly derived from export duties on produce, import duties, and stamps. In average years the aggregate of the general and municipal revenues might be taken at about £164,000. The loss from failing crops is now proposed to be made up by a duty on houses, which have hitherto been exempt from taxation.

The ordinary expenditure of the country ought to be within the above amount, especially since the liberal reduction of the sum contributed towards the cost of the military force to £25,000. But embarrassment in the finances, beginning in 1835, although temporarily checked in 1842 (when the public debt amounted to about £150,000), has gone on without effectual remedy, till proposals to that end were made in 1855 to the Ionian legislature.

The dominant religion in the Ionian states is that of the Greek or Oriental Church, the patriarch of Constantinople being recognized as the head, although he is not so in Russia or in Greece. The three orders of clergy—bishops, priests, and deacons, are maintained. Each island has its bishop, elected by its own clergy, and approved of by the government, but not consecrated without the authority of the patriarch. In the ceremony of consecration is observed a relic of the old deference to popular approval; for before each of the proper episcopal vestments is put upon the bishop-elect, the assembled multitude is asked by open proclamation, "Is he worthy?" and an unfavourable response would, it is said, cause proceedings to be stayed. The bishops of the four principal islands, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, and Santa Maura, have the title of Metropolitan (equivalent to that of archbishop), and discharge by turns, for five years, the duties of the channel of communication with the patriarch; which gives them for the time the style of Exarch, a name derived from that of the representatives of the Byzantine empire at Ravenna and elsewhere. Some of the Ionian sees are of great antiquity, and their

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1 Bowen's Ithaca, Appendix I. 2 Amongst these are the Mexican and South American dollar, rated at 4s. 4½d. Doubts have been started in the Mediterranean as to the good policy of admitting them as currency, as their fineness is sometimes questioned, and their inequality in weight is constantly found. Hence it is argued, the heavy coins will be used as bullion, and none but light ones will be sent to places where they are currency at the same value as the Spanish Pillar dollar. Of 1000 South American dollars weighed at Malta in 1834, 718 were over weight, 41 exact weight, and 241 under weight. See pamphlet On Currency of Maltese, by a British Merchant, Malta, 1850. In Austria these dollars pass for 4s. 2½d. only. The dollar of account in the Ionian States is the Venetian or Imperial = 4s. 2½d., marked $. The Pillar dollar is = 4s. 4½d., and is marked $. 3 A pamphlet On Currency of Maltese, by a British Merchant, Malta, 1850. 4 The smallest are = L1, and the largest, 100 Spanish dollars = L21, 13s. 4½d. 5 Formerly five years; altered to ten, after so many failures of crops. 6 L50,910, 19s. 9d. 7 Chiefly one of 18 per cent. ad valorem on oil and currants, fixed in May 1833, by 14th act of 4th parliament. 8 Speech of the Right Hon. J. A. Stewart Mackenzie, Lord High Commissioner, 3d March 1842, in Ionian Government Gazette. 9 Speech of the Right Hon. Sir John Young, Lord High Commissioner, 18th June 1853, in Ionian Government Gazette. bishops may be recognised in early councils of the church. It is commonly said that the Greek Church permits its clergy to marry; but this is not a correct mode of stating the extent of the indulgence, which is limited to allowing persons, who have married before ordination, to retain their wives and yet enter the sacred profession; and the rank of bishop is denied to a churchman not a bachelor or a widower. The clergy are extremely ill paid, and not frequently take a share in commercial or other occupations.

As a body, in spite of honourable exceptions, they cannot be deemed other than ignorant, and not highly regarded by the community; and comparatively few of the higher classes enter the sacred profession. The Oriental Church has never withheld any part of the Bible from the study of the laity. None, however, without some education, could have profited by such a license till of late years, when British and American religious societies have circulated versions of the Scriptures in modern Greek. The liturgy of the Eastern Church is in the ancient Greek of the fathers, and many of the prayers are reputed to be compositions of St Basil, and the same language is employed in the pastoral letters of the patriarch. The Ionian church has not followed the example set in Greece of prohibiting the marriage of its orthodox with heretics, and is very tolerant towards Protestants, while it views Roman Catholics with jealousy, and Jews with abhorrence. Throughout the seven islands the number of both clergymen and churches is far beyond what is required, the latter exceeding 2000. Except the prelates, the clergy are not supported by the general treasury, but by the income of ecclesiastical property, now in the hands of government, and by special endowments. Many churches are in the hands of fraternities, and still more in those of lay patrons, who provide for the service out of the income, dues, and offerings, and are not called on to account for the surplus.

The Latin Church, which was dominant under the Venetians, has a bishop resident at Corfu, but not permitted to take his title from an Ionian diocese; and out of the former property of the establishment the ecclesiastical body is supported. The Roman Catholics are not numerous, and consist more of foreigners than descendants of Venetians and other settlers.

The Church of England has a military chaplain at each of the three principal stations for the troops—Corfu, Cephalonia, and Zante. The appointment of a government civil chaplain was for the first time made in 1836, but it was discontinued after about three years. Since that period, the civilians at Corfu have occasionally, with aid from religious bodies in England, raised by subscription funds to make up a salary for an officiating clergyman. The islands, being a foreign state, are not within the proper diocese of the bishop of Gibraltar; and the act of parliament enabling government to contribute to the endowment of chapels at some of our Mediterranean factories has been held inapplicable to them as it at present stands.

Several thousand Jews are to be found in the islands, most of whom are domiciled in the town of Corfu, having originally come from Spain. In former times they were exposed to great ill usage, and even now do not escape the contumely of the vulgar, who will not allow them to show themselves at Easter. Till of late years their cemetery was not permitted to be inclosed, and they still labour under various disabilities, civil as well as political. They may become attorneys but not advocates, and are excluded from the public service. Medicine is open to them, and among their practitioners are always to be met with men eminent for skill and ability. The laws respect their sabbaths and some of their high festivals, by exempting them from being called to attend the tribunals on those days. Their chief occupation is trade, in which many have acquired wealth and respectability.

The language of the country people in the islands has always been Greek, more or less corrupted. That employed in good society and in commerce, as well as in legislation and official business, was Italian, till the recent adoption of Greek as the language of the legislature, courts of justice, and all public departments. The Italian commonly spoken partook, naturally, in a great degree of the peculiar Venetian dialect. The several islands dispute the purity of their Greek. Corfu, from the mixture of other languages, and the comparative neglect of the native dialect by the higher classes, was supposed to have had its Greek more debased; and Santa Maura, having less intercourse with foreigners, claimed for its vernacular speech the first place in point of correctness. When Greek journals were printed in Corfu, Cephalonia, and Zante, some years ago, their style was reckoned by competent critics little inferior to that of the contemporary Athenian newspapers. Nevertheless, whether the reflection be agreeable or not to their self-complacency, the Ionians may rest assured, that in the Hellenic world the true standard of language will be looked for at Athens, not at Corfu. English is pretty generally understood, and is spoken well by some who have never been out of the island; but its employment as the sole language of translation has not been provided for so distinctly as the constitution of 1817 directed to be done, before the introduction of Greek into daily use should take place.

Public instruction forms an important branch of expenditure, about L10,000 a-year being the charge for schools in all the islands and the university at Corfu. In the lifetime of the late Frederick Earl of Guildford, who was its chancellor and spent large sums of his own upon its chairs and students, and while, during the subjection of Greece, the Ionian Islands were in some measure the metropolis of the Hellenic race, this last establishment might be said to flourish. Now, without extraneous support, and with a more favourably situated rival at Athens, it has become unsuited to the wants of the population. A beneficent lady, the late Countess Mocenigo, in bequeathing funds for educational purposes, directed scholarships to be awarded to meritorious students, for enabling them to go abroad and finish their education in the colleges of larger countries; and many think the Ionian government would do better to act upon a similar system while improving and extending the schools within the states. As a stimulus to acquire some elementary instruction, the election laws prohibit any elector from using the franchise till he has shown he can both read and write; and it is satisfactory to find the ability to read and write so diffused, that out of 981 persons (943 males and 38 females) brought before the Corfu tribunals superior to the police court, between 1st May 1843 and 1st May 1844, 210 was the number of those who appeared ignorant of both.

During the rule of Venice, the islands observed the Venetian Justice.

