(the ancient Eporeidea), a town of Northern Italy, capital of a cogenoimal province, in the division of Turin, and kingdom of Sardinia, situate on the left bank of the Doire, 29 miles N.N.E. of Turin. It is an old-looking town, irregularly built and walled, besides being protected by a citadel and a small fortress upon an adjacent hill. It is the see of a bishop, and contains a cathedral supposed to occupy the site of a temple of Apollo, with six parish churches, several convents, a royal college, ecclesiastical seminary, hospital, &c. It has important manufactures of silk, and a considerable trade in cheese, cattle, and other produce of the Alps. It has been repeatedly taken by the French; and under Napoleon I. was made the capital of the department of Doire. Pop. about 8000.

**IVRY-SUR-SEINE,** a village of France, department of Seine, situate on a gentle eminence, near the left bank of the Seine, and 3 miles S.S.E. of Paris. It has manufactures of glass, earthenware, glue, chemical products, &c. Pop. about 8000. *Jery la Bataille,* in the department of Eure, 17 miles S.E. of Evereux, is celebrated for the victory gained by Henry IV. over the Duke of Mayenne in 1590. Pop. about 1000.

**IVY.** See HEDERA, Botany, Index.

**IXION,** in the Greek Mythology, was the king of the Lapithae, and the father of Pirithous. When Deioness, whose daughter Dia he had married, demanded the usual bridal gifts, Ixion, under pretence of paying him, invited him to a feast, and arranged so that he fell into a pit of fire. For this treacherous murder Ixion was shunned by everybody, until Jupiter, taking pity on him, invited him to his table. Instead of showing gratitude for this kindness, however, he strove to wile away the affections of Juno. Jupiter, in indignation, chained him by the hands and feet to a winged wheel, and condemned him to roll round upon it eternally.

---

1 The method of obtaining sal ammoniac from the waste products of the destructive distillation of coal is described under Gas Light. J, the tenth letter of the alphabet, is variously pronounced according to the language in which it is used. In English it is always equivalent to g soft in such words as George. In German it is equivalent to our y. In French it has the sound of the French g soft. Amongst the Romans such words as Juno, &c., were written Juna, &c. The substitution of J for I as a consonant at the beginning of words is of modern date. Yet the letter itself existed before the Roman republic came to an end. The separation of J from I, however desirable, is not yet universally adopted in dictionaries and similar works.

JABLONSKI, PAUL ERNEST, an eminent German orientalist, was born at Berlin in 1695. His father, who was a Pole by birth, and a minister of the Protestant Church by profession, was desirous to see his son treading in his own footsteps. Accordingly the young Jablonski, after going through the usual course at the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, devoted himself to the study of the Eastern tongues—Coptic in particular. For these pursuits he showed such aptitude that at the age of twenty-one he was sent at the expense of the Prussian government to carry them out in the great libraries of Oxford, Paris, and Leyden. Returning home with vast stores of learning, and rich extracts from the best Coptic manuscripts, he was in 1720 made pastor of the Protestant church of Liebenberg; and two years later, professor of theology at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and pastor of the Calvinistic church in that city. Shortly afterwards he became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin. The remainder of his life he devoted to his favourite studies, sending forth treatise upon treatise in rapid succession. Before his death, which took place Sept. 13, 1757, he had published in all fifty different works, of which a complete list is given in Menzel's Dictionary.

Of these the principal are,—Disquisitio de Lingua Lycanica, Berlin, 1714, in 4to; Thirty-nine Letters full of erudition, in the Thesaurus Epistolarius Larssoniensis, tom. i., p. 163 et seqq.; Exercitatio Historico-theologica de Notiorumdominum, Berlin, 1724, in 8vo; Remplak Egyptianorum Deus ab Israelitis in desertu cultus, Frankfort, 1731, in 8vo; Dissertations Academicae vitæ, de terro, Gosse, ibid., 1735, 1736, in 4to; De ultimis Pauli Aporiis laboribus a B. Luca praetextatis, ibid. 1746, in 4to; Pantheon Egyptianum, sive de Dis curum Commentarius, cum Prolegomenis de Religione et Theologia Egyptianorum, ibid. 1750, in 3 vols. 8vo; De Monume Graecorum et Egyptianorum insignium eodemque Thebali statu, ibid. 1753, in 4to, with figures; Institutiones Historiae Christianae antiquioris, ibid. 1754, in 8vo; Institutiones Historiae Christianae recentioris, ibid. 1755, in 8vo; Remarks on the Canon of the Kings of Thebes, by Eratosthenes, Inserted in the Chronology of Designers; Different Memoirs or Extracts in the Miscellanea Berolinensia, the Nova Miscellanea Lipsiensia, and other periodical collections; and Opuscula quinque Lingua ad Antiquos Egyptianos, difficilis Librorum Sacrorum loca, et Historiae Ecclesiasticae capita illustratur, magna parte nona primum in lucem protracta edita Jan. Guilem. Po-Water, Leyden, 1804, 1813, in 4 vols. 8vo.

Of all these the most valuable by far is the Pantheon Egyptianum, which long held its ground as the most valuable essay on the subject which it discusses, and even still can hardly be regarded as quite superseded, though a great advance has been made in many matters of detail.

JACA, or JACCA, a fortified town of Spain, in the province of Aragon, situate at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the River Aragon, 60 miles N. of Saragossa, and about 20 miles distant from the French frontier. It is a town of great antiquity, and, from its position, has been the scene of many sanguinary contests. Its occupation was eagerly coveted by every invader of the peninsula, from Cato and Julius Caesar to the generals of Napoleon. Jaca is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop of Saragossa. It is well built, and possesses an old cathedral, with several religious houses. The remains of an old Roman wall are still visible amongst its other defences. Pop. about 3200.

JACKSON, Andrew, eleventh president of the United States, was born March 15, 1767, at Waxsaw in South Carolina. His parents, who were of Scottish extraction, had emigrated two years before that date from the N. of Ireland. His father died early; but his mother, though left with very scanty means, gave her son an excellent education with the view of fitting him for the church. He was only fourteen years old when the war of independence broke out, but he joined the ranks of the patriots. He was taken prisoner, and his military career was thus cut short. When peace was restored he turned to the study of the law, took an active part in framing the constitution of the new state of Tennessee, and next entered Congress, first as a representative, and afterwards as a senator. Having no taste for political intrigue he resigned his seat in a year, and was made one of the judges in the Supreme Court of Tennessee. From this time till 1812 much of Jackson's time was spent in harassing and dangerous conflicts with the Indian tribes on the frontier, among whom his name became a watchword of terror. In that year war was declared between Britain and America. Jackson was appointed to command the forces allotted for the defence of the southern states, and signalized himself by the energy and decision of his movements. Finding that some dissatisfaction prevailed in the south, he suspended the Habeas Corpus Act on his own responsibility, and proclaimed martial law. These strong measures were peculiarly distasteful to his countrymen, and Jackson would probably have been brought to trial had he not changed the tide of public opinion by his decisive repulse of the English troops at the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815. His military talent and his strong democratic leanings made him a great favourite with "the people" in America, whom he further pleased by always advocating territorial aggrandizement. The conservative party in the state regarded his principles and his conduct with equal dislike; and when he became a candidate for the presidency, in 1824, they contrived, though with great difficulty, to procure his defeat. In 1828, however, and again in 1832, he overcame all opposition, and was chosen president. During his tenure of office he more than once exhibited the same obstinate self-will and force of character which had marked his military career, and in the great discussion on the renewal of the charter of the United States he put his veto upon the decision of both the chambers of Congress. Had the constitution been less firmly established, it might have found in Jackson a very dangerous foe. His ambition, his disregard of the personal and civil rights of his countrymen, his fondness for war, and his habits of command, made it apprehended that, with a fitting occasion, he might make himself the Napoleon of the American republic. On resigning office, in 1836, Jackson retired to his farm, near Nashville, where he died, June 8, 1845.

JACKSON, John, a distinguished English portrait-painter, was the son of a poor tailor of Lastingham, in Yorkshire, where he was born in 1778. The strong taste for drawing which he early displayed gained him the notice of Lord Mulgrave and Sir George Beaumont, and rescued him from the humble trade of his father, to whom he had been apprenticed. Removing to London, he studied at the Royal Academy, and then began life as a portrait-painter. He Jackson found the field occupied by Beechey, Opie, Hoppner, and Lawrence. Hopeless of rivalling these artists as an oil-painter, he confined himself to water-colours, and in that walk earned a great name for himself. Renewed study with matured powers, and under more favourable circumstances, made him a master in the higher branch of his art, and in 1817 he became a Royal Academician. Two years later he visited Italy with his friend Chantrey, and was made a member of the Academy of St Luke at Rome. His best portraits are those of his brother-artists, Canova, Chantrey, Stothard, and Flaxman. His likeness of Flaxman, as was said by Sir Thomas Lawrence, would have done honour to Vandyck himself. Many of the heads in Cadell's splendid Portraits are from drawings by Jackson. He died at London, June 1, 1831. Jackson is justly regarded as one of the ablest pupils of the Reynolds school. Less showy than Lawrence, but far more true to nature, he caught with admirable ease the characteristic expression of the face, and reproduced it with a rare effect. With all his rapidity of manipulation, he always put a careful finish on his pictures. His colouring is deep, clear, brilliant, and well relieved. In private life Jackson was amiable and pious. Without a spark either of envy or jealousy, he rejoiced in each new triumph of a brother-artist as in his own, and held out a helping hand to many a youth of promise in his struggles with obscurity and poverty.

Jackson, William, an English musician of repute, was born at Exeter, in 1730. His father, a grocer, bestowed a liberal education upon him; but, on account of the lad's strong predilection for music, was induced to place him under the care of the organist of Exeter Cathedral, with whom he remained about two years. He then went to London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the King's Chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and composer; and in 1777 was appointed sub-chantor, organist, lay-vicar, and master of the choristers of the cathedral. In 1775 he published his first work, Twelve Songs, which became at once highly popular. His next publication, Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord, was a failure. His third work, Six Elegies for three voices, preceded by an Invocation, with an Accompaniment, was very successful, and placed him among the first composers of his day. Dr Burney considered these as the best of Jackson's works, and added that "no composer copied less from others than Jackson." His fourth work was another set of Twelve Songs, now very scarce; and his seventh work was again a set of Twelve Songs, all of which are now forgotten. He next published Twelve Hymns, with some good remarks upon that style of composition, although his precepts were better than his practice. A set of Twelve Songs followed, containing some good compositions. Next came an Ode to Fancy, the words by Dr Warton. Twelve Canzonets for two voices formed his ninth work; and one of them—Time has not Thinned my Flowing Hair—was long sung at every public and private concert. His tenth work was Eight Sonatas for the Harpsichord, some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three dramatic pieces,—Lycidas, in 1767; The Lord of the Manor, in 1781; and The Metamorphoses, a comic opera, which did not succeed. In the second of these dramatic works, two airs—Encompassed in an Angel's Form, and When first this Humble Roof I knew—were great favourites, and are still admired. Some of his church-music, published after his death, did not please the critics. In 1782 he published Thirty Letters on Various Subjects, which are well written and interesting. In these he severely attacked canons, and described William Bird's Non nobis Domine as containing passages not to be endured. But his anger and contempt were most strongly expressed against catches of all kinds, and he denounced these as barbarous and shocking compositions. In 1791 he published a pamphlet, On the Present State of Music in London, in which he found fault with everything and everybody. It was a bilious and jaundiced effusion. He published in 1798 The Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects; a work which gives a favourable idea of his character and of his literary acquirements. It appears that he cultivated a taste for landscape-painting, and imitated, not unsuccessfully, the style of his friend Gainsborough. For many of his latter years Jackson suffered severely from asthma, which he tried to cure by low diet. Dropsy ensued, of which he died in 1803, leaving a widow, two sons, and a daughter. According to his friend General Burgoyne, Jackson's character was highly amiable.

(J. P. G.)

JACKSON, a town of North America, capital of the state of Mississippi, situate on the right bank of Pearl River, 45 miles E. of Vicksburg, with which it is connected by rail. It contains a state-house, a lunatic asylum, and penitentiary, and supports several newspapers. About 30,000 bales of cotton are annually sent from Jackson to the Mississippi for shipment. Pop. (1853) about 3500.

JACKSON, a town of North America, capital of a cognominal county in the state of Michigan, situate near the source of Grand River, 32 miles S. of Lansing. From its position on the Michigan Central Railway its trade is considerable, while the River Grand supplies sufficient water-power for driving a number of mills. Coal and good building stone abound in the neighbourhood. The town contains a court-house, jail, penitentiary, and five churches, and supports two newspapers. Pop. (1853) about 3600.

JACKSONVILLE, a town of the United States of North America, capital of Morgan county, in the state of Illinois, situate 32 miles W. of Springfield, on the Sangamon and Morgan Railway, in an undulating and fertile plain near Moveston creek, a tributary of Illinois River. It is well built, and contains some elegant public buildings, the principal of which are the college, the asylum for the blind, deaf, and dumb, and the insane. The manufactures of the town include flour, cotton, leather, and machinery. Pop. (1850) 2745.

JACOB, Sr., a Swiss hamlet, about a mile S. of Basle, on the Bienne road, and the scene of a great battle fought in 1444, between 1600 Swiss and a vastly more numerous French force, under the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. The Swiss fought for ten hours, slew three times their number of the enemy, but were themselves cut off to ten men. The battle is known as the "Swiss Thermopyle," and, from the contest, the wine of the neighbourhood is still called "Schweizerblut," or "Swiss Blood."