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1 The popular opinion, that a married priest may become a bishop, if his wife will separate herself from him and retire into a convent, is understood to be uncanonical. 2 An instance of this is the church at Corfu containing the relic of St Spiridion, and belonging to one of the Balgari families. 3 Students at university in 1852 = 72; at Minor College, Corfu, 72; and at the schools throughout the islands, as stated in the table accompanying Sir H. G. Ward's Despatch of 25th August 1853 (Parliamentary Papers)—Corfu, males 1393, females 225; Cephalonia, males 1301, females 132; Zante, males 1030, females 180; Santa Maura, males 591, females 90; Ithaca, males 571, females 75; Corico, males 579, females 70; Paxo, males 245, females, 21. 4 Statistica Penale, dal 1 Maggio 1841 ai 30 Aprile 1844, by Dr Giulio Tipaldo Pretender—a set of very well-arranged tables, published at Corfu, 4to, 1845. tian statutes, civil and criminal, recourse being had when they were silent or defective to the Roman law of Justinian. Under the French dominion (1807-1817), the legal system of Napoleon was not established. After the local legislature was organized by the constitution of 1817, various enactments were passed, abrogating or modifying former laws. The same constitution contemplated the exchange of the Venetian laws for entire codes, which should form a part of the constitution itself, and receiving like it the previous sanction of the crown, have a character of permanency, from the impossibility of their alteration by the Ionian parliament. In 1841, by what seems a violation of this positive provision, there were issued a civil code (of about 2100 articles), and a criminal code (of about 800 articles), with relative codes of procedure, all derived mainly from the Code Napoléon. These bodies of laws have received some modifications, but have been allowed to stand in the situation of purely local laws, and liable to change by the ordinary legislature. Each island has a judicial establishment of its own, consisting of civil, commercial, and criminal courts, together with police magistracies. From these courts, beyond a certain amount of value, and a certain scale of punishment, there is an appeal to the supreme council of justice at Corfu, which decides in last resort—the appellate jurisdiction of the privy council not extending to the Ionian Islands as a foreign state. This court is composed of four members; two Ionian, named by the senate, and two, either British or Ionian (but in practice always the former), appointed by the crown. These judges take the chair for a year in rotation; but the president not having a casting vote, when they are equally divided in opinion, the question is carried before the lord high commissioner and the president of the senate, and the voice of the former preponderates. The number of cases decided in appeal is nearly 1000 each year, by far the greater part being reviewed on written pleadings without being argued nisi reo. Trial by jury, in a modified shape, is resorted to in cases of alleged libel, having been introduced as a provision of the press law of 1848. It has been little resorted to, and cannot be said to have given satisfaction. The courts in all the islands have the assistance of a highly intelligent and respectable bar. Every see has an ecclesiastical court in which its prelate sits alone; the court of appeal being composed of the exarch (or the bishop next him in succession to the office) and three clergymen, the prelate having the casting vote.

How far the Ionians can be looked upon as true descendants of the Greeks of antiquity, it is not easy to determine. Some German authorities consider that Fallermayer is correct in supposing the present continental Greeks to be wholly of Slavonic origin, dating from the seventh and eighth centuries, a conclusion rather judged too sweeping with regard to Greece Proper, and which is less applicable no doubt to the islands, whose rural population was not so exposed to be cast off or mingled with foreign races. This, with the arguments founded on language, character, and often physiognomy, warrants the belief that among the country people there is yet some of the ancient Greek blood. The inhabitants of the towns are more likely to be of mixed origin, and most of the higher classes seem to be of foreign descent. Each island has widely ramified septs or clans who have the same name, like the nomen gentile of the Romans, while the particular families have some distinguishing appellation. Few of the surnames had other than vowel terminations till it very lately became fashionable to add a Grecizing ζ to the heretofore final letter. As written in Italian times, we find, at Corfu, many houses of the Theotoky, Bulgari, &c.; in Zante, the Volterra, Salamos, &c.; in Ithaca, the Petalà, Caravia, and Dendrino, &c.; while in Cephalonia, the principal names form an Italian heroic verse, when thus arranged, "Loverdo, Metaxà, Tipaldo, e Vocca." The name of Tipaldo is thought to be derived from the French Thibaut, and that of Coraftà (in Cephalonia) from the Italian Caraffà. At Corfu the Venetian name of Dandolo is found unchanged, and the Zambelli of Santa Maura belongs to the noble house of that name established at Trent. The heraldry of the islands is Venetian, and has been jealously maintained. Some Ionian families, ennobled by the Venetian seigniory, and amounting at present to about 50, have the hereditary title of Count, which is borne before their Christian name by all members of the house, male and female, but is transmitted by the male only. Sozalling titles are liked. The president of the senate is styled "His Highness," the senators "the Most Excellent," members of assembly "the Most Noble," and every elector is qualified to write himself "Noble," that having been ruled by the constitution of 1803; a mode of republican equalization by levelling up instead of levelling down. Several families, untitled as well as titled, are understood to trace their pedigrees up to a period anterior to the Venetian rule; and one or two charters of the Neapolitan time (before 1836), and even of the Greek empire, are said to be extant in their archives.

In 1818 the Prince-regent instituted "the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George," divided into three classes, and originally giving precedence in Great Britain; but by a later statute having that effect only when the sovereign shall so declare on investiture. It was mainly designed to reward Ionians and Maltese; but the commissioners of inquiry into the affairs of Malta some years ago, did not consider it had been of any utility in that colony, and perhaps the same view might be taken of it in relation to the Ionian republic.

In 1825 the Ionian legislature put an end to entails, Property prohibiting them for the future, and giving great facility to the cutting off of those in existence. The old entails, under the form of perpetual trusts, had been designed to favour the nearest blood of a family rather than individual successors, and most commonly allowed all the male heirs of equal grade to participate. They thus locked up lands from commerce, and impeded their improvement, failing at the same time to obviate the endless subdivision of property. So far had this last evil gone, that the fifth part of a single olive-tree was actually a point in dispute not many years ago, and still smaller fractions have been spoken of. There are no great fortunes inherited, but many families are in comfortable circumstances; and some holders of land, who also engage in trade, are believed to be wealthy; in one case, report has attributed to the party no less than L100,000; but if this be not an exaggerated estimate, it is founded in great measure on credits which could not be realized at pleasure. If we take as a measure of Ionian incomes the highest official salaries, that of the president of the senate, before a recent hasty reduction, was L1,350, and that of each senator was the half. Families of high respectability are satisfied with assigning to a daughter a marriage-portion of 6000 Spanish dollars = L1,240, which may ultimately come to be the chief source of their support in widowhood.

The price of labour in the larger islands is high. In 1824 field labourers got 1s. 3d. a-day, and in 1855 not less. Cheapsness of living might be presumed from the moderate incomes of the native gentry; but foreigners do not find this in the larger places where the conveniences of life are to be had; and to obtain the same amount of comfort as in any part of Great Britain beyond the capital, the same sum must be spent in the islands alluded to.

In externals, the higher orders of Ionians are becoming assimilated to those of Western Europe. Few ladies now wear the dress of their own islands, but submit to the fashions of London and Paris. The female peasantry keep up the proper costumes of their districts, which are very various, and sometimes costly, from the profusion of gold and silver ornaments. The attire of the men is more uniform and simple, except when the plain brown jacket is exchanged for a blue one enriched with embroidery. They like to appear in their best at the church festivals, when they meet also to dance in the open air. Their dances, although traditionally derived from those of the ancients, have little variety or grace, and no animation except in some executed by men alone. In the lower ranks, an oriental feeling still prevails, and women are generally treated as inferiors, and the lazy husband makes the wife his drudge, enforcing his commands with the stick, of which it is a point of honour for her not to complain. The upper classes are giving ladies their due place in society; but from some aristocratic feelings, do not welcome the birth of a girl, who may one day carry her dowry away from the family. There is a strong dislike to women remaining unmarried; yet the objection to their going into society is but gradually disappearing. Marriages in every grade are for the most part arranged between the families, and the parties most concerned often see each other for the first time after their union has been settled. Divorces seem to have been granted formerly on slighter ground than would now be held sufficient, and they occur less frequently. The Greek Church does not sanction any one's marrying oftener than thrice, and prohibits matrimony between cousins three times removed,—a restriction at one time thought to extend still further.

Baptismal names are in many cases taken from the patron saints; whence Spiridion is so common in Corfu, Gerasimos in Cephalonia, and Dionisis in Zante. Ancient names however abound,—Aspasia for girls; Leonidas, Socrates, and Themistocles, for boys. To strangers the effect is odd, as they do not readily regard the name as an ordinary appellative, but think of its ancient bearer or of its meaning, and start at hearing that Aristides is a fraudulent bankrupt, or that Zoe (life), and Athanasius (immortal) are both dead. Saints are sometimes invoked on account of their names,—as in marriage contracts, Procopius; and in parturition, Eleutherus.

Greek families frequently take into their service young girls, who receive very small wages, but are treated with much indulgence and familiarity, and have the promise of a dowry to assist their settlement in life, after they shall have reached a suitable age.

In the country districts there are many usages which may be traced back to antiquity; and the mode of living has little changed from the earliest times. The "villani" are addicted to gambling, and the old game of the "morra" is seen almost as much as in the Campagna di Roma. The educated classes have emancipated themselves from superstition; but it has great sway over the vulgar, and an oath on the relics of a saint is regarded with much higher awe than one upon the Gospels. A mixture of superstition and idleness used to cause such observance of saints' days and other festivals, that, including Sundays, there were above 200 days on which work was not done; but the church does not require this cessation from labour, and it is practically limited to particular festivals, which are quite numerous enough. Much as the Jews are abhorred, it is curious that at Easter families of every rank kill a lamb, when the church bells ring joyfully on the Saturday just an hour before noon, and mark a cross with the blood on the lintel of the door, from which it is never washed off. Belief in the effect of the "evil eye" is very strong and general; and it is supposed to cause harm to children, animals, and property. Nay, witchcraft, in the shape of spells and philtres to create love, and of fortune-telling, is not exploded. The terrible "vendetta" of Southern Europe is not entirely eradicated from the Ionian people, but it is much tamed, although it often displays itself in malicious mischief to the property of the hated individual; and in its most dreadful form it would be rarer than it is, did the present law, adopted in 1847, not require proof of premeditation, which it is extremely difficult to bring forward. Inebriety is not an Ionian vice; among the lower orders it is extremely rare, and among the higher classes is almost unknown. Music is generally relished in the Ionian States; all ranks evince the gift of a good ear, and the opera is a favourite recreation in the islands which can command one. Many excellent musicians, vocal and instrumental, are to be met with among both ladies and gentlemen of the best society.