JACOBI, Friedrich Heinrich, was born at Düsseldorf, 25th January 1743. At the age of sixteen he was sent to Geneva, where he completed his apprenticeship for the commercial career to which he was destined. Returning to Düsseldorf in 1763, he was, much against his will, placed by his father at the head of a commercial establishment. In that year also he married. In 1770 his elevation to the office of Councillor of Finance for the cities of Berg and Juliers afforded the opportunity, which he ardently desired, of exchanging commercial for literary pursuits. Soon after this he engaged, along with Wieland, in the publication of the German Mercury. In 1776 he was called to Munich to occupy a still more important political position. His honourable and successful defence of the freedom of commerce having brought him into disgrace with the government, he retired to the mansion of Pempelfort, near his native city, where he continued to enjoy a learned leisure till 1793, when the tide of French invasion compelled him to seek refuge in Holstein. The next ten years of his life were passed in the N. of Germany, in voluntary exile. In 1804 he was again called to Munich, as member of an Academy of Sciences about to be instituted; of which, in 1809, he was made president. In his sixty-sixth year he resigned his functions, and spent the evening of his life in tranquil retirement. His last labour was the revision of his own works. He died before this was completed, on the 10th of March 1819, in the seventy-sixth year of his age.

The character of Jacobi was elevated and noble. When still a youth at Geneva, he exposed himself to ridicule by a disdainful rejection of the tricks and artifices of business; and throughout his career he preserved a stainless purity of life and exaltation of sentiment amounting to philosophical heroism. The foundation of this character was a profound piety, tinged, however, with mysticism. In his literary works the beauty of a great, profound, and harmoniously developed mind, shines forth with a lustre that has attracted universal admiration. It was the man himself that impressed upon his compositions those characters of ardour, profundity, and elegance, which have gained for him the name of the German Plato.

It is worthy of remark in relation to his philosophy generally, that while he was, with the exception of Kant, the most original thinker of his generation, his opinions were from first to last elicited not by solitary meditation, but rather by contact and conflict with other minds. His first impulse towards philosophy was received from his friend Lesage, at Geneva, and was sustained through life by extensive personal intercourse and correspondence with the most celebrated philosophers of his time. His principal works were in their origin polemical. The earliest of them,—the two philosophical romances, Waldemar, and The Correspondence of Alceol (1779–1781),—are directed against the prevailing sensationalism and gross materialistic utilitarianism of the French philosophers. The first of his purely philosophical works,—Letters to Mendelssohn on the Philosophy of Spinoza (1785), occasioned by a conversation with Lessing,—is a destructive criticism of materialistic pantheism. This completes the first period of his literary life.

The second period is the epoch of his polemic against the idealism of Kant and Fichte. The principal works belonging to it are,—David Hume, or, Idealism and Realism (1787); a Letter to Fichte (1799); and an examination of The Attempt of the Critical Philosophy to make Reason Intelligible (1801). The last work of Jacobi (the great work of his old age),—On Things Divine, and the Revelation of Them,—is primarily directed against the idealistic pantheism of Schelling.

From the position of continued antagonism and protest which he occupied throughout his literary career, the philosophy of Jacobi presents, in the first instance, a negative, polemical aspect. As directed against Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, the leading principle of his criticism is the assertion that a speculative philosophy, when fully developed, must necessarily lead to atheism and fatalism. Thus he has shown in his Letters to Mendelssohn, that the Cartesian principle of the coincidence of thought and existence has only found its legitimate development in the materialistic pantheism of Spinoza. And again, in his later writings, he has pointed out the inconsistencies into which Kant fell, by attempting to give a solid basis to our knowledge of the actual, while yet in his speculative philosophy rejecting the data of experience; and he has farther shown how these inconsistencies have been escaped only by the egoism of Fichte, in which self is God and the universe, and by a return to Spinozism in the later idealistic pantheism of Schelling. Against all these he iterated and reiterated the assertion that it is vain to seek the materials of a philosophy in thought itself; that pantheism, with its halfeul practical results, is the only consistent end of such a course; that while thought or intellect may elaborate, the elements to be so elaborated must be sought elsewhere.

We are thus brought to the positive aspects of Jacobi's philosophy. In maintaining that intellect itself can furnish no materials for metaphysics, he was frequently brought face to face with the question, Where, then, are they to be found? In his answer to this question, we find the distinctive feature of his system, the philosophy of feeling, faith, reason. His opinions on this point were formed during the earliest period of his career, and were suggested chiefly by the study of Spinoza, Berkeley, and Hume. His subsequent conflict with Kant and his followers occasioned no addition to the substance of his doctrine, but only served to bring it more distinctly and definitely out, by opposition and contrast. According to Jacobi, the materials of knowledge and philosophy are furnished antecedently, in the order of thought, to every exercise of the intellect. If it were not so, intellect or understanding could have had no domain in which to operate. They are furnished with what is above intellect, and beyond its comprehension. This highest faculty of an intelligence is reason. It is its office to apprehend immediately, without any intervention of the understanding, realities that are brought face to face with it as its objects. The data of this reason, as the basis of all that can be comprehended, are themselves incomprehensible. To attempt to establish their validity by any process of analysis or deduction, is to misapprehend their nature and place. They cannot be so established; they can only be accepted as primitive facts, of their own nature authoritative, and constraining us to unquestioning acceptance of them; and the trust which we thus repose in them, the instinctive feeling of reality, is denominated faith.

Thus, for example, in regard to the external world. It is the universal judgment of mankind that that world exists without us, and independent of us. The speculative philosophy in vain attempts to deduce the knowledge of it from our understanding. The necessary result of such an attempt is either to identify mind with matter, as in Spinoza's materialism, or to identify matter with mind, as in Schelling's idealism. The only legitimate course is to accept the fact of an external world, as immediately revealed to our reason; the only legitimate interpretation of the fact is a system of dualism and realism. Nor is it a valid objection that we are thus constrained to depend upon the mere feeling of the truth, to exercise faith in the reason which brings us into direct contact with the reality. For from the nature of the case such faith must be exercised, whenever we come into contact with a primitive and undervied fact of consciousness. And what but the same feeling or faith have we to plead in behalf of the law of the understanding itself, the principle of identity or contradiction?

Again, in recognizing the reality without us, the external not-self, we are at the same time recognizing, in contrast to it, the reality within us—the internal ego or self. It is true that at first the emphasis is laid upon the assertion of the non-ego; but this implies the assertion of the contrasted ego—it is impossible to recognize the one, without at the same time a conscious recognition of the other. And thus, along with the external world, reason also immediately reveals to us the internal. Indeed, it is especially in so doing that reason is the life and soul of the human mind. Our individuality, our personality, our identity, it gives as primitive facts, beyond question and beyond explanation. And in thus enabling us to say "I am," it constitutes the peculiarly divine in man, who in this respect, as distinctly self-conscious, is the image of the Supreme Being, the great "I am" Himself.

And it is here that we find the peculiar and appropriate sphere of reason, in immediate contact with the great realities of the soul—God, liberty, immortality, the true, the beautiful, and the good. In this highest sphere especially, it appears how reason is the life of the mind. It alone can reveal to us the objects which form the food of that life. And it is only in proportion as we are in harmony with these that the revelation can be made.

In this way Jacobi traced back our knowledge to a pri- primitive revelation, made by reason, faith, feeling, of realities independent of thought. This supreme revealer, from its very nature, is itself mysterious and inexplicable. But that does not imply that we may not seek to construct a system by collecting the data that are thus furnished to humanity, and, using this same reason as a test, purifying them from the various prejudices with which, in the blindness of spontaneous life, they may have been adulterated.

Jacobi mainly occupied himself in vindicating the place and authority of this primitive revelation; he has not attempted any complete systematic exposition of its contents. In the words of a reviewer cited by Chalilaeus, "Jacobi is like a solitary thinker, who, at the dawn of day, has found some ancient riddle hewn in an eternal rock. He believes in the riddle, but in vain endeavours to solve it. He carries it about with him the whole day, coaxes out of it some important meaning, coins this into doctrines and images, which delight the hearers and animate them with noble wishes and presentiments; but the solution fails, and he lays himself down to rest at eventide in the hope that some divine dream, or the morrow, will give to his longing the true interpretation in which he has so firmly believed."

Jacobi's influence has been less felt in the formation of a distinct school than in contributing to modify the opinions of the followers of Kant and his successors. In this respect his avowed mysticism was perhaps the best antidote to the reigning rationalism. But both in philosophy and in theology this mysticism, so far as erroneous, is in itself an evil; and in Germany the mysticism of Jacobi has already produced its bitter fruits. So far as the positive elements of his philosophy are concerned, the British student cannot fail to be struck with their coincidence with the leading doctrines of the Scottish school. In his earliest publication, in the person of one of the heroes of the tale, he bases his opposition to empiricism and epicurism upon Ferguson's History of Civil Society, and also expresses ardent admiration of the works of Thomas Reid. His doctrine of the immediate knowledge of the external world is identical with that of Reid; and his doctrine of reason and faith in general, so far as it goes, coincides in the main with the generalizations of Sir William Hamilton.

His whole works have been collected and edited by one of his disciples, with an introduction containing a sketch of his philosophy. This edition was published at Leipzig, 1812-25, in six octavo volumes.

(J. M'G.)

JACOBINS, THE, one of those clubs which played so conspicuous a part in the first French Revolution. When it became evident in 1789 that a social crisis was at hand, the members elected by the people considered it advisable to have conferences among themselves about questions of public interest. At these meetings the deputies from Bretagne took the lead, and from this fact the society was, for some time, called the Breton Club. The three orders of the National Assembly were represented in it—all desirous of a change of things. The clergy were represented by the bishop of Autun (Talleyrand), the Abbé Sièyes, and others; the nobility by the Duke de la Rochefoucauld, the Viscount de Noailles, &c.; the magistracy by Duport, Target, &c. At first the club, during its sittings at Versailles, made no great noise, but immediately after the events of October 5th and 6th, in 1789, they publicly opened their meetings in the monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue St Honore, at Paris. Although inaugurated as The Society of the Friends of the Constitution, they got the name of the Jacobins from their place of meeting, and by that title they are now best known. Their hall was thronged by crowds of listeners, including most of the remarkable public men of the period. The club itself became the parent of numerous affiliated societies throughout France. At the funeral of Mirabeau in 1791 the Jacobins mustered 1800 strong. They were almost powerful enough, by their vehement denunciations of the king and his ministers and their own numerical weight in the assembly, to subvert the government. In 1792 they took the name of The Society of the Friends of Liberty and Equality. Their influence, however, was for a time somewhat lessened by the rise of a moderate party which had been forming in the society itself, and which occasioned a temporary secession. Immediately after the fall of the king, the Jacobins began that struggle against the Girondists which ended in the destruction of the latter. After this, the violence of the club knew no bounds, and often hurried many of the members into the most outrageous excesses. After the fall of Robespierre during the Convention they rapidly lost influence, and were at last suppressed. The history of this club is closely interwoven with the history of France during the first Revolution. See FRANCE.

JACOBITES, THE, were those who, at the English Revolution in 1688, adhered to the cause of the dethroned king, James II. Some, as Middleton, Melvill, &c., shared his exile, and formed his little court at St Germain. In Ireland the adherents of the Stuarts rose in rebellion, but were vanquished by force of arms. In Scotland attempts were made in 1715 and 1745 by the descendants and adherents of James II. to expel the House of Hanover. Both were unsuccessful, and involved the ruin of many noble families. It is now known that during the reign of Queen Anne, Marlborough, Bolingbroke, and others in the government, were secretly intriguing, whether sincerely or not, for the restoration of the banished house of Stuart. See BRITAIN.

JACOBUS, a gold coin, worth twenty-five shillings, and so called from King James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck. There are two kinds of Jacobus, the old and the new; the former valued at twenty-five shillings, weighing six pennyweights ten grains; the latter, called also Carolus, valued at twenty-three shillings, and in weight five pennyweights twenty grains.

JACQUERIE. This name was given to the revolt of the French peasantry against the nobles in the fourteenth century. It arose from the term Jacques Bonhomme, by which the peasants were in jest designated by the nobles. The struggle was carried on with great fury on both sides, and was not suppressed till several counties had been completely devastated. See FRANCE, anno 1356.

JADE, an ornamental stone, of which there appear to be two varieties, common jade or nephrite, and saussurite or jade tenace. Common jade is a silicate of magnesia, oxide of iron, and alumina. Its specific gravity varies from 2·9 to 3·0; hardness 7·0. Its colour is leek green, passing into grey. It is very tough, and scarcely fusible before the blow-pipe. Nephrite was formerly worn as a charm, and was supposed to be a cure for diseases of the kidney, whence the name from vespos, kidney. From its toughness it has been used for the blades of hatchets by the New Zealanders, and other savage nations. Humboldt speaks of jade stones being an article of trade among the natives of the N. and S. sides of the Oroomokko. Jade is much used in Turkey and Poland for the handles of knives, daggers, swords, &c.; and in India, ornaments and trinkets, delicately worked, are made of it. In China, the jade is of a whitish colour, and is called yu. It is formed into vases, rings, and other articles. A great variety of jade ornaments from India and China appeared at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Such articles are very costly, on account of the extreme difficulty of working this refractory substance, but it has been suggested that mortars, pestles, and some other objects required by chemists, could be manufactured of jade of larger size than can now be made of agate, and, from the simplicity of the forms, at moderate cost. Jade is polished like carnelian, but it takes only a greasy, not a brilliant polish. Saussurite is a double silicate of magnesia, lime, and oxide of iron, with silicate of alumina; specific gravity 3·2 to 3·4; hardness 5·5. Its colour is greenish-white, or ash-grey; its cleavage is in two directions, meeting at an angle of nearly 120°. Its lustre is pearly, resinous, or vitreous; it is extremely tough, and is fusible before the blow-pipe.

JAEN, a province of Andalucia, Spain, lying between N. Lat. 37° 30' and 38° 40', and W. Long. 2° 50' and 4° 20'; and bounded N. by the provinces of Ciudad-Real, E. by Albacete and Granada, S. by Granada, and W. by Cordova. It is about 80 miles in length from E. to W., by about 70 in average breadth; area 4445 square miles. It is surrounded on every side by lofty mountains, which almost exclude it from communication with the surrounding provinces. Its surface is a constant alternation of hills and valleys, the latter being well watered and fertile, whereas the former yield little except some pasture for sheep, which come here in the winter season from the more northern provinces. Agriculture is in a very backward state, so that, notwithstanding the great fertility, the quantity of grain produced does not meet the amount consumed in the province. The Guadalquivir, with its affluents, drains the entire province. Jaen was celebrated for its mineral productions even in the time of the Romans, and at present its lead and iron mines are extensively wrought. The Moorish kingdom of Jaen was not so extensive as the modern province. Pop. (1849) 307,410. See ANDALUCIA and SPAIN.

JAEN, the capital of the above province, stands on an acclivity near the River Jaen, a tributary of the Guadalquivir, 37 miles N. of Granada, and 120 miles E. of Seville, in N. Lat. 37° 48' and W. Long. 3° 47'. Its position is very important in a military point of view, defending, as it does, the mountain road into Granada. On the top of the hill behind the town there is a castle, with which the walls of the city are connected. The streets rise above each other on this hill-side, and are irregularly built, narrow, and dirty. The principal public building is the cathedral, a Graeco-Roman structure, erected in 1523, on the site of an old Moorish mosque. In it is preserved the relic called "El Santo Rostro," or the impression of our Lord's face on the handkerchief of St Veronica. Jaen was long in the hands of the Moors, and has suffered many sieges. In 1808 it fell into the hands of the French under Cassagne, who committed great atrocities on the inhabitants. Jaen is the see of a bishop, conjointly with the town of Baeza. Besides the cathedral, the town contains 12 churches and 15 convents. The manufactures, now unimportant, consist of silk, woollen cloths, and mats. But the trade of the place is brisk, from its situation, surrounded by the most fertile lands. Pop. (1845) 17,327.

JAFFA, or YAFFA (the ancient Joppa), is a seaport town of Palestine, in N. Lat. 32° 3', E. Long. 34° 45'. It is situate on an eminence projecting into the sea, about 40 miles N.W. of Jerusalem. It is mentioned in the Old Testament as the port at which the timber for the building of Solomon's temple was shipped. During the wars of the Maccabees its shipping was set on fire by Jonathan; and it was again pillaged during the wars between the Romans and the Jews, 8400 of its inhabitants being put to the sword, and the town burnt. Having subsequently become a refuge for pirates, the place was utterly destroyed. Gradually, however, it seems again to have risen to importance, for during the reign of the Christian emperors it was made the seat of a bishopric. In A.D. 636 it was taken by Omar. In the crusades it was taken by Baldwin I., and in 1186 retaken by Saladin. In more recent times it was stormed by Napoleon in 1797, when 500 Turkish prisoners were put to death.

The harbour of Joppa has always been dangerous, owing to its exposure to the sea, and, being now nearly choked up with sand, vessels are obliged to keep at a distance from the shore. Notwithstanding all danger and difficulty in landing, Joppa has for many centuries been the resort of pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem.

The town chiefly faces the N. The buildings are surmounted by flattened domes, which rise in rows above one another like terraces, on the steep face of the eminence on which the town is built. The summit of the height is crowned with a castle; but though the general situation of the town is thus somewhat picturesque, its appearance on closer inspection is mean and comfortless. A wall 12 feet high defends the town on the landward side, and two forts connect the harbour. Joppa carries on trade in cotton, soap, fruit, coral, &c. The fruits, consisting of water melons, oranges, lemons, &c., grow well in the sandy soil of the numerous neighbouring gardens. It imports rice from Egypt. The inhabitants consist of Turks and Arabs, Romanists and Greeks, with some Armenians, as may be inferred from the three mosques, three churches, and three Armenian convents to be seen in the town. A British consul resides here. Pop. 4000.

JAFNA, the capital of the district of Jafnapatam. It stands at some distance from the sea, but communicates with it by a river navigable for large boats, and which falls into the sea near Point Pedro. The town is fortified and possesses a good citadel, which, though small, is exceedingly well built; but it was given up in 1795, after a short resistance, to the British troops. The situation is salubrious, and living is cheap; on which account many families have removed to this place from Columbo. The greater part of the inhabitants are of Mohammedan extraction, and are divided into several tribes, known by the names of Labbahs, Moplays, Chittees, and Cholias. The foreign settlers are more numerous than the native inhabitants. There are manufactures of coarse cotton cloths, calicoes, handkerchiefs, shawls, stockings, &c.; and there are also many artificers, such as goldsmiths, jewellers, joiners, and cabinet-makers.

JAFNAPATAM is the name of a district in the northern extremity of Ceylon. It is considered as the most healthy and populous part of the island, as it escapes, owing to its maritime situation, the intensely hot winds which prevail on the continent. It is clear of woods, produces a variety of fruit and vegetables, and abounds also in poultry and game; whilst the tract that lies between Point Pedro and Jaffna is favourable to the breeding of sheep. In the islands dependent on this district, namely, Delft, Harlem, Leyden, and Amsterdam, so named by the Dutch from their native cities, government has an establishment for breeding horses and cattle, for which the islands afford excellent pasture. The woods towards the interior, separating the district from the Candian provinces, are inhabited by a savage race of people known by the name of the Vadalis or Bedhas, who are supposed to be the ancient inhabitants of the country.

JÄGERNDORF, or KARNOW, a town of Austrian Silesia, circle of Troppau, and 14 miles N.W. of the town of that name, between the Great and Little Oppa. It is surrounded by high walls, and has a palace belonging to the princes of Lichtenstein, and a handsome church, with a spire 230 feet high. Its linen and woollen cloth manufactures are considerable. Pop. about 4800.

JAGHIRE, an assignment made in Bengal by an imperial grant upon the revenue of any district, to defray civil or military charges, pensions, gratuities, and the like.

JAINS, called by some JOHUS, a sect or rather race of Hindus, found in considerable numbers in different parts of India, particularly in the southern peninsula. They form a class of dissenters from the established faith of Brahminism, so generally considered throughout India as alone founded on an orthodox basis. They deny altogether the authority of the Vedas, regarded by the genuine Hindu as the holiest of books. They either disown, or sink into a subordinate rank, all the grand objects of Hindu veneration. In their hypothesis concerning the origin of the world, they have adopted opinions which seem to partake of the character of atheism. They do not, like the followers of the Vedas, acknowledge any spiritual and eternal Being, from whom the universe derived its origin. The material world, as well as the minds of all men and animals, are held by them to be eternal. They refuse to acknowledge anything which is not, or has not been, the object of the senses. Upon this principle they deny the existence of any beings superior to man, and admit no objects of worship except men who have raised themselves by their merits to the rank of divinities. As, however, they set no bounds to the perfection which the human soul may arrive at, their most eminent saints and pontiffs (amongst whom they particularly celebrate Gomat Iswara Swami) partake almost of the attributes of supreme divinity. To this station, however, they are exalted, not in consequence of a virtuous life, or of benefits rendered to mankind, but of those excesses of absurd and extravagant penance to which, throughout all India, such sovereign merit is attached. They have three ranks of ascetics, whom they call Yatis. The first, called Anuvarta, can be attained only by him who forsakes his family, entirely cuts off his hair, holds always in his hand a bundle of peacock's feathers and an earthen pot, and wears only clothes of a tawny colour. The second rank, Mahavarta, requires that all dress should be abandoned except a mere rag to cover nakedness, and that the hair instead of being shaven off, should be pulled out by the roots. He who aspires still higher, and seeks to attain the third degree, or Nirvana, throws aside even rags, and remains entirely naked; he eats nothing but rice, and that only once in two days. The name is nearly synonymous with that of Deity, and he is held in nearly equal veneration with the priests and rajahs, whose images are worshipped in the temples. At Billiega, or Belligola, the residence of their high priest, they have a gigantic image of Gomat Iswara Swami, the foot of which is 9 feet in length, so that the height of the entire statue cannot be less than 54 feet; and there is a similar one at Kurcul, near Mangalore. This worship of gigantic images is common to them with the followers of Buddha, whom they also closely resemble in their theological tenets; nay, Samana and Gandma, the main objects of Buddhis veneration, are enumerated by the Jains amongst the earliest and most venerated of their priests. On the other hand, they differ from them entirely in being divided into four castes, distinguished from each other by the same privileges and manners as amongst other Hindus. The Jains observe also similar penances, carrying them only to a still greater extreme. They are also scrupulous to a still greater degree as to causing the death of any living thing, even the minutest insect. The strictest Jains, to guard against this danger, do not eat after sunset; they have always a small broom to sweep the ground before them, and never drink water unless strained through a cloth. The orthodox Hindus have ceremonies by which any involuntary offence of this kind may be expiated; but the Jains, not allowing the efficacy of these, have no means of relieving their soul from the burden of such a trespass. Like the other Hindus, they consider it as unlawful for the widow to marry again, but discourage the barbarous practice of sacrificing herself on the body of the husband. On the whole, it would appear that whilst their doctrines and belief closely coincide with those of the Buddhists, their civil and social life is discriminated only by minute shades from that of the Hindus. They have a system of their own with regard to history, chronology, and physics, of which we need only observe, that its tenets are still more extravagant and absurd than those contained in the orthodox pages of the Vedas and Puranas. (See Asiatic Annual Register, vol. ix.; Dubois On the Manners of the People of India, Lond. 1817; Ward On the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindus, Lond. 1817.) Jalap. In Mexico, from 4000 to 6000 feet above the sea level, grows the plant which yields true jalap, and which has been called by botanists Convolvulus purga, and Ipomea purga, the latter name being adopted by De Candolle. It has since, however, been placed in the genus Exogonium. The true jalap (Exogonium purga) has a tuberous perennial root, a smooth, twining, annual stem, a salver-shaped corolla, with long cylindrical tube, a calyx of five small, unequal sepals, and herbaceous stems. Its leaves resemble the ivy, and its beautiful red flowers open only at night. The dried tubers of this plant supply the drug jalap, so named from Jalapa, a town in Mexico, where it abounds, and which is the only market for the tubers. These, as found in commerce, rarely exceed 1 lb. in weight; they are oval in form, and covered with a dark skin or cuticle. Internally they are yellowish gray, with deep brown concentric circles, and are hard and difficult to powder. Inferior sorts are more irregular in form, and are called spurious jalap, or, from their shape, cocked-hat jalap. Some roots are much worm-eaten, and are so called; but, as the insects do not touch the resinous portions, such roots are available for extracts.

Four kinds of jalap are known in English commerce, two genuine and two spurious,—first, dark, heavy, resinous tubers; secondly, lighter coloured and less resinous; thirdly, white or false jalap, pieces of which are occasionally mixed with the true; and, fourthly, jalap-stalk or woody jalap, the slices of which are more fibrous and woody than the genuine. There are about 200,000 lbs. of the pure jalap annually exported from Vera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico, the seaport of Jalapa.

The resinous portion, jalapine, is the active ingredient of jalap. It is obtained by mixing the alcoholic tincture of jalap (prepared by percolation or digestion) with water. The precipitated resin is to be washed in warm water, and then mixed with alcohol. By evaporation the tincture yields the resin, which, according to Mayer, who names it rhodecetine, consists of C. 72, H. 60, O. 27. It is insoluble in ether, and is convertible by the action of alkalies into rhodecetinic acid, which is soluble in water. The powdered root of jalap, as well as the resin, is a local irritant: in the human subject jalap acts as a powerful and drastic purgative, 3 or 4 grains of the resin sufficing for the purpose. Jalap is tolerably certain in operation, and does not disorder the system so much as some other purgatives, the effect being principally confined to the alimentary canal. It is used as a vermifuge; also in cerebral affections, dropsies, and some other diseases. The dose of jalap, in powder, is, for an adult, from 10 to 30 grains; for young children, from 2 to 5 grains. Jalap is sometimes exhibited in gingerbread; such are the purgative cakes, and the biscuits purgatifs of England and France.

JALAPA or XALAPA, a town of Mexico, capital of a cognominal department, in the state of Vera Cruz. It is situate on a small plain at the foot of a range of hills 55 miles N.W. of the town of Vera Cruz, and about 4500 feet above the sea level. On account of its exhilarating climate it is a favourite resort of the inhabitants of Vera Cruz when the comilo prieto is prevalent there. The only building of importance is an old church, which is believed by the people to have been founded by Cortes. Cotton is manufactured, but its trade has greatly diminished. In the neighbourhood grows the creeping-plant, Exogonium purga, or, as it is called from this town, Jalap. The population of the department is estimated at 45,000, and of the town, at 16,000 persons. JAMAICA.

An island lying off the Bay of Honduras, between the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, within N. Lat. 17° 40' and 18° 30', and W. Long. 76° 10' and 78° 30', about 4000 miles S.W. of England, 80 miles S. of Cuba, 90 miles W. of St Domingo, and 515 miles N. of Chagres, the Atlantic port of the Isthmus of Panama. It is the most southern of that group, which is called by some the Greater Antilles, by others the Leeward Islands. The latter name, however, is now generally applied to the smaller islands on the N.E., and sometimes to those on the S. of the Caribbean Sea. It is the largest, and was formerly the most valuable of the British West Indies, being 140 geographical miles in length, by 50 in extreme breadth, and containing about 4,080,000 acres, or 6400 square miles. Within its government are comprised, besides the three small islands called the Caymanas, Belize, or British Honduras, on the mainland of Central America, with Rutan and other islands in the Bay of Honduras. These places, though distant respectively 600 and 460 miles, have been called the dependencies of Jamaica, and are ruled by superintendents appointed by the governor. The title of Britain was disputed by Spain in the early part of the last century, and the Bay Islands were given up to that power by the treaty of London in 1786, but were reoccupied by the British during the subsequent war. Having, with the Mosquito Territory, formed the subject of dispute between Great Britain and the United States, arising out of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, they have (1856) been constituted as free territory under the republic of Honduras, with provisions against alienation, the erection of forts, and the introduction of slavery.

Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3rd of May 1494, while coasting along the S. of Cuba, during his second voyage. He called it St Jago, after the patron saint of Spain, but it is now generally known by its Indian name Jamaica, a word signifying the Isle of Springs, according to the best authorities, though Long derives it from a kind of fruit. It is sometimes written Xaymaca by the Spaniards.

On approaching the shore, Columbus called the nearest land after his first ship, Santa Maria, a name still preserved in Port Maria. He effected a landing a little to the westward, at Ora Cahessa, where, after a slight opposition from the natives, he took possession of the country, with the usual formalities, for the king of Spain.

The inhabitants were the same mild, inoffensive race as those of Cuba and Hayti. Like the Arowaks of Trinidad and Guiana, they were probably offshoots of the great Mexican stock, and very different from the fierce Caribs of the Windward Islands. After a short stay, Columbus quitted Jamaica, which remained undisturbed for nine years. In June 1503, on his fourth and last voyage, he was driven by a tempest, in which he lost two ships, to a bay on the N. side of the island, which he named Sta. Gloria (now St Ann's Bay), where he ran his remaining vessels ashore in a small inlet still called Don Christopher's Cove. The shipwrecked mariners were received with the greatest kindness by the Indians, and here Columbus remained upwards of a year awaiting the return of messengers he had dispatched to Ovando, governor of Hispaniola, as Cuba was then called. During this time he suffered much from disease, as well as from the mutiny of his followers, whose gross misconduct alienated the Indians, and provoked them to withhold their accustomed supplies, until he dexterously worked upon their superstition by prognosticating an eclipse.

After the second departure of Columbus, Jamaica seems to have remained unvisited until 1509, three years after his death, when his son Diego, having established his right in the council of the Indies to the governorship of Hispaniola, which included Jamaica, sent Don Juan d'Esquivel to take possession of the island in opposition to Alonzo d'Ojeda, who claimed it under a royal grant.

By Esquivel the natives were treated, according to Herrera, with unusual humanity. That his successors did not imitate him in this respect is proved by the astounding fact that of the Indian population, at this time estimated at from 60,000 to 100,000 souls, not a descendant of either sex existed in 1655, when the island fell into the hands of the English, nor, it is supposed, for nearly a century before. After a short stay, Esquivel died in Sevilla d'Oro, a town founded by himself on St Ann's Bay, which is supposed by some to have been deserted on account of the ravages of ants, by others to have been destroyed during an insurrection of the Indians. Its premature fall was, however, most probably owing to the attacks of French filibusters, or pirates, who for a long period infested these coasts. The site of the town may still be traced by mounds of earth, as well as in the names of certain fields belonging to the Seville sugar plantation. Melilla, near Port Maria, or, according to another opinion, at Martha Brae, near Falmouth, shared the same fate.

About the year 1523, Diego Columbus, visiting Jamaica from Hispaniola, founded, on the River Cobre, inland to the S. of the mountain range, St Jago de la Vega, St James of the Plain, which gave the title of Marquis to his descendants, and is still the official capital, under the name of Spanish Town. At some distance westward, on the coast, was built Oristan, which is now called Bluefields. Down to 1596 the history of Jamaica is only a record of the rapid disappearance of the Indians, under the Spanish yoke, and of intrigues at the court of Spain, having for their object the dispossession of the descendants of Columbus, whose rights were, however, successfully defended, and eventually centred in an heiress, through whom they passed by marriage to the house of Braganza, reverting afterwards to the Spanish crown, in consequence of the revolution of 1640, which placed John, duke of Braganza on the throne of Portugal. Long anterior to this last event, the union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, under Philip II., in 1580 occasioned an influx of Portuguese colonists into Jamaica, who contributed much to its strength and prosperity, but were usually on indifferent terms with the Spanish settlers. Attention had at an early period been paid to agriculture, the cotton-plant was extensively cultivated, and the sugar-cane, vine, and various kinds of corn and grass had been introduced; and whereas a small species of dog, called the alco, was the only domestic quadruped known to the aborigines, horses, horned cattle, and swine had been imported from Hispaniola, which multiplied amazingly, and a flourishing trade sprang up in lard and hides, as well as tobacco, sugar, and ginger. In 1596, during the alliance of Queen Elizabeth with the Low Countries, and the consequent war with Spain, Sir Anthony Shirley, a British admiral, invaded Jamaica with a large fleet, and landing at Passage Fort, plundered St Jago and the neighbouring territory, but made no attempt at occupation. After thirty-nine years' tranquillity, during which, under the government of Don Arnoldo de Sasi, the island rose to a high pitch of prosperity, it was again invaded in the reign of Charles I. by Colonel Jackson, who defeated the inhabitants in a severe engagement at Passage Fort, and did not retire till he had ravaged the whole country, and laid the capital under heavy contributions. The Spanish colonists never recovered from this attack. At the termination of the next twenty years we find the whole island divided into eight districts, and in the nominal possession of eight noble families, whilst the Jamaica. rest of the population is said, but the statement seems scarcely credible, to have consisted only of 1500 Spaniards and Portuguese (though the Portuguese had, according to some accounts, been expelled by the Spaniards), and about the same number of blacks and mulattoes.

The preposterous claim by Spain to the exclusive right of navigating the American seas, and the outrages committed upon British subjects in these parts, provoked Cromwell to send an expedition, consisting of 6500 men, under Admirals Penn and Venables, against Hispaniola. Failing in their attempt, for which they were afterwards committed to the Tower, they attacked Jamaica, which capitulated, after a trifling resistance, on the 3rd of May 1655, after having been 161 years in possession of the Spaniards.

After the capture of the island, until the restoration of Charles II., Jamaica remained under military jurisdiction. Great exertions were made by Cromwell to establish a firm and peaceable government, as well as to people the island from Scotland and Ireland, from the Windward Islands, and from the English colonies in North America; but these efforts were for some time neutralized by the incessant attacks of the Spaniards and their negroes, who had retreated to the mountains, by the disaffection of the troops, and rapid mortality among the settlers. A better state of affairs was at length established by Colonel D'Oyley, a man of courage and capacity. A formidable armament from Hispaniola was totally defeated at Rio Nuevo, on the 8th of May 1658, and the remnant of the Spaniards was soon after driven from the island. Their slaves, however, for the most part, remained, and maintained themselves in the mountains, where, being constantly augmented by runaway negroes, they afterwards became formidable, under the name of Maroons. The troubles in England after Cromwell's death caused a considerable accession to the number of colonists, and in 1661, soon after the Restoration, the first establishment of a regular civil government in Jamaica was made by Charles II., who appointed D'Oyley governor-in-chief, with an elective council. Lord Windsor, who succeeded him the following year, was instructed to summon a popular assembly, with power to pass such laws for the internal regulation of the country as should not be subservient of dependance on the parent state. At this date negro slaves began to be imported in large numbers, and even Indians from Yucatan, though this latter traffic was soon prohibited. Jamaica became also about this time the resort of the buccaneers, a band of freebooters composed of adventurers and outlaws of all nations, whom the war with Spain enabled to carry on their trade of piracy under the British flag. Their ill-gotten wealth was recklessly squandered in Port-Royal, and their barbarous outrages applauded by the inhabitants, who shared their gains, and, it has been said, connived at for the same reason by the king himself.

In 1670 peace was made with Spain; the title of England to Jamaica was recognized by the treaty of Madrid, and it became necessary to put down the buccaneers. This was effectually done by their own former leader, Sir Henry Morgan, who had been knighted for the capture of Panama, and was lieutenant-governor of Jamaica in 1675. He was succeeded by Lord Vaughan, during whose administration was formed in England the 4th, or Royal African Company, which established a monopoly in the slave-trade. In 1678, under Lord Carlisle, an attempt was made to saddle the island with a yearly tribute to the crown, and to take away the legislative power of the House of Assembly, which was to be in future a mere instrument for voting supplies and passing those laws which, after being prepared by the governor and council, were approved at home. In consequence of the strenuous resistance of the colonists, the privileges of the Assembly were restored under Sir Thomas Lynch in 1682, but the tribute question was not settled till 1728, when L.8000 a-year (currency) was settled on the crown, on condition, among other things, that all the laws and statutes of England should equally apply to Jamaica: this bill, which was considered the Magna Charta of Jamaica, was passed under the administration of the Duke of Portland. This L.8000 currency, afterwards commuted to L.6000 sterling, was at the disposal of the governor. Out of it he provided for certain allowances and salaries, as well as for the repairs of certain forts. It was called the Council Fund, and from it seems to have arisen the erroneous idea, repeated even in the latest publications, that the crown draws a revenue of L.10,000 a-year from Jamaica. This council fund was in 1864 merged in the civil list.

Before this event many calamities had happened. In 1692 occurred the great earthquake, when the chief part of the town of Port-Royal, built on a shelving bank of sand, slipped into the sea, and was destroyed. Two years after, a powerful French armament from St Domingo, commanded by the governor, Ducasse, committed the greatest cruelties and devastations on the S. and E. coasts, but was at length driven back by the gallantry of the militia. In 1712, and again on the same day in 1722, there were dreadful hurricanes, the anniversary of which, as well as that of the great earthquake, was by Act of Assembly set apart as a fast. This last hurricane was so destructive to Port-Royal, that the seat of commerce was transferred to Kingston. In 1744 there was another hurricane, and no less than five in 1780 and the six following years, at which time the distress occasioned by these visitations was much aggravated by a decree of the Imperial Parliament, virtually prohibiting trade with the United States, and confining the colony, for her American supplies, to the inadequate markets of Canada and Nova Scotia. The next hurricane seems to have occurred in 1812. There was a slight one in the next year, another more severe in 1815, others again in 1819 and 1846.

In 1738, under Governor Trelawny, a pacification took place with the Maroons, after a contest of nearly forty years, during which a body of Mosquito Indians was employed against them. The Maroons were henceforth confined to certain specified localities—an ill-judged policy, which perpetuated the distinction of race and separation of interest. They proved in consequence, from time to time, very troublesome; and, in 1795, during the administration of the Earl of Balcarres, a serious rebellion broke out, chiefly confined to the Trelawny Town Maroons, which was quelled the next year, after great loss of life, when 600 of the insurgents were transported to Nova Scotia. There are now three Maroon settlements in Jamaica, which have, however, no longer any separate political existence, viz., Accompong Town, Charles Town, and Moore Town. The Maroons are perhaps even more averse to labour than the ordinary creole negro, and certainly more thievish and dissolute; but the wild life they have led for so many generations has made them taller, and more active and vigorous. In 1760, a dangerous revolt of the Koromantyn slaves was speedily repressed, and punished by the most barbarous executions. In 1765 the Assembly expressed a wish to limit the importation of slaves, but the governor, by instruction, refused his consent. In 1774 a bill passed the Assembly for the same object, but was disallowed by the Board of Trade in England. From 1700 to 1786, the number of slaves imported into the island was 610,000, of whom about one-fifth was re-exported.

In 1782 Jamaica was threatened with an invasion by the combined fleets of France and Spain under De Grasse. It was saved by the victory of Rodney and Hood, off Dominica, in commemoration of which a statue of Lord Rodney, by Bacon, has been erected in Spanish Town. The chief events of the following years were,—a fire which con- sumed nearly the whole town of Montego Bay—the Maroon war above mentioned,—an apprehended invasion of the French from St Domingo—a conspiracy among the slaves in Kingston—disputes with the Imperial Government on the introduction of black troops, and the excessive taxation of the island staples.

In 1806 Admiral Duckworth defeated the French squadron destined to invade Jamaica. In 1807 the slave-trade was abolished, at which time there were 323,827 slaves in Jamaica. During the last eight years of the trade, 86,821 slaves were imported, of whom about one-tenth was re-exported. At this period Jamaica had reached the highest pitch of prosperity. Its fields teemed with sugar, coffee, cacao, cotton, pimento, ginger, and indigo; and it was the depot of a lucrative transit-trade between Europe and the Spanish main, employing, in the year 1816, no less than 199,894 tons of shipping; in 1823, 254,590 tons; in 1830, 130,747 tons.

In 1823 the agitation in England against slavery had reached such a height that Lord Bathurst, in a despatch to the Colonial Legislature, recommended the adoption of certain measures for ameliorating the condition of the slaves. This moderate suggestion was unfortunately rejected, and, during the following year, a proposal for the emancipation of children of a certain age shared the same fate. From this period, till the moment of emancipation, we find in Jamaica ill-advised and indefensible proceedings by the colonists, and unwarrantable interference on the part of the dissenting missionaries; in England violent and unscrupulous agitation. An examination of the history of these events proves that a measure, the success of which depended upon the anxious and cordial co-operation of both parties, became at length, on all sides, with few exceptions, a mere party, and too often a mere personal question.

In 1831, a recommendation by Lord Goderich, of the same nature as the one previously mentioned, seems to have excited the colonists, in spite of the efforts of the Earl of Mulgrave, the governor, to acts of intemperate folly against the crown, as well as of scandalous violence against the missionaries; and the negroes, led by the latter to believe that England had decreed their emancipation, rose in 1832 in a revolt, which was not subdued till many hundred lives had been sacrificed, property to the amount of upwards of a million destroyed, and the atrocities usually attending a servile war perpetrated on both sides. These events created great excitement in England, and that class of philanthropists, which is ready to be generous at the expense of others, enamoured for instant and unconditional emancipation. The English government, however, with more justice, passed, on the 14th May 1833, "An Act to Abolish Slavery," but fixing an apprenticeship of twelve years, reduced afterwards to six, and eventually to four; and granting to the owners a compensation of twenty millions sterling, of which L5,161,927, 5s. 10d. was awarded to Jamaica, being rather more than L19 a-head on a slave population of 309,338. This sum, though much less than the assessment of the government commissioners themselves, was a noble sacrifice by a nation in the cause of freedom, and one which a better and more statesmanlike measure might have rendered unnecessary; but as Earl Grey remarks in his Colonial Policy, it was a measure which "is now generally admitted to have been most unhappily defective."