Of the Ionian character a passing stranger is likely to take a favourable impression. In manner, they resemble well-bred Italians rather than the French of the present day. To great politeness they add ready speech, and take pleasure in making themselves agreeable; or perhaps in the more refined art of making their hearer imagine that he has rendered himself agreeable to them. Their perception of character is almost intuitive, and affords them an incalculable advantage, where they wish to persuade. They discuss with temper, as well as ingenuity, in business as well as in society. In their family relations there is much kindness and good nature, where neither interest nor passion enters. Children are indulged to a fault, and permitted to give vent to their feelings, instead of being taught to restrain them. From the mode of contracting marriage, it is said that, although society is never shocked by improper manifestations in public, the standard of matrimonial morality is by no means high. But the most generally besetting sin of the Ionian is that which was so conspicuous among the ancient Greeks—mendacity. In the idle rumours of the day it is wonderful how many minute details are given, with apparent accuracy, on the principle laid down by the servant in Sheridan's comedy, who thought one lie must be supported by many. Then in more important matters the widely-spread evil is of serious magnitude. As regards others, the courts of justice every day experience the utmost difficulty in ascertaining exactly the truth. Want of good faith in fulfilling engagements is common, to an extent very astonishing in a country where there is commerce, and consequently credit; yet the high profits expected from money, and the low return looked for from land, prove the difficulty of recovering capital lent out. Other contracts than those regarding loans are constantly violated, and parties do their utmost to overreach one another with an ingenuity well worthy of a better motive, and with a degree of disapprobation from society nowadays commensurate. Litigation is therefore begun with boldness, and continued with obstinacy; and it is well known that the Ionians are more unreasonable and troublesome than any of those who come in the way of business to the British consulates in... the Levant. In the political affairs of the Ionians, the charge of turgidness is vehemently bandied about, but it produces little effect on those who receive it, or on the public at large. Like the Greeks of antiquity, the Ionians are ambitious, vain, and impatient of the pre-eminence of others, as any who have felt "envy, the vice of republics;" so that the rustic who could not endure to hear Aristides called "the just," would not appear singular in the Septinsular States.

If genius has not displayed itself among the Ionians, the talents of many of them have, in various walks, led them to honourable distinction. In the sixteenth century the grammarian Matteo Devari (Matthaeus Devarius), a native of Corfu, wrote his Latin treatise on the Greek Particles, since superseded by the larger works of Hoogeveen and others, but valuable at the time of its posthumous publication. Eugene Bulgari, who died in 1806, archbishop of Cherson, was also a Corfiot, whom the Empress Catherine II. drew to Russia, on account of his celebrity for Greek scholarship. Ugo Foscolo belonged to the same island, and so does the Cavaliere Andrea Mastoxidis, whom we name though living, as he has already a European reputation for his Italian version of Herodotus. Carburi the engineer, who performed the herculean task of transporting to St Petersburg the huge mass of granite for the pedestal to Falconet's statue of Peter the Great, was from Cephallenia. Thence, also, went into the service of France, Count Loverdo, who became a general under Napoleon. Corfu was the birthplace of Count Giovanni Capo d'Istria, who attained a high rank among diplomats, and rose to be president of Greece, the station he occupied when assassinated by Greek hands, from which he was justly entitled to look for protection and support. In the fine arts, Corfu may boast of the late Cavaliere Prossalendi, whose ability as a sculptor is attested less by the bronze statue of Sir Frederick Adam, which the artist left unfinished, and which was completed by others after his death (to stand on the esplanade of Corfu), than by works which may be seen and admired elsewhere.

Corfu (anc. names Scheria, Phæacia, Coreyra).—This island, the most northern of the Ionian States, lies along the coast of Albania (Epirus), for the chief part, at a distance of about 6 or 8 miles, but at one point of the N.E. channel being little farther than 1½ mile. It is of a curved form, not very unlike the sickle; to which the ancients compared it; its extreme length is about 40 miles; its breadth varies, nowhere exceeding 12 miles; at the town of Corfu it is about 6, but lessens gradually towards the southern extremity. Towards Albania, or E., it turns the hollow side, having nearly in its centre the town and harbour of Corfu. The island may be said to be separated into three parts by hills running across it; the northern range being that of San Salvador (the ancient Istone), and San Pantaleone; the southern being formed of the hills of Benizze; while the middle section of the land is backed by the mountain of Santi Deca and other hills, descending close or near to the sea on their western sides. San Salvador is something above 3000 feet high, and Santi Deca is not much inferior. The whole country presents the utmost diversity of ground, and is well clothed with wood, while many places display the most varied and luxuriant vegetation. The want of streams capable of producing much effect in the landscape is made up for by the sea, which towards the E. wears the resemblance of an extensive lake, with the Albanian mountains towering beyond, bare indeed, but picturesque in outline and hues, with their second range lofty enough to add to the view snow on their summits till after the close of June. The prospects from the more elevated spots are magnificent, taking in both seas, and in clear weather discovering the line of the Italian coast, near Otranto, although above 70 miles away. In all directions the villages, with the churches and belfries, add greatly to the effect, placed as they commonly are in high and prominent situations, and mingled with wood.

The town of Corfu (pop. above 20,000) stands upon very uneven ground, forming the broad part of a peninsula, whose termination in the citadel is cut from it by an artificial fosse, formed in a natural gulley, having a salt-water ditch at the bottom. Seen from the water, or from a height, it is picturesque in masses, but in detail it is not to be praised for either beauty or comfort. Having grown up within fortifications, where every foot of ground was precious, there is nothing spacious, except the handsome esplanade between the town and the citadel; and there are no buildings of importance. The palace is large, but the exterior has no architectural merits, although internally its apartments are very stately. In several parts of the town, in which there are not many streets fit for wheel-carriages, may be found houses of the Venetian time, with some traces of past splendour, but they are few, and are giving place to structures in the modern French style, which are more convenient for habitation.

Travellers generally agree that Corfu is the most beautiful of all the Greek isles, except, perhaps, Candia (anc. Crete), which is less easily visited. But foreigners who have been long in Corfu complain of the monotonous colour of the olive, whose grayish-green is little relieved by the cypress and pine, or mulberry and juglans. This is the more to be regretted since the island is adapted for many different trees, such as various descriptions of oak, plane, Spanish chestnut, walnut, &c. The government of Venice gave at one time premiums to landowners for planting olive-trees, partly to encourage so desirable a product as oil, and partly to discourage the raising of wheat, which might interfere with that from the continental estates of some Venetian nobles. Once planted, the olive has suited the people. The number of trees in Corfu has been guessed to be not much below six millions; the produce in the last full oil year (1834) was 236,016 barrels of 16 gallons.

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1 Longfellow, Evangeline, part I., I. 2 Maffeo Veniero the poet, archbishop of Corfu (ob. 1585) was not an Ionian, but born at Venice of a noble house. 3 This writer, as historiographer of the Ionian Republic, has completed a History of the Ionian Islands in Italian, which is understood to be already in the hands of the Ionian government, but why its publication is delayed has not been explained. 4 His marble statue of Diana is in the collection of the Duke of Devonshire, and his Hero watching for Leander (also in marble) was possessed by the late Lord Nugent. Prossalendi died in 1837. 5 Derived it is believed, from ἀσπίς, in allusion to the two peaked rocks on which the citadel stands, or perhaps directly from the modern Greek ἀσπίδα being written ἀσπίς, which is the same—Karvass is now preferred. 6 Dr Smith, in his Classical Dictionary (1859), Phæaces thinks that Scheria was not the same with Corcyra; but the ancient authorities seem to treat them as identical. Phæaces appears employed by Latin writers, as Pliny and Tibullus, but it is never used by Greek authors. Homer names Scheria as "land of the Phæacians," without expressing that the entire island belonged to them. 7 They gave it sometimes the appellation of Drepane (Δρέπανο), whether referring to the implement of Ceres, or the one so cruelly used by Chronos against Cronus (Hesiod, Deuc. Genet., 158-200). 8 When the greatest width is called twenty miles, the measurement is taken from the east end of the projecting part, likened to the handle of the sickle, which ought rather to be computed in the length. 9 This is the old Venetian way of writing the Italian "Salvatore." 10 So fatally celebrated in the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. 11 This is often worse corrupted into Santa Decca. The Greek name is Αγίαι Δεκά, or "the ten saints;" who they were is unexplained. Single trees of first quality yield sometimes as much as one jar, or 2 gallons of oil, and this with little trouble or expense between the collecting and pressing of the fallen fruit. The trees being allowed to grow unrestrained are much larger and more wide-spreading than those in Provence or Tuscany, and some are of great age, not under three centuries, and frequently the stem is decayed almost to the bark, which still sustains the branches. It is worthy of remark that Homer names, as adorning the garden of Alcinous, seven plants only—the wild olive, the oil olive, the pear, pomegranate, apple, fig, and vine. Of these, the apple and pear are at present reckoned very inferior in Corfu; the others thrive as well as they did, and are accompanied by all the fruit-trees known in southern Europe, with addition of the Japan medlar (or loquat), and in some spots of the plantain or banana. Of fruits found in perfection farther north, the cherry and strawberry agree with Corfu. When undisturbed by cultivation, the myrtle, arbutus, bay, and ilex form a rich brushwood, and the native flora is extensive. The few individuals who have taken care of gardens and other rural properties in Corfu have reaped ample fruits of their pains; but Corfiot proprietors in general display little taste for the country, to which they do not resort except in autumn. This sort of absenteeism is probably increased by the tenure of land, which locks up most estates in Corfu, and is peculiar to it. It is termed "colonia perpetua," or perpetual tenant-right, and is regarded as a kind of lease, yet being in its effects more akin to subinfeudation. The landlord grants a lease to the tenant and his heirs forever, for a rent, payable in kind, fixed at a certain proportion of the produce. Of old, a tenant thus obtaining half the produce to himself, was held to be co-owner of the soil to the extent of one-fourth, and if he had three-fourths of the crop, his ownership came to one-half. Such a tenant could not be expelled but for non-payment, bad culture, or transferring his lease to another person without the landlord's consent. Attempts have been made to prohibit so embarrassing a system. Agriculturists preferring this tenure, the existing laws permit it, but require an express stipulation for giving the tenant any right to what has been viewed as property in the soil, while it is really more of a security, and merely entitles the tenant to be paid for his apparent share, if he is asked to sell his entire rights. In paying the rent or portion of the olive crop due to the landlord, whether by colonia or ordinary lease, the parties do not wait till the oil is pressed to find how much makes a fourth or a half, as may be, but just before the fruit drops, valuers, mutually appointed, estimate how much each tree will probably yield, and upon their calculation delivery of the fruit or the oil is made, let the true quantity afterwards produced be greater or smaller than that estimated—an arrangement which savours more of gambling than of business. Agricultural improvement will not have fair room till such evils be remedied. Traces still exist of the large old fields (baronie) in Corfu, as in the other islands, in the form of quit-rents (known in Scotland by the name of feu-duties), generally equal to one-tenth of the produce. But they have been much subdivided, and the vassals may by law redeem them, by payment of capital yielding, at the rate of 6 per cent., the same annual return. There existed for some time in Corfu, apparently till late in the seventeenth century, a singular colony of gipsies, tolerated by the government, which assigned them a certain district to inhabit, under the exclusive jurisdiction of a particular noble family.

The Corfiot peasantry are reputed the idlest of all the Ionians. The olive receives little or no culture from them; cereal crops have their soil prepared with the aid of the plough; and the vineyards alone are laboured by the broad heart-shaped hoe. The vintage begins on the festival of Santa Croce, which according to old style is the 26th of September; it is not a pretty or lively scene, and little care is taken in the various operations. The fermentation in vats is very short; for sweet wines not more than four or five days, and sometimes three only; the rest of the process goes on in the cask. None of the Corfu growths are prized. Cottagers cultivate no gardens for themselves, and every day countrymen may be met carrying out from Corfu market the herbs he has bought there, like the Roman villa-owners ridiculed by the epigrammatist; and it is well known that a considerable sum goes annually to buy in Apulia the garlic and onions which might have been raised round the villages. The old fortifications of the town being so extensive as to require a force of from 10,000 to 20,000 troops to man them, have been in great part thrown down, and a simpler plan is in progress, limiting the defences to the island of Vido for the harbour and to the old citadel, with the New Fort, and possibly a third point, for the land. Opportunity will ultimately be afforded for the town to spread, which is greatly needed. The chief improvement, after the introduction of water, already effected, is sewerage, towards which nothing of importance has been done. From the rocky site, no small cost must be incurred; but, for health and comfort, no measure so essential could have been taken, and it ought to have preceded every object of ornament or convenience. The largest dependency of Corfu is Fano, an island lying about 13 miles to the N.W., about 12½ miles in circumference, with its hill, Maraviglia, rising about 1500 feet. It is at present renowned for its honey; but its most interesting claim to notice arises from its being thought to correspond with the isle which, under the name of Ogygia, is assigned by Homer to Calypso. Corfu and its dependencies contain very few and unimportant remains of antiquity. The site of the ancient city is well ascertained, about 1½ miles to the S.E. of Corfu, upon the narrow piece of ground between the sea-lake of Calichipulo and the Bay of Castrades, in each of which it had a port. And the third harbour, occasionally mentioned, may have been, either where the present one is, or perhaps rather in a small bay under the hill of Ascension, below the remains of a temple, popularly called of Neptune. This relic is of very simple Doric, and now in its mutilated state presents... some curious peculiarities of construction. The remains of the other city Cassiope, now termed Cassópo, show signs of solid masonry, but nothing more; the face of Jove has disappeared. The entire demolition of the city of Corcyra is less surprising, as the modern town, and the vast works of defence round it, must have caused a demand for materials ready to the hand.

The isle of Ptychia has not been identified to the satisfaction of antiquaries; but the modern Lefitmo is identical with the Leucimne of Thucydides.

The Venetians have left many memorials of their lengthened sway. A striking one is their naval arsenal on the little sea-lake of Govino, about 5 miles to the N.W. of Corfu harbour. It is quite a ruin, but is of no mean size; and it has been thought that it might be useful some day to clear out the Govino harbour for refitting vessels, as the operation could not be difficult, from the soft nature of the mud and sand with which the place is filled up. Area in English square miles, 227; greatest height in English feet, 3000. Pop.—males, 37,796; females, 32,736—total, 70,532.

Paxo (anc. Paxor) lies next after Corfu to the S., at a distance of about 8 miles. Its form is oval, being about 5 miles long and 2 broad. It is very rocky, and for their supply of water the inhabitants depend greatly on artificial cisterns, although there are springs, particularly that of Remitti, about 3 miles from Gajo. The chief produce is oil, esteemed the best in the Ionian States. The head town is Port Gajo, on the E. side, within a rocky creek, sheltered by an islet. The land of Paxo rises from the sea-shore gradually to Papandi, a village which is nearly in the central and highest position on the island. Area in English square miles, 26; highest point in English feet, 600. Pop. in 1854—males, 2729; females, 2396—total, 5125.

Santa Maura (anc. Leucas, Leucadia) is about 60 miles to the S.E. of Corfu. Its length is about 20 miles, and its breadth between 8 and 9. The surface is very uneven, presenting a range of hills, loftiest at their north-eastern point, and running down to their south-western termination in the white cliff, about 200 feet high, celebrated as Sappho's Leap. The channel between the Greek district of Acarnania and the island of Santa Maura is at one part as narrow as 1200 yards, and had long been fordable, till measures were begun a few years ago to open out a passage for vessels. Here the fort to which properly belongs the name of Santa Maura stands on an accumulation of sand, having between it and the body of the island a shallow lagoon, of width varying from 100 yards to 1½ mile. We may conjecture that the island was originally disjoined from the coast of the continent, and that the opening was afterwards filled up by the deposit of sea-sand. In the age of Homer it was called a promontory ('Akrì); but this would be applicable either before separation or after reunion. The Corinthians first cut the canal; but it had closed up again before the Peloponnesian War, so as to be unnavigable for galleys. The Romans are supposed to have cleared it out afresh, probably under Augustus; and a cut, proposed to be 3 miles long and 16 feet deep, was begun a few years ago; but it is not yet completed, and perhaps never will be so. Between the fort and the island, across the shallows of the lagoon, a canal for boats has been deepened and fenced with walls. A huge aqueduct, serving as a causeway, was made by the Turks to connect the fort and the island; but it was injured by an earthquake in 1825, and has not been repaired. The chief town Amaxichi (of about 4000 inhabitants) stands on the edge of the lagoon, in a low and damp situation. It enjoys abundance of water introduced by the Saracens, whose conduits admitted of modern restoration. The houses are in general confined to two stories, the lower of stone and the upper of wood, as the safest mode of construction, to escape the effects of the earthquakes. The sites of the ancient cities of Nerikos and Leucas have given rise to doubt; but the view taken by the able compiler of Murray's Handbook seems to reconcile difficulties. Some Cyclopean and other remains of antiquity are to be found near Amaxichi; and foundations of the temple of Apollo on the rock of Leucate may be traced. The island is luxuriant in its vegetation, and most of the Ionian fruits are thought to come to greater perfection here than elsewhere. The principal crops are oil and wine for export, and grain for two-thirds of their own consumption. The currant grows, but is not raised for commerce. Some parts of Santa Maura are said to be very healthy, and they must have the advantages of elevation and of pure water; but all the vicinity of the shallows is liable to fever. Area in English square miles, 180; highest point in English feet, 3000. Pop. in 1854—males, 10,678; females, 9365—total, 20,013.