All parties were determined that the apprenticeship should be a failure. The magistrates sent to protect the negroes were prejudiced against the employers, who, on their part, could not give up their power without a struggle. Their manner was more overbearing and tyrannical than in the days of slavery; and they frequently displayed the bitterness of their feelings, by turning the negroes out of their houses, destroying their provision grounds, and subjecting them to every kind of annoyance. The Marquis of Sligo who had succeeded Lord Mulgrave in July 1834, was recalled in Jamaica, 1836, having incurred unpopularity, in consequence of the interference of the British government with the House of Assembly, relative to the "Act in Aid of the Abolition of Slavery." He was succeeded by Sir Lionel Smith, during whose administration, on the 1st of August 1838, the apprenticeship was terminated by an act of the Assembly itself, and entire emancipation took place; and early in the ensuing year the House of Assembly having refused to transact business in consequence of renewed interference by the British legislature in the case of the "Prisons' Act," a bill was introduced by Mr Labouchere into the House of Commons to suspend the constitution of Jamaica, the rejection of which measure occasioned the resignation of Lord Melbourne's ministry. On resuming office, in consequence of Sir Robert Peel's failure to form an administration, they passed an act to compromise the Jamaica dispute, and Sir Lionel Smith having become unpopular in consequence of these events, was superseded in October 1839 by Sir Charles Metcalfe, whose wise and conciliatory policy restored tranquillity to the colony. He brought about a better understanding between the labourers and employers, and took measures to provide religious instruction and the due administration of justice. The number of the island curates was doubled. Acts were passed for the selection of the two puisne judges from barristers of a certain standing, and for the appointment of nine chairmen of quarter sessions, also barristers. These changes were readily granted, though involving an increased expenditure of L30,000 a-year. He turned his attention also to substitutes for the laborious cultivation of sugar. Agricultural societies were formed, and attempts made to develop the resources of the colony in silk, cotton, fibrous materials, tobacco, arrowroot, and copper. Silk works were established on a grand scale in St Ann's, mines opened, and a new prosperity seemed about to dawn upon Jamaica. None of these schemes, however, rewarded the enterprise of the promoters. They failed in succession, and from the same cause, the want of cheap and continuous labour. Fully alive to this deficiency, Sir Charles was a zealous advocate of immigration, which commenced in 1839, from Sierra Leone and the Kroo Coast; and in 1840 the first Jamaica Immigration Act was passed. Groundless fears, however, on the part of the mother country, of a renewal of slavery under another name, led the Imperial Government to impose restrictions on immigration, not yet entirely removed, which, by enhancing the difficulty and expense, have prevented such a comprehensive scheme as could alone be permanently beneficial. Meanwhile, the planter, compelled to waste his capital on unproductive labour, has seen the superabundant population of other countries swept off by his rivals, though the condition of the immigrant is nowhere to be compared with that which humane policy has secured for him in a British colony. Sir Charles Metcalfe resigned in 1842, to the extreme regret of the colonists, who commemorated his administration, by forming a new parish called after his name, out of portions of St George and St Mary. He was succeeded by the Earl of Elgin, who adopted the same policy, and under whose auspices a railway, 12 miles in length, was opened, connecting the two capitals, Kingston and Spanish Town. On his advancement to Canada, he was succeeded by Sir Charles Grey at the commencement of troublous times. The act of 1846 had passed, admitting slave-grown sugar into the English markets, and the most sanguine began to despair.

The proverbial luxury of a Jamaica plantation had been exchanged before this for an almost equally remarkable frugality. The hoe had given way to the plough, and other implements of the most improved construction; and the hereditary estates of many absentee proprietors had passed for a mere trifle into the hands of the practical planter; but Jamaica, neither improved agriculture, nor strict economy, nor the residence of the proprietor, availed against the superior advantages of the slave-owner; and though the prospects of copper mining, which was resumed with vigour, seemed promising, the necessity of retrenching the island expenditure became evident. The first bill for carrying this into effect was rejected by the Council as inadequate in its general effect, but at the same time bearing unjustly upon individuals, by making in some instances a reduction of more than 30 per cent. on the salaries of permanent offices, without compensation to the holders. The second was disallowed by the Imperial Government for similar reasons. Again the Assembly resented interference, and refused to perform its functions. The result was most disastrous. In 1849 the rum duties were allowed to expire, by which L50,000 were lost; and in 1853 taxes and import duties were uncollected for six months, causing a sacrifice of more than L177,000, and adding L180,000 to the permanent debt of the island. Public functionaries remained unpaid except by an issue of inconvertible paper called island cheques. In the midst of these troubles came the cholera, which is supposed to have decimated the population. During this crisis party feeling ran high. There was open hostility between the Council and Assembly, and among many disgraceful scenes the imprisonment of one of the judges for an alleged libel on the House of Assembly was perhaps the most remarkable. Many non-resident proprietors urged the suspension of the constitution. On the other hand, delegates were sent from Jamaica to lay the case of the colonists before the English government, which eventually decided to recommend—that permanent provision should be made for the salaries of permanent offices; that the initiation of all money grants should be left to the crown; that certain members of the legislature should be responsible for the expenditure of the public money. Conditional on the acceptance of these suggestions was made the imperial guarantee to that part of the Jamaica debt which bore 6 per cent. interest, amounting to L500,000, as well as to an additional loan of L50,000 for compensation to the holders of those permanent offices which were to be reduced, and an absolute grant of L3500 for three years towards the governor's salary. The despatch containing these recommendations was carried out by Sir Henry Barkly, who had successfully guided the colony of British Guiana through a similar crisis. He succeeded Sir Charles Grey in the autumn of 1853, and found the colonists wearied of the unequal contest, and anxious for peace. In the next year was passed, in England, the "Encumbered Estates (West Indies) Bill," in relation to which the Duke of Newcastle said, on the 22d June 1854, "That in Jamaica nine-tenths of the estates were under heavy incumbrances, a large portion of which was for sums in excess of the value of the estates, so that it was utterly impossible for the proprietors to obtain any further advances." This remedial measure became a dead letter, partly on account of the jealousy of the island government, but chiefly because, in the case of most of these estates, it was less difficult to make a title than to find a purchaser. During the last few years Jamaica has been tranquil, but it has been the tranquillity of prostration. Sir Henry Barkly, who induced the Assembly to consent to many salutary changes during this period, has been replaced by C. H. Darling, Esq., late governor of Newfoundland. The island has also suffered severe loss in the retirement of the chief-justice, Sir Joshua Rowe, who for twenty-three years presided over the Supreme Court with integrity and ability, stamping its judicial proceedings with a character far above the ordinary colonial standard.

The constitution of Jamaica has been modified, in many important particulars, by several acts passed in the island in the years 1854 and 1856. The ruling body now consists of a governor or captain-general, advised by a privy council, of a legislative council, and of an elective legislative assembly. The governor, who is styled "His Excellency," is commander-in-chief and vice-admiral, and has the disposal of several appointments, is nominated by the crown through the secretary of state for the colonies. He receives from the Imperial Government a salary of L3500 a-year, and from the colony, including the salary of his secretary, L2746, besides sundry allowances. His privy council is appointed by himself during pleasure, without limitation of number or qualification; and its president, or senior member, administers the government during the absence of the governor, should no lieutenant-governor be appointed, though the commission is usually given to the commander of the forces. The Legislative Council is also appointed by the crown, through the governor, for life, subject to certain disqualifications, such as crime, absence without leave, loss of property, &c. It consists of seventeen members, five of whom may be office-holders without other qualification; the remaining twelve must be in possession of a freehold estate in the island of the annual value of L300, or must pay taxes on freehold property to the amount of L30. The president receives a salary of L600 a-year. The Legislative Council forms the upper chamber, and may initiate any measures not involving imposition of taxes, or appropriation of money. The House of Assembly consists of forty-seven members, being two for each parish, and an additional one for the towns of Spanish Town, Kingston, and Port-Royal. These are elected by holders of freeholds of the annual value of L5, a qualification which it has been in contemplation to alter for the payment of L1 taxes, the present constituency amounting only to 3000, as stated by Lord John Russell in 1853. The qualification of members of the Assembly consists of the payment of L10 taxes, and they become disqualified by crime, insolvency, fraud, &c. The House of Assembly is summoned by the governor in council; it may be adjourned, prorogued, or dissolved by the governor alone—unless so dissolved, its duration is for seven years. It forms the lower chamber, and, in conjunction with the council, and with the consent of the governor, may pass laws for the colony, provided they be not repugnant to the spirit of the English law; but all laws so passed are subject to the approval of the Imperial Government. The House of Assembly had formerly the power of originating and appropriating grants of money, a privilege manifestly open to the greatest abuse. But by the act of 1854 this was abolished, and no grant is to originate in the Assembly except by message from the governor, or through the executive committee. This last body is an innovation, and forms the ministry of the crown. It consists of one member of the Legislative Council, and three members of the Assembly, not office-holders, chosen and changed at pleasure by the governor, who are to act as his medium of communication with the Council and Assembly, and to assist him in preparing estimates, levying and disbursing money, and in the general administration of the affairs of the colony. They each receive a salary of L800 a-year, and allowances.

The parishes are under the government of a chief magistrate appointed for life by the governor, termed the custos rotulorum, who is styled "Honourable," and presides over the vestry, a body consisting of the rector and churchwardens, justices of the peace, and ten vestrymen, who must be freeholders, tax-payers, electors, and be able to read and write; they must be of good repute, and not have been insolvent within two years. The churchwardens must be also members of the Established Church. The vestries meet quarterly. They raise and appropriate local taxes, by authority of an annual act of Assembly, for the relief of the poor, and repair of churches and public buildings; they regulate markets, and generally the affairs of the parish; and it is their duty to prepare yearly an account of the taxable Jamaica, and real property in the parish for the executive committee.

A committee of the vestry, elected by ballot, decides upon applications for relief from taxes, a return of which is made to the executive committee and receiver-general, and may be carried by appeal before the circuit judge, who has the power of inflicting punishment for perjury.

Such is the existing constitution, and though the alterations in the management of its finance, and the check to the practice of reliefs in the vestries, have removed the most flagrant evils of the former system, it may be doubted whether Jamaica is not daily becoming more unfit for this modified form of popular government. It is generally agreed that it would have been better to have suspended the constitution at the period of emancipation, and to have entrusted the introduction of the new arrangements rendered necessary by that important measure to a prudent and able governor; for as the late Mr C. Buller said, in 1839, "It was not possible for any similarly constituted colony to furnish persons competent to execute so great a task;" and the refusal of the legislature in 1833 to pass the Customs Duties Acts, a measure ruinous to the country at large, but if report speak truly, highly profitable to certain members of the ruling body, is one of the most remarkable instances on record of the perversion of representative institutions. If such has been the past, there is little ground for hope of amelioration in future. Wealth and intelligence are leaving the country; even now it is impossible to fill up the number of the Legislative Council.

The white and mulatto races are inimical to each other, and though Sir Henry Barkly, by dexterously enlisting the more moderate of each in the cause of order, managed to carry on the government, it is to be feared they will not long act harmoniously together. The blacks, ignorant and impulsive, incline first to one side, then to the other. Meanwhile, the thinned ranks of the whites are very poorly recruited—for capital seeks a better and more certain return; and there is little prospect of lucrative employment to divert the enterprising emigrant from Australia or Canada.

The judicial system has been entirely remodelled by the act of 1853-56. The chief-justice, and assistant-judges, and chairmen of quarter sessions, having retired with pensions, the following take the place of the former arrangements:

The chief-justice, who must be a barrister of five years' standing, discharges also the duties of vice-chancellor, and sits with the ordinary as surrogate; his salary is fixed at £1,800 a-year. Associated with him are three assistant-judges, barristers of three years' standing, with salaries of £1,200 a-year. None of these judges are eligible to seats in the Assembly. The attorney-general discharges, in future, the duty of advocate of the admiralty, with an additional salary of £500 a-year. The supreme court, presided over by the bench of judges, holds sittings in Spanish Town three times a-year. It has an appellate jurisdiction, and out of all process is to issue. The island is divided into four circuits,—the Home, the Cornwall, the Surrey, and the Middlesex,—in the first of which the chief-justice presides, and sits three times a-year in Kingston, and three in Spanish Town. The assistant-judges preside over the others three times a-year. They take cognizance of crimes, insolvencies, and civil causes, and hear appeals formerly heard by chairmen of quarter sessions. These changes have been made for the sake of economy, and to bring inexpensive justice within the reach of every man. The courts of common pleas and quarter sessions are replaced by the circuit courts. Almost all fees are replaced by fixed salaries. Summary jurisdiction is given in small amounts to two justices of the peace. Besides the unpaid magistracy of the country there still remain (in 1856) seventeen stipendiary justices, with salaries and allowances amounting to £450 each, paid by the English government. As these posts become vacant, no fresh appointments are made. The common, and much of the statute law of England, is in force in Jamaica, but the latter must be re-enacted in the island. The bankruptcy laws have not been adopted; but by the Insolvent Debtors Act, a debtor making oath that he is possessed of nothing besides bare necessaries, and delivering his books into the hands of the deputy-marshal, is, after remaining three months in prison, released from all claims. For the protection of creditors, it was formerly requisite to give three weeks' notice, and obtain a passport before leaving the island. Civil cases are decided by a majority of five in a jury of seven. The same number tries criminal cases, but the verdict must be unanimous. A special jury consists of twenty-one, of which each side may strike off seven. The law of capital punishment is by this act assimilated to that of England.