Ithaca (anc. Ithaeo), 5 miles S. of Santa Maura, and Ithaca, 3½ miles E. from the northern part of Cephalonia, to which it is nearly parallel. It is about 17 miles long and 4 broad; but not uniformly so, particularly near the middle, where it is deeply indented from the E. by the Gulf of Molo, within whose southern horn is the Bay of Vathi, at the head of which stands the town of the same name, the capital of the island, with deep water close to the shore. The general appearance of Ithaca is that of a ridge of rock, with steep sides, and in one hill rising to great elevation, and may be termed rugged rather than grand, some of the valleys being gayer, from the vines and flowering shrubs with which their sides are clothed. The town of Vathi makes a picturesque curve round the end of its bay, which seems landlocked, and is overhung by hills. It contains above 2500 inhabitants. Few, if any, of the present Ithacans can claim descent from the subjects of Ulysses; as the incursions of corsairs and wars with Saracens had so depopulated Ithaca before the beginning of the sixteenth century, that the Venetians had the island repopulated from the continent of Greece. The Ithacans are industrious husbandmen and sailors, their chief crops being the currant and wines, which last are esteemed above any produced in the sister islands. Of grain they are unable to raise above one-fourth of their annual supply. The chief mountain, Anoge, perhaps 3000 feet high, may be the ancient Neritos, and on the hill of Actos (about 400 feet high) tradition points out the ruins of the castle of Ulysses; as it also shows the port of Phorcys, in a creek off the port of Vathi; and the grotto of the nymphs in a cave on the side of Mount Santo Stefano, within which are stalactites, that scholars would gladly recognise as the "webs of stone." Area in English square miles, 44; highest point in English feet, 3000. Pop. in 1854—males, 6936; females, 5412—total, 11,348.

Cephalonia (anc. Cephallenia) has its north-eastern part Cephalonia nearly parallel to Ithaca, at a distance averaging about 4 miles, Ithaca, the remaining portion stretching to the S.E. It is the largest of the Ionian Islands, its extreme length being 31 miles, its breadth varying greatly, from about 20 miles in the southern portion to 3 and less in the projecting part opposite Ithaca. The whole country is hilly, the main range running from N.W. to S.E., and filling up the island with its skirts. The ancient Mount Ænos, now Monte Negro or Black Mountain,

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1 See Jervis's History of Corfu, p. i., ch. i., note to p. 19. 2 Thucyd., iv. 46. 3 The plural word Ἰάγος includes the rock of Antipaxo, S.E. of Paxo. 4 Ed. of 1854., p. 78. 5 Derived from the character of the bay, Baré, deep. 6 Odyssey, xiii. 103-8. 7 Called also Melana by Pliny, Hist. Nat., iv. 12. Cephalonia is the spelling of the Italian name in the Constitution of 1817. Ionian Islands.

is the loftiest part of the sierra, and rises 5306 feet, being the highest land in the Ionian group, and often retaining snow for several months. The name of Black was given to this mountain from the darkness of its pine woods, which still constitute the most striking feature in Cephalonian scenery, although their extent has been sadly curtailed by fires, the most serious of which was caused in a popular tumult. In the western part of the island a gulf runs up from the S.; and on its E. side stands the chief town, Argostoli, with about 8000 inhabitants; and on the W. side its rival, Lixuri, with fully 5000. Not far from Argostoli are the ruins of the ancient Cranii, and Lixuri is close to, or upon those of Pale; but the principal, and apparently oldest city, Samos (or Same), has left Cyclopean walls, with other considerable and interesting remains on the bay of Samos, which opens into the E. side of Cephalonia; and on the same side stood Proni (or Promni), above the vale of Racli and its blossoming oleanders. The soil of Cephalonia requiring culture, the natives have always been extremely active, and have turned to advantage all available spots, by forming terraces on the steep sides of the hills. Little corn is grown, but some wine and oil. The chief staple, however, is the currant, in the production of which this island is superior to Zante for quantity. A singular natural phenomenon occurs at the mouth of the harbour of Argostoli, and 1½ mile from the town, in the course taken by four streams which flow inwards from the sea, and are lost in cavernous openings in the land—one of them running so strongly that it is employed to turn the undershot wheel of a corn-mill. The island is ill supplied with fresh water; no streams flow, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers. The well near the monastery of San Geronimo, the vulgar believe to be the subject of an annual miracle in its overflowing, when the relics of the saint are brought past it on his festival. The fact has been observed by many free from credulity; and it can been accounted for, without supposing priestcraft, by the pressure of the crowd on the occasion affecting the soil round the water, as Dr Davy thinks, and as he noticed with regard to another well near Lixuri. Cephalonia retained longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence exerted by the landed proprietors, some of whose estates were widely extended, and included at least one village which bore their family name. Area in English square miles, 348; highest point in English feet, 5306. Pop. in 1854—males, 38,524; females, 31,957,—total, 70,481.

Zante (anc. Zacynthus), in its northern extremity, is about 8 miles S. of Cephalonia; and, stretching towards the S.E., is 22 miles long, and between 7 and 11 broad. A considerable part of the immediate line of the sea-shore is rocky and bare, but the interior is highly cultivated and rich. The capital, named also Zante, stands on a hay upon the E. coast, opposite the Morea, which is within sight. The town is pretty, consisting of good houses, not crowded, but situate in a semi-circle round the harbour, and partly on the slope of the hill (350 feet high) which bears the citadel, once a Venetian castle; and the numerous minaret-looking steeples give the whole something of an oriental character. The country beyond seems one fine valley, bounded by hills, of which Mount Vrachiona towards the N.W. is the highest. The present olive-trees are not in such masses as to maintain the classic appellation of the "woody Zacynthus;" but the smiling vineyards and the gay gardens surrounding the fine country houses of the gentry, go far to justify the modern proverbial title of "Flower of Levant." The Zantiots are particularly industrious, and in consequence secure to themselves a full measure of comfort. The gentry are fond of the country and its beauties, and reside much at their villas, where they prosecute horticulture with zeal and success. The lower orders in Zante are less prone to theft than their Ionian brethren; but their quick tempers lead them oftener to make use of their hands on slight provocation. The higher classes are distinguished for their sensible and obliging disposition; and even among Ionians for their pleasing manners and address. Zante has little to show of antiquity, but one of the pitch wells described by Herodotus remains precisely as he left it; the other is now more inactive than when seen by Dr Davy in 1834. They are situated near the southern extremity of the bay of Chieri, about half a mile from the sea. The mineral tar was mixed with pine-pitch before use; now, however, it is not employed for anything but tarring boats of the country. In the bay of Catastari, what is popularly called a "grease spring" issues from the rock of a sea-cave. It was examined in 1834 by Dr Davy, who considers the substance reputed "grease" to be barégine, or glairine. The chief crop of Zante is the currant; but wine is also made for export; oil too is produced almost annually, owing to the more careful culture of the tree. The currant harvest here, as in Cephalonia, is a very busy and lively season, occurring mostly in August, and lasting through part of September. The drying of the fruit requires almost three weeks, and is greatly dependent for success on the total absence of rain—a single shower affecting the quality, and therefore the price. The competition of the produce of the Morea, which is shipped from Patras, is most formidable to Cephalonia and Zante, and the blight of the vines has caused a serious defalcation in the crop of the islands for the last three or four years. When the growers obtain 70 Spanish dollars (£1.15, 3s. 4d.) per 1000 lbs. of fruit, they thrive well, because 20 dollars (£4, 6s. 8d.) are a remunerating price. During the suspension of agriculture in Greece from the War of Independence, 1000 lbs. of Cephalonian or Zante currants were sold for 100 Spanish dollars (£2.1, 13s. 4d.). No wonder, then, that the growers talk of their produce in the most eulogistic strain, and say that the first-rate well-dried fruit has the hue and lustre of the finest black Genoa velvet. Whether from volcanic action below its crust or from other causes, Zante is subject to earthquakes of amazing frequency; fortunately, severe shocks have not been felt at shorter intervals than of about twenty years. The last took place on 30th October 1840, which did considerable damage to buildings, especially the military quarters; but the preceding one, which occurred 29th December 1820, was far more serious in its effects. It has been remarked, as a sign of the greater dryness of the atmosphere of Zante than that of Corfu, that the fire-flies, which in spring evenings are seen in brilliant myriads at Corfu, are by no means numerous at Zante, where,

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1 The so-called Cephalonia pine, well known to British nurserymen, is not, scientifically speaking, of the Pine tribe, and when large has something of the general appearance of the cedar. 2 So it seems to have been called in Livy's time, Hist. xxxviii. 30. Samos or Same is mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 631), who uses it as a name for the island, although he also names it Cephallenia (Odysseus, iv. 671). 3 It is to be regretted that this curiosity has not been more carefully examined. Might not it afford good means of making tidal experiments, free from disturbing causes? 4 Dr Davy's Notes, vol. I., chap. iv., p. 161. 5 Thus Metaxas, the place celebrated by being Lord Byron's last residence in Cephalonia, derives its appellation from the Metaxa family. 6 Called also Hyrie by Pliny, Hist. Nat., iv. 12. 7 Herodotus, iv. 195. 8 Murray's Handbook, ed. 1854, p. 93; Dr Davy's Notes, vol. I., ch. iv., p. 153-9. 9 Ibid., i. pp. 147-153. on the contrary, are many glow-worms, which are rather rare at Corfu. Area in English square miles, 156; highest point in English feet, 2274. Pop. in 1854—males, 20,575; females, 17,870.—total, 38,445.

Cerigo (anc. Cythera) lies at a distance of not less than 150 miles from Zante, the nearest of the Ionian group, and about 8 miles from the southern coast of Greece. Its length from N. to S. is nearly 20 miles, and its greatest breadth about 12. There are many rocky hills, and below them considerable undulations of surface; streams too abound; and there is no doubt of the country being in various parts fertile; yet, although called anciently the favourite abode of Venus, it possesses little natural beauty, except in some of the vales; and has been little cultivated, having more pasture land than any other of the seven islands. From its situation, at the meeting as it were of seas, the currents which sweep round Cerigo are strong, storms are frequent, and the air is said never to be quite calm. Some wine and corn are grown, and the quality of the oil is good, although its quantity is not large. The honey of Cerigo is highly prized, but it is not in general carefully prepared for exportation. The people are industriously disposed, and many labourers go annually to seek employment in the Morea and in Asia Minor. The first village of Cerigo is Capsali, near its southern extremity; but there is little of a regular harbour there or on any part of the coast; the best anchorage however, being at San Nicola, at the centre of the E. side of the island. This latter is supposed to be on the site of the ancient port of Scanda. Cythera, the capital, had stood within a mile and a half of the northern coast; but no trace can be pointed out with confidence of the famous shrine of the ruling divinity of the place. Area in English square miles, 116; highest point in English feet uncertain. Pop. in 1854—males, 7016; females, 5991.—total, 13,007.

Cerigotto (anc. Αξιλία) is the principal dependency of Cerigo, and lying about 20 miles to the S.E. is nearly at the middle of the direct course between Cerigo and Candia.

A question has been raised whether the islands of Cervi, commanding Vatika Bay, and Sapienza, commanding the harbour of Molon (anc. Methone), both possessed by Greece, ought not to be deemed Ionian dependencies, in terms of the Russo-Turkish treaty of 21st March 1800, referred to in the treaty of Paris (5th November 1815); nay, some have imagined the same words might be so construed as to include the islet Sphagia (anc. Sphacteria), within the Bay of Navarino.

The earliest notice we meet with of these islands is in Homer, who represents to us the Phaeacians of Scheria living happily under the kingly government of Alcinous, and Ithaca under Ulysses, whose sway extended over Cephalonia, Zante, and the opposite continent, all his subjects appearing to bear the name of Cephallenians, but whose entire force did not exceed 12 ships. The other Ionian islands are not named, and Leucadia was attached to Epirus. Fables later composed, but referring to earlier ages, make Corfu be resorted to by Macris of Euboea, who had fed the infant Bacchus on honey; and afterwards by Jason and Medea; and Hesiod makes Venus, on rising from the sea, touch on Cythera. When history dawns on the islands, they are under republican government. A colony from Corinth was founded at Corfu, probably about B.C. 734, expelling the Cretans, who with the Liburnians had been in occupation of the island. Leucadia too was colonized by the Corinthians, who cut or cleared out the canal, and rendered the place an island. Zante received an immigration from Achaea, and Cerigo was made a dependency of Sparta.

The maritime progress of Corcyra causing some disagreement with the parent state, the earliest sea-fight recorded took place between them about B.C. 695. Before the expedition of Xerxes, the fugitive Spartan king Demaratus asked and received shelter from the Zacynthians. When the great Persian invasion took place, the Corcyreans had a fleet of sixty sail; but they did not send them to aid the Greek cause, retaining them to be ready to side with the victors, as appears from their having offered themselves previously as allies to the great king. Leucadia had three vessels at Salamis; and 200 Cephallenians of Pale fought at Platæa. On the flight of Themistocles from Athens, the conquerors did not imitate the earlier generosity of the Zacynthians, and obliged the fallen statesmen to implore the protection of the king of the Molossians. A new quarrel having arisen between Corinth and Corcyra about the colony of Epidamnus (Rom. Dyrrachium, mod. Durazzo), founded by the latter in Illyria, the Epidamnians invoked the aid of Corinth, and the Corcyreans solicited the interference of Athens. Both the parties called in embraced the opportunity, which promised an extension of influence for or against an island which then ranked as third maritime power in Greece. In the first battle the Corcyreans had a decided advantage, and took 15 Corinthian ships before getting the assistance of Athens; but in a second engagement, after their force was augmented by 10 Athenian galleys, both sides claimed the victory, which ended the Corcyrean war (B.C. 432), during which the Zacynthians were united to the Corcyreans. Next year (B.C. 431), Sparta having joined with Corinth against Athens, the Peloponnesian War broke out, and lasted for thirty years. In it Cephallenia became the ally of Athens, without offering opposition. The same was the case with Zacynthus. Cythera was taken and garrisoned by the Athenians, but restored to Sparta at the peace of B.C. 429. The Corcyreans were not directly parties in this fierce contest, farther than by occasionally aiding the Athenians with ships; yet civil dissensions raged within the island with fearful violence. The aristocratic and democratic factions, as either gained the victory, wreaked the utmost vengeance on their opponents. They took different sides respecting foreign politics, the former being supporters of the Lacedaemonians, and the latter of the Athenians; and in the worst period of their troubles, Thucydides openly says the popular party made faction the pretext for their personal animosity and gain, debtors making away with their creditors. In the fifth year of the war (B.C. 427), the democrats gave vent to their savage passions, in a way that reminds us, in all its details, of the horrors of the 2d and 3d September 1792, in the prisons of Paris. Corcyra was the place of review of the fleet destined for the fatal Sicilian expedition; but after its ill success, Corcyra seems to have fallen off from the Athenian alliance, and various minor steps were taken by Athens and Sparta to recover or preserve their weight in the councils of Corcyra. In this the Athenians were the more influential, although at a later time they are found under the necessity of supporting the aristocratic party, contrary to their former system; and in B.C. 343, the island was so far separated from Athens, as to join Corinth in aiding the Syracusans. In 312 and 310, n.c., the Corcyraeans strenuously helped the people of Apollonia (mod. Polloina) and Leucadia against Cassander—their last effort and success. In the course of the many wars consequent on the division of the empire of Alexander the Great, Corcyra had sundry vicissitudes; in n.c. 301, it was taken by Cleonynus the Spartan. He was soon driven out by Agathocles of Syracuse, who made it the dowry of his daughter Lanassa, who, quitting her first husband, Pyrrhus of Epirus, gave herself and the island to Demetrius Poliorcetes. In n.c. 274, Ptolemy, son of Pyrrhus, took Coreya, which seems to have remained for a time connected with Epirus. In n.c. 229, Teuta, queen of the Illyrians, in a roving expedition, like those of modern buccaneers, made herself mistress of Corcyra; but getting into a quarrel with the Romans, was forced to surrender it to them in the following year. Leucadia, again become a promontory, fell into the hands of the Romans during their contest with Philip V. of Macedon (n.c. 179); but not without a gallant struggle. Zacynthus was ceded by the Achaeans to the Romans in n.c. 191, and Cephallenia was reduced in n.c. 189; not, however, till the town of Same had stood a close siege for four months by M. Fulvius the consul. During their wars against Macedon the Romans often made Coreya their winter quarters, and had the assistance of its ships. In the civil wars it favoured Pompey and his party; and at it Cicero and Cato are understood to have parted. Here Octavius reviewed his fleet before the battle of Actium, n.c. 31. According to traditions of the church, Christianity was early preached at Coreya by the same Jason and Sosipater who are mentioned in the New Testament, and who suffered martyrdom on the spot marked by a small church of Byzantine plan, said to be the oldest Christian temple in the island, and to occupy the precise site of the original fane raised on the hallowed ground, now within the suburb of Castrates. Under the Roman empire the Ionian Islands were sunk into parts of the province of Achaia—the whole island of Cephallenia being at one time the estate of a wealthy Roman. Agrippina touched at Coreya with the asics of Germanicus. Nero, in his musical progress to Greece, visited Coreya, and sang before the altar of Jove at Cassiope. After this we find no historical events relative to the islands under the earlier emperors, except that Titus is said to have landed at Coreya on his way from the conquest of Judea, and Hadrian to have gifted Cephallenia to the Athenians. In the decline of the empire, the Huns under Alaric (a.d. 398), and Attila (a.d. 441), with the Vandals under Genseric, ravaged the Ionian islands, as well as most of Greece. Belisarius and Narses recovered those provinces for Justinian; but Slavonic invaders of various tribes repeated their devastations at very brief intervals.