The great abuse of patent offices, the holders of which, living in England, received at one time £30,000 a-year from Jamaica for duties performed by deputy, has long been suppressed, and the last sinecure of this kind has now expired. The ecclesiastical establishment consists of a bishop, whose diocese includes the Bahamas and Honduras, with £3,000 a-year, first appointed in 1826, previously to which the bishop of London was diocesan. This salary is paid by England, which also allows £2,000 a-year for archdeacons, and £2,000 a-year for assistants, and £400 for a commissary. The present bishop, Dr Spencer, having resigned, receives a pension of £1,400 a-year out of his former salary, the rest of which is paid to his coadjutor, Dr Courtenay, who is styled Bishop of Kingston and who receives, in addition, £400 a-year as archdeacon and commissary of Middlesex,—making in all, £2,000 a-year. There are two other archdeacons, those of Cornwall and Surrey; the last being vicar-general. There are 22 rectors, corresponding to the number of parishes, and 50 island or perpetual curates, whose salaries are secured under an act which expires in 1859; but by the recent act of 1856 it is proposed to make an immediate reduction to the extent of about twelve and a half per cent., holding out the inducement of continuing this scale for fourteen years, and the threat of a larger reduction to those who will not agree. The rates under the bill are as follow:—

| Rectors | Annual Salary | |---------|--------------| | Kingston | £600 | | St Catherine | £500 | | St James | £500 | | Trelawney | £500 |

| Rectors | Annual Salary | |---------|--------------| | St Andrew | £450 | | The Seventeen others | £400 | | The Fifty curates | £340 |

By these means the church establishment which, in the year 1855, cost £36,777, 7s. 10d., is estimated for the year 1856 at £29,398.

There are in addition seventeen Presbyterian, sixteen Moravian, three American, forty-four Baptist, twenty-two Wesleyan, ten Independent ministers, besides Roman Catholics and Jews.

The schools of these different denominations are calculated to contain 13,641 pupils. There are ten endowed schools under private charities, such as the Mico, Wolmer's, Munro and Dickenson's, Vere, &c., capable of instructing 1,710 children; there are private schools educating 500; making a provision for the education of 15,841 children free of expense to the public. To these must be added 5,738 belonging to the established church, making a total of 21,584 out of a population of about 380,000, or between five and six per cent. who are nominally receiving education, but the desultory attendance of the negro children makes these advantages more apparent than real. There has been no state provision for education independently of that for the ecclesiastical establishment for some years; in 1856 a vote of £6,000 for this purpose was negatived. As nearly connected with education the island press may properly be noticed here. There are in Kingston four daily papers—the Morning Journal, Colonial Standard, Daily Adver- Jamaica, tiser, and Banner of the People; an advertising sheet and a Gazette appear occasionally. In Spanish Town there is the Watchman; in Falmouth, the Falmouth Post and Trelawny weekly; and in Montego Bay, the Cornwall Chronicle, and County Union weekly. They are not liable to stamp duty.

The population, according to the return of 1855, consists of 181,633 males, and 195,800 females; but this is based upon the last census, that of 1844, when the population was returned at 380,000, of whom 16,000 were white, 68,000 coloured, and the rest black, of whom about 1200 were maroons. Since then upwards of 40,000 people have died from cholera and small-pox, and about 2000 have emigrated to Navy Bay to work on the railway over the Isthmus of Panama, a portion of whom only have returned. The careless treatment of children by the negroes, and their almost invincible repugnance to pay doctors' fees, which has necessarily reduced the number of medical practitioners, prevent the natural rate of increase; and the waste of public money during the protracted dispute between the Council and House of Assembly, has caused the number of immigrants imported to fall very short of other colonies. We find, in consequence, that while 49,000 arrived in British Guiana between the years 1840 and 1852, only 14,000 were brought to Jamaica. The following returns have been made by the Emigration Commissioners of Immigrants introduced into Jamaica from 1848 to 1855, both inclusive:

| Emancipados from Havana | 276 | |-------------------------|-----| | Sierra Leone | 1870| | St Helena | 2198| | Madras | 379 | | China | 472 | | | 5195|

Besides which there were still in the island 1684 coolies who had arrived before 1847, and a considerable number of recaptured Africans. The criminal returns of this population are remarkably favourable; the number in prison throughout the island on the 31st December 1855 was only 583; and Sir H. Barkly reports that the numbers convicted of crimes in Jamaica when compared with British Guiana were as 18 to 33.

The feeling of security arising from the orderly behaviour of the lower classes, as well as of economy motives, have led to the disembodiment of the militia, who in 1816 numbered about 8000 foot, and 900 horse, and in 1830 were increased to 18,000 men, including artillery. There is still a nominal staff at head-quarters, and though the expenditure in 1852 was only L2,14s., it had reached L297 in 1855, and was set down at L300 in the budget of 1856. The garrison of Jamaica has also been much reduced; in 1816 it consisted of about 5000 men. It is now generally composed of about 1400, of whom 600 are white, and the remainder Africans. The headquarters of the white troops are at Newcastle, a cantonment originated by Sir W. Gomm in the Blue Mountains, about 4000 feet above the sea. A detachment is quartered at Maroon Town, formerly Trelawny, about 2000 feet above the sea in the Mountains of St James. The climate of these stations is so good that the troops are said to be less inured to heat at the end of a year there than when first landed. The head-quarters of the black troops belonging to one of the three West India Regiments are at Up Park Camp, near Kingston. This corps was formerly recruited entirely from the coast of Africa, but creole negroes, and even coolies, are now enlisted in its ranks. There are white and black artillerymen at Port-Royal, and a few men at Port-Henderson; at Lucea, the extreme E. of the island; and at Port-Antonio on the N. side. The whole of these troops are commanded by a major-general, whose official residence is at Kingston, and are paid entirely by the Imperial Government, the island allowance having been for some time withdrawn. A small sum from the island civil list is expended annually upon the fortifications, which are, however, scarcely defensible. The naval department is under a commodore, whose flag-ship lies off Port-Royal, where the naval yards and hospital are situate. It is occasionally visited by the admiral and squadron of the North American station, which embraces the West India Islands. The police force has been reorganized by an act passed in 1856. It is now to consist of 41 sergeants, and 406 privates; and the custos of each parish is empowered, in case of emergency, to raise a constabulary consisting of one in every hundred of the inhabitants as an auxiliary force. The police are composed almost entirely of black and coloured people.

We now come to the revenue, and the property and commerce from which it arises.

The revenue of Jamaica was estimated, in a calculation made in 1830, on an average of ten years, at L490,000 currency, or about L327,000 sterling. This was independent of that raised by the vestries for parochial purposes, which amounted to about L300,000 currency, or L200,000 sterling. The public revenue of 1841 was L226,959, 18s. 3d.; the parochial, L177,491, 12s. 10d. sterling. The public expenditure, L291,415, 16s. 0d.; the parochial, L150,357, 16s. 8d. In the year 1854, owing to the suspension of the import and run duties, and consequent large accumulation of taxable articles which had paid nothing to the treasury, the revenue fell to L96,624 sterling, while the expenditure was L197,633. In 1855 the following return was made:

**Income**

| Description | Amount | |----------------------|----------| | Ordinary revenue | L199,647 | | Casual revenue | 26,771 | | **Total** | L226,419 |

**Expenditure**

| Description | Amount | |----------------------|----------| | Ordinary expenditure | L193,461 | | Casual expenditure | 49,643 | | **Total** | L243,105 |

In the same year the local or parochial taxes amounted to about L80,000.

In the budget for 1856, the following estimates of the revenue and expenditure for the current year were presented to the Jamaica legislature:

**Income**

| Description | Amount | |----------------------|----------| | Import dues | L125,000 | | Rum duties | 30,000 | | Stamps | 11,000 | | Tonnage dues | 11,000 | | Fees | 1,000 | | Stock and Hereditaments | 16,000 | | House-tax (disallowed) | 6,000 | | Land-tax | 5,000 | | Interest on balance of guaranteed loan in Colonial Bank | 1,000 |

**Expenditure**

| Description | Amount | |----------------------|----------| | Collection of revenue | L20,105 | | Parochial items transferred | 14,058 | | Church establishment | 23,350 | | Administration of justice | 20,912 | | Police | 23,455 | | Governor and Privy Council | 4,450 | | Legislative Council | 2,064 | | House of Assembly | 3,345 | | Finance committee | 3,320 | | Sanitary establishment | 10,120 | | Education (disallowed) | 6,000 | | Printing | 4,000 | | Public works | 3,500 | | Lighthouses | 1,000 | | Prisons | 17,700 |

Carry forward L162,807 By an act of Assembly in 1854, the Council Fund of L.6000 a-year, originally granted in 1723, ceased, and it was provided that L.25,000 should be raised annually as a permanent civil list, for the purposes of the government of the island, and a further sum of L.30,000 for the interest on, and repayment of the guaranteed debt.

It is difficult to fix the value of the moveable and immoveable property in Jamaica, once estimated at 50 millions. The latter, however, that is, the land with the buildings on it, is periodically valued for taxation, and the hereditament tax is raised upon a sum equal to six per cent. on such valuation—that being, according to an arbitrary assumption, the net revenue of the land. Though the tax is paid upon many properties on which the cultivation has been given up, and which produce no revenue at all, this sum was fixed in 1850 at L.693,382, 4s. 3d., on an estimated value of about 11 millions and a half. Since then the decline has been rapid; and when it is remembered that the fall in rateable property in the next year exceeded 2 millions, there can be little doubt that the difference in value since the prosperous days of Jamaica amounts to at least 80 per cent. For many once valuable estates no purchaser could now be found on any terms. It is on record that 231 sugar estates have been abandoned, besides 243 coffee plantations, and 132 grass pens. It is notorious that the paper circulation, which amounted to L.258,816 in 1844, has dwindled to L.70,000 in 1855. It is clear, therefore, that though the public and parochial taxation has been reduced from about L.800,000 currency to less than L.300,000 sterling, it is much more burdensome to the taxpayer now. Indeed, when it is considered that the value of articles exported, expensive as they are to produce, does not reach one million, it is evident that the estates in the aggregate yield no rental at all, but are maintained by non-resident proprietors possessed of other means, who are unwilling to abandon the hope of future improvement. Even supposing the whole money expended in raising these articles of export amounted to little more than double the public revenue of the country, a proportion, highly taxed as the island is admitted to be, quite beyond belief, it would follow that after payment of production, expenses, and taxes, little or no surplus would remain for the proprietor; but such expenses must in reality far exceed L.600,000, and can only be provided, as before observed, by those proprietors who have other funds at their disposal.

It is necessary to explain the two forms of calculation to which reference has been made—currency and sterling. The former was an arbitrary mode of reckoning, unrepresented by any coinage, employed until the year 1840, by which L.140 currency equaled nominally L.100 sterling; but a premium of about 18 per cent. was paid in addition to place this sum in England, so that towards of L.166 in Jamaica were needed to pay L.100 in England. In 1840, an act passed, establishing the English computation, fixing the pound sterling at 5 dollars, or L.1, 13s. 4d. currency, and making English money the legal tender. Spanish and Portuguese coins are still current, the highest being the doubloon, or ounce, worth about L.3, 6s. 8d. Before this date, a "fivepenny," worth 3d. sterling, was the lowest coin. There is still no copper, and the lowest coin is the silver three-halfpence, coined especially for Jamaica, and called a predial, as intended for the payment of agricultural labourers. In former days, the only paper currency consisted of island cheques issued by the treasury. There are now two banks of issue, a branch of the Colonial Bank, and the Bank of Jamaica. A third, the Planters' Bank, has been given up since the trade of the colony declined. The present issue is usually from L.70,000 to L.80,000. Savings banks have also been established in the island.

The commerce of Jamaica depends almost entirely on its agriculture. It has gradually lost the greater portion of the transit trade in consequence of the revolt, and subsequent disorganization of the Spanish colonies on the mainland, the establishment of St. Thomas as a free port, and the rapidity of steam communication between Europe and the American coast, which diminished the advantages of an emporium in the West Indies. Its agricultural prosperity has declined in equal proportion, though, from different causes, the value of its staple having been depreciated by successive acts of the Imperial Government, whereby the differential duties, under the protection of which the scheme of emancipation was originally intended to be carried out, were discontinued. In 1840, East India sugar was admitted on equal terms into the British market. Four years afterwards the same advantage was conceded to foreign sugar, the produce of free labour; and in 1846 to slave-grown sugar. Protection has also been removed from molasses, coffee, and cocoa. Under these circumstances, the want of adequate labour has prevented Jamaica competing with those countries in which, from slavery or other causes, there is a sufficient supply.

The following tables illustrate these observations—

| Years | Value of Imports | Value of Exports | |------|-----------------|----------------| | 1809 | L.4,068,807 | L.3,033,234 | | 1810 | 4,208,337 | 2,303,579 | | 1853 | 864,094 | 837,276 | | 1854 | 463,520 | 932,216 |

The exports consist of her own products only, the imports include those intended for re-exportation, as well as those taken for home consumption, which explains why, in the flourishing era of the transit trade, the balance should be apparently so much against Jamaica. The exports, too, are entered at their value in the place of growth, while to imports are added charges for freight, &c. The small imports of 1854 were partly owing to the goods imported in anticipation the year before, when the duties were not levied. The same cause accounts for the small quantity of rum exported in 1853, and the excess of the two following years, enough for two years' home consumption having been entered in the same year duty free. The following table gives the trade and navigation report for 1855:

**Arrivals in Jamaica in 1855.**

| From | No. of Ships | Tonage | Mon. | Value of Imports | |---------------|--------------|--------|------|-----------------| | Great Britain | 122 | 43,029 | | | | United States | 94 | 13,784 | | | | Colonial | 145 | 15,435 | | | | Foreign | 127 | 11,894 | | | | Totals | 488 | 84,052 | 4322 | 899,507 7 10 |

**Departures from Jamaica in 1855.**

| To | No. of Ships | Tonage | Mon. | Value of Exports | |---------------|--------------|--------|------|-----------------| | Great Britain | 123 | 38,987 | | | | United States | 77 | 13,502 | | | | Colonial | 63 | 8,647 | | | | For countries | 240 | 25,014 | | | | Totals | 603 | 86,660 | 4462 | |

Of the ships in this list 40 were ships of war, 44 steamers, and 38 colliers. The largest sugar crop was in 1805, which exceeded 150,000 hds.; that of 1855 did not reach 30,000 hds., that of 1856 had fallen to 20,000 hds. The largest coffee crop was in 1814, and exceeded 34 million pounds. The great increase of pimento is unfortunately accounted for by the rapid spread of the tree, which grows wild in Jamaica, over lands formerly under cultivation. Since 1852 a small quantity of copper ore has been exported, amounting in 1854 to 37 tons. Besides these principal articles, there is exported a small quantity of tamarinds, cocoa nuts, succades, shrub, ebony, lignum vitae, and lancewood. There are five mining companies in Jamaica, all in their infancy—the Clarendon Consols, and Wheal Jamaica, in Clarendon; the Port-Royal and St Andrews, and the Ellerslie and Bardowie, in St Andrew; the Portland Mining Company in Portland. Of these the first two are at present the most promising. The principal imports into Jamaica are salt pork and beef, salt fish and oil, butter, lard, cheese, corn, corn-meal, oatmeal, flour, biscuits, rice, tobacco, wine, and beer; hardware cutlery and ironmongery; ready-made clothes, boots and shoes, and dry goods of all sorts; soap, candles, saddlery and harness; shingles, lumber, wood-hoops and coals.