By the Emperor Heraclius I., the Ionian Islands were attached to the prefecture of Lombardy; and to it, or to Sicily, they continued united for about 250 years, till Leo the Philosopher (about a.d. 890) formed them all, or most of their number, into a distinct province, under the title of the Tema of Cephallenia; and, in this condition, they were to be accounted as belonging to the Eastern empire, after Italy had been divided into various states. Towards the close of the eleventh century, the Norman conquerors of Naples, warring against the western portion of the Byzantine empire, turned towards the islands of the Ionian group; and in a.d. 1081, Robert Guiscard captured Corfu and not long after, Cephalonia. On the revolt of the latter island in 1085, he was proceeding to bring it again into subjection, when he died at Cassope in Corfu. A second conquest of Corfu was made in 1146, by Roger king of Sicily, nephew of Guiscard, but it was recovered by the Emperor Manuel Comnenus, with the co-operation of the Venetians, in 1132. In 1192, Richard Coeur-de-Lion landed at Corfu, on his ill-starred voyage from Palestine, after the fourth crusade. On their way to the fifth crusade, the combined forces from the taking of Zara (1203) halted to refresh at Corfu, where they seem to have been gladly welcomed, and to have found the country very fertile and abounding in forage. Here, however, the news of Walter of Briamne’s marvellous successes in Apulia and Naples caused a sort of mutiny, and many of the warriors prepared to give up the expedition against Constantinople, intended in favour of the young Alexis, who had joined the Western army at Zara. With some difficulty, the dissension was healed, and the crusade proceeded. Alexis appears to have been recognised as their emperor by the Corfiots. When the Greek empire was exchanged for the Latin, at Constantinople, the Venetians obtained various possessions, and amongst these Corfu. A famous Genoese corsair, Leon Vetranio, took it from them, but on his defeat and execution the senate of Venice (in 1206) sent thither ten noble families, granting them fiefs in order that they might colonize it. The republic soon afterwards took Cephalonia and Zante, the former of which was held under them by a succession of five counts of the family of Tocco, who appear to have also held Santa Maura, and probably Zante, at the same time. Through the rest of the thirteenth century, and most of the fourteenth, the Ionian Islands were a prey, by turns, to corsairs, and to Greek and Neapolitan claimants. At last, while the civil wars of Naples gave a good opportunity, the Corfiots voluntarily placed themselves under Venice, the first maritime power of the age (9th June 1386). Acting with mercantile caution, the senate did not think its title sufficient until ratified (16th August 1401) by Ladislans king of Naples, on payment of 30,000 ducats, thus extinguishing the right which had been maintained to Corfu through the Duchy of Taranto. In 1485 Zante was obtained by purchase from the Turks in a very depopulated condition; and in 1499 Cephalonia was captured from the same masters. The dreaded Barbarossa, on the part of Soliman II., ravaged Corfu in 1537, and the great fleet of Selim II. did nearly the same in 1570, not touching the citadel however. In 1571 Corfu was the station at which Don John of Austria reviewed the grand Christian armament of which he was generalissimo, before

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1 Diod. Sicul., lib. xvi., cap. II. The Spartan expedition under Massippus against Coreya, in the same year, is recorded by Xenophon (Hellen., vi. 2), who describes the island as particularly rich in vineyards and pastures. 2 Liv., xxxiii. 17. 3 Liv., xxxivii. 28, 29. 4 Liv., xxxvi. 31, 32. 5 Liv., xxxvi. 31, 32. 6 Liv., xxxvi. 31, 32. 7 Jason, Acts xvii. 5, 6, 7, and 9; Sosipater, in Acts xx. 4; and both Jason and Sosipater (who are called his kinsmen by St Paul), in Romans xvi. 21. Being canonized by the Eastern Church, their festivals are held on the same day, 29th April o.s. 8 C. Antonius, in time of Strabo (29 B.C.), whose words, however, (xii. 1), may perhaps be thought to mean merely that Cephallenia was as subject to him as a private property. They are given in a note to chap. lx. of Thirlwall’s History of Greece, the positive sense being attributed to them in the text (viii., p. 462). 9 Sismondi, Repub. Ital., ch. iv.; Giannone, Storia di Napoli, lib. x., cap. 5. 10 Tacit. Ann., iii. i. 11 Sismondi, Repub. Ital., ch. iv.; Giannone, Storia di Napoli, lib. x., cap. 5. 12 Michaud, Hist. des Croisades, lib. x. 13 Michaud, Hist. des Croisades, lib. x. 14 Morosini, Historia di Venezia, lib. 7. 15 Michaud, Exercicesments à liv. xi., § 3. 16 Morosini, Hist., lib. xvii. sailing to fight and win the battle of Lepanto—one of the most glorious but unavailing victories which history records. Even after Lepanto, the Turks continued for a year to hold Santa Maura, which the Venetians had abandoned in 1570. Venice paid an increased tribute for the island of Zante. Corfu had been fortified in 1559; and to what was then built the republic added, by degrees, the extensive works which afterwards protected it. The last and greatest struggle for its possession was in 1716, by the forces of Achmet III., which were defeated by the Venetian troops under the gallant Count Schulenburg, who had before earned fame by his retreat across the Oder, in face of Charles XII. of Sweden, and by his conduct at the battle of Malplaquet, under the orders of Prince Eugene. Under the sway of Venice, her government was represented in the Ionian Islands by a provveditore, against whose misrule a check was established, in permission to the city of Corfu to send to Venice a deputy styled "Nuncio," through whom complaints might be addressed to the senate. As the republic decayed at home she could not remain healthy abroad; and in her last years there was no doubt much corruption and abuse of all kinds in her dependencies. In her better days, however, she has probably been unjustly censured. Terrible as antagonistic factions were to each other in the struggle for political power, the lower classes were not unheeded by the state. The statute-book was disfigured by the retention of threatened demembration and other marks of barbarous times, but practically they had fallen into disuse—and in civil matters, although the courts were left a degree of arbitrary authority which must have been very embarrassing to judges, still, the administration of justice in Venice was regarded as pure, and the commonalty could enjoy what they prized—"Pane in Piazza e giustizia in Palazzo." The decisions of the famous Council of Forty were highly esteemed.

On the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797, the treaty of Campo Formio—which gave Venice to Austria, annexed the Ionian Islands to France; and in 1798 the French government ratified the arrangement, and their division into three departments. But a Russo-Turkish force came to drive out the French in the close of that year; and in the spring of 1799 Corfu capitulated. The Allies in 1800 erected the Septinsular republic, which, with various modifications, was but another name for anarchy and confusion, till a secret article in the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, declared the Ionian Islands an integral part of the French empire. In this condition they remained till the British forces, under General Oswald, took Zante, Cephallonia, and Cerigo in 1809, and Santa Maura in 1810. Colonel Church reduced Paxo in 1814; and after the abdication of Napoleon Corfu was, by order of Louis XVIII., ceded to Sir James Campbell. At the congress of Vienna, no settlement had been made of Ionian affairs, which were definitely arranged by the treaty of Paris (signed 9th November 1815); the contracting powers being Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. By this it was agreed to revive the Ionian republic (which had ceased to exist in 1807), and place it under the exclusive protection of Great Britain, Austria enjoying the right of equal commercial advantage with the protecting country. In fulfilment of the treaty, a charter was passed by the Legislative Assembly, called for that purpose, and ratified by the Prince Regent in 1819, which formed the Ionian constitution till some change was introduced of late years. Few historical events have occurred in the islands since 1818. The first is the asylum opened in them, with Ionian citizenship to the unfortunate refugees from Parga, on the cession of their country to Turkey in 1819, a measure which we ought not to do more than regret as a cruel necessity at the time of its being carried out; but which might have been obviated by greater vigilance on the part of British diplomacy at Vienna or Paris. In 1819 some disturbances connected with taxation occurred at Santa Maura; and in 1821 a more serious tumult arose there, having some relation to the war of independence, then being waged in Greece. The French revolutionary movement of 1848 was used as an example in Cephallonia, and an insurrection, with the less immediate aim of annexation to Greece, and the more immediate object of pillage, begun in Cephallonia, required to be suppressed by the military. No acts of timely rigour having been employed to check the unruly, a more extended and violent outbreak there in 1849 needed to be put down by martial law, and several executions of wretches who had been guilty of brutal murders and other crimes of fearful atrocity, together with high treason.

In making the treaty of Paris, Prussia no doubt had little interest; Austria may have felt some jealousy, regarding British interference with harbours and places of strength so near her own ports in the Adriatic; while Russia may have been disposed to make the Ionians some atonement for her treachery to them in 1807, and besides to keep up some sort of influence, however indefinite, with her co-religionists in so important a part of the Mediterranean, and so near to Greece, where things were not yet ready for opposition to Turkey. Great Britain may have considered it advisable to try the experiment of protection, instead of running the risk of greater cost, by adding to the long list of her colonies; yet, there is much reason to believe the proprietors and commercial men of the islands would not have objected to becoming subjects of the British Crown, had it been proposed.