There is a steam communication between England and Jamaica, and vice versa, twice a month, in 19 days. The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's ships leave Southampton on the 2d and 17th of each month, calling at St Thomas, Porto Rico, and Jacmel, in Hayti, and reach Kingston on the 21st and 6th. They leave again for England on the 27th and 12th, making the course of post about 44 days. They also sail once a-month between Jamaica and Honduras; course of post 10 days. There are frequent opportunities between Jamaica and Havana, and the United States. In the island there is a post twice a-day between Kingston and Spanish Town, and a communication twice a-week between these capitals and the country districts; besides expresses, the arrival and departure of the mail packets. Jamaica being on the direct route from England to Nicaragua, can scarcely fail to share in the growing importance of the states of Central America.

Hitherto its history, since emancipation, has been discouraging to the friends of liberty. The negro, on whom the cultivation of the island depends, has gradually retired from labour, and retrograded in the social scale. This does not arise from any hostile feeling towards the whites, with whom he usually lives on the most amicable terms; it is the natural result of removing all restraint from a people low in civilization, and consequently with few artificial wants, in a country where land is superabundant. The Jamaica negro can earn enough in a sugar plantation in a few weeks to buy a small patch of freehold land. The wood upon it forms his cottage; the vegetables which grow almost spontaneously support him in tolerable comfort. When his little property does not require his care, he works from time to time for hire; but as plantation after plantation is abandoned, and the country returns to its primeval forest, he is confined more and more to the society of his own race; and though not more addicted to crime, is rapidly retreating into a savage state. During slavery the dissenting ministers possessed great influence over him; he now prefers the established church, because it costs him nothing, but he cares little for either. Not feeling the want of education, he does not seek it for his children, whom he prefers employing in his own service. Hence, neither churches nor schools are wanted in Jamaica, but congregations and scholars. These observations are confirmed by the last returns, which fix the diminution of children in the schools in 1854, as compared with the previous year, at 2000, and show this decrease to be less conspicuous in those belonging to the established church of England and Scotland, than in those of the Baptists and Independents. We can scarcely blame the negro for following the bent of his inclination; but it is evident that under these circumstances, unless there is a large and immediate supply of immigrants, to meet the expense of whose introduction, averaging at least L10 a head, there are no available funds, all society will come to a speedy end, and the island become a second Hayti. Already the enormous depreciation of property has caused the ruin of so many, that the name of Jamaica proprietor, once used proverbially to indicate wealth, is now associated with poverty and distress.

Jamaica is of a long oval shape, and has been compared to a seal with the head pointed to the west. Its surface is beautifully diversified with hills and valleys. An elevated range, called, in the eastern or highest part, the Blue Mountains, and terminating in Dolphin Head, to the W., runs longitudinally through the island, and other high ridges intersect this chain. On the S., the mountains are generally steep, with gigantic spines or buttresses rising from the plain at an average distance of 12 miles from the sea. Though difficult of access they are traversed by bridle roads in various directions to the height of nearly 6000 feet; and several passes, or gaps, as they are called, of great altitude, connect the two sides of the island. On these elevated ranges the coffee attains the greatest perfection, and above, dense forests ascend to the highest peak, composed chiefly of beef-wood, as it is called from its colour, and satin-wood. Under their shade the treefern grows to the height of 15 feet, and the flute-like note is heard of the solitaire, a bird only found in these wildernesses. On the N., side the mountains approach the sea closely, but more gradually, their conical forms are gently rounded, and in St Ann and Trelawny the lower slopes are shaded by pimento woods, the indigenous growth of the island, and elsewhere by orange groves, mango, and cedar forests, above which frequently towers the gigantic silk-cotton tree. The shady valleys between were once occupied by cacao walks, now destroyed; and on the lowlands, near the sea, were formerly the indigo works, long since abandoned. Here are now the sugar estates, in which the dark green of the cane is varied by the golden tint of the guinea grass, and the cabbage and cocoa-nut palms shoot up in long lines close to the water's edge, from which they are separated by a fringe of mangroves, growing below high-water mark, and the beautiful but poisonous manchineel. The waving field of canes is broken at intervals by the white cluster of buildings composing the sugar works. The mill, the boiling-house, with its tall chimneys, and the stables, stores, and bookkeepers' houses surround a large court-yard. Above, on an eminence, is usually the proprietor's mansion, and close by, though completely buried in the broad foliage of the plantain and banana, the negro village. On these plantations during crop the scene is most animated. Bands of negroes, with cutlasses, attack the rows of canes which tower above their heads; waggons, drawn by oxen or mules, in endless succession, carry the canes to the mill; women and children hurry with the dry stalks to feed the fires; and the shouts, without which a negro seldom does anything, announce afar off, in this clear atmosphere, the neighbourhood of a sugar estate. It is here, too, that the traveller sees most clearly the decline of the country. At each end of the island, in the parishes of Hanover and Portland, he may journey for miles through deserted plantations. Ridges, overgrown with guava bushes, mark the site of the corn fields; rank vegetation fills the court-yard, and even bursts through the once hospitable roof. A curse seems to have fallen upon the land, as if this generation were atoning for the sins of the past. For while we lament the ruin of the present proprietors, we cannot forget the unrequited toil which in times gone by created the wealth they have lost, nor that hapless race, the original owners of the soil, whose fate saddens the darkest page of history.

The sugar estates resemble generally those of the other islands, but Jamaica has a feature peculiar to itself. In the centre of the island, and towards the S. and W., are large plains, or table-lands, at an elevation of about 1000 feet, covered with a luxuriant growth of guinea grass, dotted with groves of tall trees, and, at greater intervals, with white houses and villages. From an eminence the whole country resembles a series of English parks. These are the pens, or grazing farms, where horses and cattle of most excellent quality are bred. They are chiefly in St Ann, Manchester, St Elizabeth, St James, and Hanover. The climate, at this elevation, is well suited to an European population, who cannot work on the sugar plantations, but may with safety be employed on the light and healthy duties of the farm. From one of the many points of view on the mountain range the country presents an aspect of beauty and grandeur scarcely to be surpassed. Above tower the lofty peaks, with clouds resting on their summits—around are magnificent forests—beneath are the peculiar hollow basins, called cock-pits—below them deep ravines, or wider valleys; through these flow rivers or mountain torrents, occasionally falling from the rocky ledges in cascades which would attract notice in any part of the world. At a greater distance the wide plains are spread out like a map, chequered with towns and villages; and the deeply indented coast, terminating to the east in lofty cliffs, is washed by the glittering waters of the Caribbean Sea. The view of the island from the sea has long been celebrated. Soon after leaving Cape Tiburon, the western point of Hayti, the Blue Mountains are in sight, and along the S. coast of Jamaica, from Point Morant to Kingston, the inhabited plains, sloping gradually up, till cultivation terminates in forest, present an aspect of no common beauty. From Fort Nugent, which is conspicuous under a steep hill to Port-Royal, runs a narrow sandy promontory, called the Palisades. Here is the great cemetery where so many victims to yellow fever lie buried that the name has become proverbial; and this neck of land incloses the harbour of Kingston, which is entered by a most intricate channel between Port-Royal and Port-Henderson, and beyond which the capital is seen stretching northwards towards the amphitheatre of the Liguana Hills, and protected by the loftiest range of the Blue Mountains. The heights of the principal peaks have been computed as follows:—Blue Mountain Peak, 7770 feet; Portland Gap ridge, 6501 feet; Portland Gap, 5640 feet; and St Catherine's Peak, 4970 feet. It is stated, however, by some authorities that the three highest peaks on the grand ridge of the Blue Mountains, called Coldridge, have their respective summits 8184, 7656, and 7576 feet above the level of the sea.

Jamaica is, as its name imports, abundantly supplied with water. Upwards of two hundred rivers have been enumerated, few of which are navigable for vessels of any burden. Black River, the largest and least rapid of these, flows through a level country, and is accessible to small craft for about 30 miles. Salt River, and the Cabarita, both also on the S. side, are navigable by barges. The others on the S. are the Yallahs, Cobre, and Rio Minbo; on the N., Martha Brae, the White River at Buff Bay, the great Spanish River, and Rio Grande. Many of these are perfectly dry for six months in the year, leaving a stone channel, many hundred feet across, and twelve feet deep. These channels, which are commonly used as roads, are liable to be filled in an instant by an impetuous torrent, which comes down without warning, in consequence of a storm or waterspout bursting far away in the mountains, and many fatal accidents have been the result. The writer once saw the streets of Kingston laid suddenly two feet under water from a similar cause, with a perfectly clear sky overhead. Many of these rivers are of great value in turning mills and irrigating the plantations. The springs and rivulets are very numerous but unequally distributed; and from the uncertain supply of water, most estates are obliged to keep up large tanks or ponds at a great expense. Several of these springs are medicinal, the most remarkable of which are a hot salt spring near the mouth of the Milk River, in Vere, and a sulphurous spring, of the temperature of 123° Fahrenheit, near the beautiful village of Bath, in St Thomas in the East. Jamaica has sixteen secure harbours, the chief of which are Port Morant, Kingston, Old Harbour, Green Island, Montego Bay, Falmouth, Port Maria, and Port Antonio, besides thirty bays, roadsteads, or shipping stations, which afford tolerable anchorage. Those on the N. side are, however, exposed to the N. wind, or norther, which often sweeps over these seas with little warning, and irresistible force.

Jamaica is divided into three counties—Surrey, Cornwall, and Middlesex; and these are subdivided into twenty-two parishes, many of which are as large as English counties. The towns are not remarkable for architecture, drainage, or cleanliness. The official capital, Spanish Town, or St Jago de la Vega, as it is still called in official documents, is a small town of 7000 inhabitants, on the Cobre, about six miles from the sea. The governor's palace, called the King's House, is a large building occupying one side of a square, on the other sides of which are the public buildings of various kinds. Spanish Town is the residence of the judges, barristers, and other officials, and contains the cathedral; near it, on the way to St Ann's, is the beautiful road on the banks of the Cobre, called the Bog Walk. Kingston, the commercial capital, is considerably larger, with a population of 30,000; it is also hotter, and more unhealthy. In 1803 it was incorporated as a city, and is governed by a mayor, aldermen, and common council-men. There is a good theatre here, and a large English and Scotch church, besides other places of worship. It is on the sea, and the quays are very commodious, and well constructed. On the point of land which forms Kingston Harbour is the naval station of Port-Royal. Independently of the dockyards and barracks, the town is a wretched place, inhabited chiefly by people of colour. Savana la Mar, a hot unhealthy town, destroyed by the sea in 1780, is the chief place of the county of Cornwall; and Falmouth and Montego Bay are the principal towns on the N. of the island. None of them contain any remarkable buildings, public or private. All who can, prefer living a little way in Jamaica, the country, in the usual one-storied house of the tropics, with its green jalousies and deep verandah.

The soil is in most places deep and fertile, and for the growth of sugar, pimento, and ginger, and, as some think, of coffee, has never been surpassed. On the N., there is a reddish yellow soil. The brick mould, reckoned the best in the West Indies for the cane, is a deep warm hazel mould, easily laboured, and requiring little manure. The black-shell mould owes its fertility to the mineral salts and exuviae which it contains. On the S. side are large natural salt ponds, which of late years have been neglected. The principal soils in the interior are a red clay, a yellowish clay, a red grit, a loose conchaceous mould, a black mould or clay or marl, a loose vegetable mould on rock, a fine sand. The red sandstone of the lower mountains resembles much the porphyry conglomerate of the higher, and both produce coffee; but while that grown on the former has been driven out of the market by the cheaply grown coffee of Ceylon, the latter retains its value, being considered by many superior to the Mocha which springs from a similar soil. Among minerals are—argillaceous dark purple schist; gneiss; steatite, and even serpentine; sienites, highly micaceous; and the hard lamellated amiantus, resembling petrified wood; white freestone; quartz of different kinds; limestone, and a kind of marble. Rich lead ore, impregnated with silver is found in St Andrew; radiated antimony and rich copper ores, abounding in malachite, are found chiefly in Clarendon, Portland, and St George; magnetic iron and cobalt in St George and Metcalfe; anthracite coal in Portland and St George; but neither gold nor pure silver have been found, though the Indians possessed ornaments of both when discovered by the Spaniards. A species of marl, common in Jamaica, was eaten by the negroes during slavery, so much to the detriment of their health and value that the practice was made penal. The honeycomb limestone rock, of which a great part of the island is composed, contains no minerals, but is hollowed into innumerable caverns and fissures. Many of these are beautifully ornamented with stalactites, particularly one on the Roaring River estate, near Savanna la Mar. In some of these fissures called "sinks," rivers suddenly disappear to rise again at a considerable distance. On the Sweet River estate several springs rise like fountains with great force in one field. On the road from Falmouth to Maroon Town, a considerable stream pours from an opening in the solid rock several feet above the ground, and the Rio Bueno streams at once from the foot of a perpendicular rock in St Ann. There are fewer traces of fire in Jamaica than in the other islands; but the Burnt Hill, near Hope Bay, seems to be an extinct volcano. There is great variety of climate; the medium heat at Kingston is about 80°, and the minimum 70° Fahrenheit, throughout the year. At an elevation of from 4000 to 5000 feet, the average range is from 55° to 65°; the minimum in winter being 44°. On the Blue Mountain peak, in August, the writer found the temperature 44° at sunrise, and ice of some thickness has been formed there in March. Snow has never been known to fall. The alternation of temperature is from 8° to 10° on the S. side, and more on the N., but the transitions are not so sudden and detrimental as in many parts of the continent of North America. The grand compensation for excess of temperature is afforded by the breezes which regularly every morning set in from the sea, to the land, and every evening from the land to the sea, to preserve the equilibrium which the noonday sun has disturbed; when these are sometimes interrupted the heat is intense, the thermometer rising to 100° Fahrenheit, and the island becomes unhealthy. There is no striking variety in the length of the day, or in the seasons, except the alternations of wet and dry. Storms of thunder and lightning are prevalent, and sometimes very mischievous in autumn. The hurricane season ranges from July to October. The periodical rains, which last ordinarily for six weeks, are called the May and October seasons, but there is great irregularity in the time of their falling. The N. side usually suffers less from drought than the S., but even there the rains are sometimes very capricious, following the course of a river, or being stopped by a ridge of hills. The parishes of Vere and St Dorothy, on the S. side, have sometimes been more than a year without rain, to the destruction of vegetation and cattle.