The constitutional charter of 1817 was drawn up with unquestionable ability, and for some years worked well in practice; but we must regret that it was deceptive. Instead of openly asserting an influence in the affairs of the protected state, it secured that indirectly, appearing to be something quite different from what it really was. The military possession of the islands having been conferred on the crown by the treaty of Paris, the charter added some provisions regarding a militia, should it ever be embodied, and declared that the Ionian treasury should make certain payments towards meeting the expense of maintaining 3000 men in the garrisons, and of the fortifications. The united states of the Ionian Islands were to be governed, under the superintendence of a British lord high commissioner, by a senate which was to exercise all executive functions, and to be the upper house of the legislature, having also the power of issuing temporary enactments during the recess of parliament. The president of the senate was to be named by the crown for a period of 2½ years; and he was to have the initiative and casting vote in the senate. The other five senators were to be chosen by the legislative assembly from their own body. The seat of government being at Corfu, the senate was represented in the other islands, and at Corfu, by a regent named by the senate; the regents to be aided by a municipal council named by the electors of the legislative assembly. The legislative assembly was to consist of 40 members, 29 of whom were to be chosen by the persons qualified to elect, under the Russian constitution of 1803, which brought the franchise very low, without distinction of real property. The remaining 11 were, ex officio, the six past senators, and five of the past regents. The nomination of candidates was confined to a standing committee, made up of the 11 ex officio legislators, who issued a double list, from which the voters must make their selection. The assembly was to meet biennially for a session of three months, and to expire in five years; the lord high commissioner having the power to prorogue the parliament for six months, and the crown to dissolve it by an order in council. For a bill to become a law, it was necessary that it should be passed by the assembly and senate, and be approved by the lord high commissioner, whose veto had the effect of throwing it out for that session; and the crown enjoyed the prerogative of annulling, by order in council, any statute within a year from its passing. The chief authority given to the lord high commissioner lay in his sanction being necessary to make valid every act or appointment of the senate, except the pardon of criminals for other offences than those treasonable against the protecting sovereign. Besides this, the lord high commissioner was the head of the health office and of the police; and, in fine, was armed with the undefined power of "alta polizia." In each island his Excellency was to have a representative or resident of his own choosing, to watch over the proceedings of the regent and local administration. The courts of justice occupied a branch of the charter, but the details respecting them need not be entered upon. The direct appointment of three public servants was reserved to the crown, and of two to the lord high commissioner; and those selected might be either British or Ionian. It was provided, that on the termination of a parliament, whether by expiration of its quinquennial term, or by dissolution, all offices should become vacant; and consequently, even officers appointed from England, but holding commissions from the lord high commissioner, required then to be renewed. In practice, however, this rule was very rarely used for throwing public servants out of employment, and the establishment of a pension scheme for a large class of functionaries, who were compelled to contribute to its fund, was a virtual pledge that they should not be arbitrarily dismissed; yet, on the opening of the tenth parliament in 1852, the above provision was revoked by the incoming government, and many public servants, including 13 judges, were dropped out of the service, and no redress could be obtained.

The last points of the charter to be noticed, are, that all printing was left in the hands of the government, and the right of petitioning the throne was accorded to all Ionians under certain regulations. Under such a constitution, the lord high commissioner could, directly, prevent anything; and it is easy to see he could, indirectly, cause almost anything, and that the professed freedom was covert despotism.

The first change introduced into the Ionian system was liberty of the press, given by statute in 1848; but unaccompanied by a good law of libel, and clogged with a crude attempt at trial by jury, it has proved more than useless. The next was the adoption of modern Greek as the official language in 1852—a badge of nationality which the charter of 1817 had contemplated, but with prudent reserve had deferred sine die; and which of course cannot have a tendency to increase the spread of British ideas among the Ionians.

The abolition of the local courts of appeal has been already alluded to, and being administrative need not be here noticed farther than as a step which has not given any general satisfaction to the Ionian public. The other changes were political, and have had more important consequences. They consist of an addition of two members to the assembly—the abolition of the 11 ex officio legislators, and of the committee formed by them—entire freedom of election, both parliamentary and municipal—a wider extension of the franchise—and vote by ballot. On the other hand, the nomination of the five senators from among the members of assembly for the respective islands was given to the lord high commissioner, with power also to select two of the five senators from among electors qualified to sit in parliament.

The results of these changes have not been gratifying. The first assembly (9th) which met after the new rule of election, was dissolved after a brief term of turbulence and absurdity, discreditable equally to its ability and its discretion. The next parliament (the 10th) still in existence, after a display of violence and factiousness, heightened possibly by the breaking out of the war in the east, became in no degree more practical during its session in 1855, and deservedly drew upon itself the marked though calm rebuke of the representative of the British government.

It is said, that the chief framer of the constitution of 1817 anticipated its requiring alterations after 20 years; and it is to be regretted that some were not effected by degrees, commencing at an earlier period, instead of so many and so important concessions from the protecting power being made at once, ere the Ionian public were prepared to take so large a part in the administration of their affairs. Liberty of the press should have been granted long ago, in order to the creation of public opinion, which cannot be

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1 With little exception. 2 Styled the primary council. 3 High police seems to have meant political police. 4 See above, under § Justice. 5 The secretary to the lord high commissioner and two judges of the supreme court. 6 The treasurer-general and the chief secretary to the senate, regarding whose appointment reference was always made to the Colonial Office. 7 A highly respectable judge, then near the time entitling him to a high rate of pension, appealed in vain to the Colonial Office. 8 Act 68th of 8th parliament, 9th June 1848. 9 In fact, it came into operation on 31st December 1851, by act 76th of 8th parliament, 2d June 1849. 10 In 1844. 11 The new electoral law, in art. 87th of 8th parliament, 28th December 1849. 12 Resolution of Assembly, 5th session of 8th parliament, 16th December 1849. 13 Message of Sir J. Young to the Assembly, 15th July 1855, in Ionian Gazette, 15th July 1855. 14 Sir Thomas Maitland. said to exist in the Ionian Islands; and freedom of election might have come next. Some connection with Russia had always been kept up by a few Ionian families through intermarriage and public employment; and some fellow-feeling was known to exist towards those professing the same religion; but persons long resident in the islands were surprised to find, after hostilities began in 1854, that the Ionians almost universally showed not only an utter want of sympathy with the western allies, but satisfaction at the slowness of their progress. A firm persuasion of the invincibility of Russia prevailed; and there could be little doubt that her interests had been urged, either indirectly through Greece, or directly by emissaries, or perhaps by both means. Defeat of the Czar would cause all this to subside; still the consideration ought not to be forgotten, if the affairs of the Levant are to undergo some re-adjustment.

From time to time a report has gone abroad, that Great Britain meant to obtain the sanction of the other powers, and particularly of the parties to the treaty of Paris, for making Corfu and Candia colonies, Greece compensating Turkey for the cession of the latter, and receiving the six Ionian islands in return. All Ionians who had much to lose, would dread the annexation to Greece so loudly clamoured for by a section of the seventh parliament; and, on the contrary, would prefer being admitted to all the advantages of British subjects, which they know to be enjoyed by the Maltese. The thinking part of the community, too, must have known that a large amount of British capital would soon be poured into a colony possessing so vast natural resources, waiting to be more fully and profitably developed. Although the public has felt the ill effects of too little care of their finances, and individuals have had reason to complain of particular acts of the British Government and its representatives, the Ionians must be fully aware that they could not have been so well situated under any other state, none having so free a constitution. Taxation was lighter, not exceeding 10s. a-head, and the aid given by the protecting power towards the cost of the garrison had been a subject of great liberality on the part of the crown; and their own money, with four or five times as much more, was annually spent by the garrisons within the islands. A heavy penalty required to be paid for their nominal nationality, in the want of occupation for the educated classes, who could not be admitted into the British army or navy, or the civil service; and who, although confined to law and medicine in profession, would never, but in their utmost need, avail themselves of the permission proffered them by Earl Grey, to go as settlers to Australia. To Great Britain the advantages were principally negative, in preventing any other power from holding so important positions in the Adriatic as Corfu, Cephalonia, and Zante have been reckoned by the highest authority; and these advantages can be secured almost as effectually by the system of protection as by colonization, and with less cost to the treasury. The sums expended on the fortifications and military buildings of Corfu, down to 1849, amounted to L456,311, of which the Ionian treasury paid L307,627, leaving the British Government to meet the deficiency of L148,624; and the pay and all expenses of the garrison of at least 3000 men, cannot be under L100,000 a-year; so that, even supposing the works to have been entirely stopped since 1848, the entire outlay on account of the Ionian Islands for the 38 years between 1817 and 1855, appears not less than L3,800,000, which, after deducting the Ionian contribution at its higher rate of L35,000 a-year, or L1,330,000, leaves L2,450,000 for troops, and L148,624 for buildings; or, in all, L3,598,624; which is probably short of the true expense defrayed by the protecting state.

In conclusion, it might be observed, that the Ionian movement party has raised a cry of "violation of the treaty of Paris" by Great Britain, in taking any part at all in the internal affairs of the island, and has pretended that nothing beyond military possession of the fortifications was meant to be given to this country, and has endeavoured to excite a wish for nationality more independent of any protection, if not a union with Greece. The so-called liberal party would extort further concessions from the crown, and reduce the lord high commissioner to a cipher; a third, named by the others the retrograde party, but embracing many of the most judicious men, who have the greatest stake in their country, would be well pleased to revert to the state of affairs in 1818, and let the work of reform be commenced afresh, and by degrees; and persons who have heard all these matters treated of on the spot, and witnessed the progress of the Ionian Islands for some years, consider that if the protection be maintained, the last and quietest of these views is the safest and most promising, when the Russian fascination shall have passed away from the clever people who have forgotten—they cannot have forgiven—Tilsit.

(W.B.—H.)