Some parts of Jamaica, particularly near morasses, are extremely unhealthy, and there few escape intermittent fevers, or "fever and ague," as it is called, but in general the climate is favourable to those who live carefully, though when the yellow fever comes as an epidemic, which happens every seven or eight years, it carries off all alike. It is, however, rarely known at an elevation of 1000 feet, and in some of the hilly districts, especially the Santa Cruz Mountains and Pedro Plains, there are remarkable instances of longevity among the English settlers. The annual mortality among the white troops for twenty years ending 1837 was 130 in the 1000, or a seventh of the entire force. Since they have been fed on fresh provisions, and more especially since they have been encamped on high ground, this has been reduced to 34 per 1000. Of late years the cholera has made its appearance, and committed extraordinary havoc; and since emancipation smallpox has been more prevalent, on account of the negroes neglecting the vaccination of their children. The vegetable productions of Jamaica are far too numerous to be described. There are forest trees fit for every purpose, from shipbuilding to cabinet-making, among which the ballata, rosewood, satinwood, mahogany, lignum vitae, lancewood, and ebony, are conspicuous; but the scarcity of labour makes it cheaper to import planks ready sawn from America. The logwood, the trunk of which resembles the clustered columns of Gothic architecture, and the fusicle, are largely exported for dyeing. The Jamaica cedar (Cedrela odorata), with ash-like leaves, is valuable for the interior of houses, as its scented wood keeps off insects. The silk-cotton tree (Ceiba Bombox or Eriodendron) is one of the largest in Jamaica; its silky pods are used to stuff pillows, but, from want of adhesion in the fibres is useless for manufacture. The pimento is indigenous, and furnishes the allspice. The bamboo, the coffee, the cacao or chocolate tree, are well known productions; the last, however, is disappearing, and the export has ceased. Several species of palm abound, the macca, the fan palm, and screw palm, but the noblest is the palmetto royal (Areca oleracea), the green top of which is called the mountain cabbage, and eaten as a vegetable. The cocoanut is the most valuable of all this tribe. The mango, which overshadows the island, forming a splendid forest tree, and affording food for man and beast, was introduced by Rodney, who took it from a French ship; the breadfruit by the famous Bligh in 1793. The papaw has the peculiar property of rendering meat tender. The lace-bark tree, found near Maroon Town, has an inner bark of so delicate a texture that ladies' dresses have been made of it. The guava, from which the delicious preserve is made, is a weed of the country, and the fruit when raw scarcely eatable. The palma christi, from which castor oil is made, is a very abundant annual. A new species of silkworm (the Bombyx Cynthia), which feeds on its leaf, has lately been introduced from India, by the Jamaica Society of Arts, founded by Sir C. Grey. The sunflower is sometimes cultivated for oil. A variety of the Cactus Opuntia, on which the cochineal feeds, is common, and from which, as well as from the insect, recent experiments have proved that a dye may be obtained. English vegetables grow in the hills; while the plains produce the plantain, cocoa, yam, cassava, ochra, beans and peas of various sorts, ginger, and arrowroot. Maize Jamaica, and guinea corn are generally cultivated, and the guinea grass, accidentally introduced in 1750, has overspread the whole island, and forms the most wholesome and strengthening food for horses and cattle. The principal fruits are the orange, the shaddock, the lime, the grape or cluster fruit, the pineapple, nesberry, granadilla, star-apple, custard-apple, mannae sapota, mango, bananas, grapes, melons, the avocado pear, the breadfruit, and tamarind, though the last three would be more correctly ranked among vegetables.

There is a botanic garden near Kingston, and a finer one at Bath, where many now naturalized exotics were first planted. The sarsaparilla is erroneously supposed to grow in Jamaica, though it is classed in the customs' returns there among the imports. It is brought from the Spanish main, and re-exported by the Jamaica Jews, in whose hands the trade is; hence it is called Jamaica sarsaparilla. The sugar-cane was cultivated at an early period in Jamaica by the Spaniards, and was so much extended by the English that, in 1671, we read of sugar works scattered over the whole island. There are several varieties, the most valuable being the one brought from Bourbon in 1799, which is of a bright yellow; and the Mont Blanc, of three sorts, white, violet, and blue. Besides which is the ribbon-cane, beautifully striped with various colours, which is coarse and dry, but more hardy than the other sorts. The statistics of the sugar and coffee cultivation have been given elsewhere. There are many beautiful flowers in the island, the most remarkable of which are the aloe, the yucca, the datura, the mountain pride, the portlandia; the cactus and cereus tribe, the various kinds of convolvulus and ipomoea, and two beautiful descriptions of plumeria, called the tree jasmine. Innumerable varieties of ferns grow in the mountains, and orchids in the woods. The pastures are infested by that interesting mimosa, the sensitive plant. It is eaten by sheep, but is armed with minute thorns, which make troublesome wounds in their feet. There are many beautiful insects, among which the fire-flies are most remarkable. There are fourteen sorts of Lampyridae or fire-flies, besides the Elateridae or lantern beetles, which are larger and more luminous; but neither in flowers nor insects is Jamaica so rich as more southern islands. To compensate for this it has no venomous serpents, though abounding in harmless snakes and lizards. A large lizard, the iguana, is considered a delicacy, as are the land-crab and tortoise. The scorpion and centipede are poisonous, but not very common or dangerous. Ants, mosquitoes, and sandflies, swarm in the lowlands. Bees, among which is a stingless variety, are numerous in the woods, and produce excellent honey. It is a popular error that in the tropics flowers have no scent and birds no song. The datura and orange are among many instances to the contrary in the former case; and as to the latter, Goss enumerates some twenty different song birds in Jamaica, among which may be mentioned the Jamaica nightingale, a kind of mocking-bird (Merula Jamaicensis), and a species of humming-bird (Mellisuga humilis). Parrots and pigeons are common, and the wild Guinea fowl; also a species of goatsucker, called the mosquito hawk, and a great variety of water-birds, among which is the pelican and a sort of albatross. The crane, heron, plover, snipe, ortolan (or rice-bird of Carolina), and quail, are migratory. The aura vulture, or Turkey buzzard, called the John Crow, is numerous, and valuable as a scavenger. By its instinct the concealed body of a murdered man has more than once been traced in Jamaica. The sea and rivers swarm with fish; among the larger ones are the shark, the nurse shark, the bonito, the sword and saw fish; besides the snapper, mullet, king-fish, Spanish mackerel, the flying-fish, &c. The cachalot is found. Turtles abound; and the seal and manatee, or river cow, are sometimes found, and the crocodile (called erroneously alligator). Jamaica, when discovered, contained but few species of animals. Besides the alco, there was the utia or Indian cory, the musk-rat, the armadillo, monkey, agouti, peccary, opossum, and raccoon. At present the only wild animals are the wild hog (an African variety, introduced from the Canaries), a kind of deer (the cariacou), goats, rats, and mice. The rats commit serious ravages among the canes, and those which feed only in the cane-fields are by some esteemed a delicacy. This species, called the Charles Price rat, was introduced to destroy a smaller kind; but the remedy seems to have proved worse than the evil. The breed of oxen has been much improved by judicious crossing, and can scarcely be surpassed. The horses have much of the Arab blood. They are small but fleet, and at the island races have often beaten English racers, particularly some taken out by the Marquis of Normanby, when governor. The Cleveland bay has lately been introduced from England, with a view to size and bone. The mules are large, hardy, and sagacious, and much used for mountain-riding, as well as for carrying baggage and working on the estates. The sheep and pigs are of excellent quality, and the pork of Jamaica is considered much more wholesome than that of England, being frequently recommended to invalids. Goats are much reared by the negroes, but they are very mischievous in sugar and coffee plantations. The Cuba bloodhound is used as a watchdog, being the species which thrives best in a hot climate; the English hound and terrier, which have frequently been introduced, soon degenerate and die. Poultry succeeds well, particularly the turkey, the Guinea fowl, and Muscovy duck.

The principal publications relating to Jamaica are—Long's History, 1774; Bryon Edwards' History, 1809, with an Appendix, 1819; Renny's History, 1807; Matheson, 1811; Howard's Laws of Jamaica, 1827; Beckford's History; Dallas' Maroon War; Stewart's Jamaica; Monk Lewis' Tom; Madden's Jamaica; Montgomery Martin, 1836; Philippo's Past and Present State of Jamaica, 1843. The earlier histories are scarcely applicable to the present day, while many of the later publications are mere vehicles for conveying the author's views for or against slavery. By far the best and most reliable information is contained in the despatches of successive governors, published in the parliamentary Blue Books; many of which, and particularly those of Sir Charles Grey, contain admirable expositions of the state of the country, and causes of its decline. The natural history of Jamaica has also been the theme of many writers—Sloane, in 1692; Brown, 1754; Barham, 1794; Lunan, 1814. These authors have a most able and enthusiastic successor in Gosse, whose Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica, 1851, and Birds of Jamaica, 1847, are delightful books. For vivid pictures of scenery and life in Jamaica, Tom Cringle's Log, and The Cruise of the Midge, by Michael Scott, a Kingston merchant, are unrivalled.

Before concluding this article it is necessary to refer to a dependency called the Caymanas, or Cayman Isles. These are three small coral islands or keys, in N. Lat. 19. to 19.20., and 30 to 40 leagues W.N.W. from Point Negril, Jamaica, and about the same distance S. of Cuba. Grand Cayman lies off the centre of the Yucatan Passage; Cayman-Braque or Brac, and Little Cayman are near each other, and about 34 miles N.E. from Grand Cayman. They were discovered by Columbus, but no settlement was ever made by the Spaniards. Grand Cayman, the only one occupied, is about a mile and a half long by a mile broad, and contains about 1000 acres. It is very low, entirely without springs, and overgrown with low stunted shrubs. These islands are favourite breeding-places for turtles, immense shoals of which animals frequent the low sandy shore for the purpose of depositing their eggs. The present race of inhabitants are entirely coloured people, whose ostensible occupation is that of fishermen and pilots, but they have the reputation of being also pirates and wreckers. They live in two wretched villages, dignified by the names of George Town and Bodder Town, and are in no way interfered with by the Jamaica authorities, but are governed by a captain of their own choosing, who seems to possess despotic power. There is a church on the island, but entirely in ruins. They appear to be under none of the restraints of law or religion; and a Presbyterian missionary who devoted himself to their instruction was lately obliged to leave in despair. Their numbers have much decreased, and at present do not reach 100, as during the last few years many families have left this barren rock for the more fertile shores of Ruatan Island.

(s. c.)

JAMES, the name of several persons mentioned in the New Testament.

1. James, the son of Zebedee and Salome, was the brother of John the Evangelist. His occupation was that of a fisherman, probably of Bethsaida. Along with John and Peter he was chosen to witness the transfiguration, the restoration of Jairus' daughter to life, and to be with Jesus in Gethsemane on the night of his agony. From their bold, warm, and impetuous temperament, he and his brother were called Boanerges, sons of thunder. He was the first of the apostles to suffer martyrdom, having been executed A.D. 42 or 44 in Jerusalem, by order of Herod Agrippa. When led to execution, his firmness was so impressive, that the officer in attendance became a Christian, and suffered death along with him in the same cause.

2. James, the son of Alphaeus and Mary, was one of the twelve. He is called the Less, either from being younger than the previous James, or on account of his little stature. In the Gospels there is mention made of James, the brother of Jesus; and Neander pronounces it one of the most difficult questions in apostolic history, to determine whether he was the same as the son of Alphaeus.

James, Epistle of, one of the canonical epistles of the New Testament, concerning the true authorship of which frequent doubts have been raised. It has been claimed for the son of Zebedee, on account of the inscription on a Syriac MS., published by Widmanstadt; and also of an Arabic MS., cited by Cornelius & Lapidus. This claim, however, has found few supporters. In regard to James, the Lord's brother, and James the son of Alphaeus, all who believe these to be different personages, agree in ascribing the epistle to the former. According to Hegesippus he was surnamed the Just, from the equity with which he governed the church at Jerusalem; and, according to Eusebius, he was the first who had the pastoral charge in that city, an office which he held for thirty years. The claims of the pseudo-James invite the question of the authenticity and canonical authority of the epistle. The objections which have been raised to the epistle are the following:—Eusebius expressly refers to it as a spurious production, and Jerome uses expressions to the same effect, probably merely repeating Eusebius. It was rejected in the fourth century by Theodore of Mopsuestia, and in the sixth by Cosmos Indicopleustes. On the other hand, it has been cited by Clemens Romanus, Irenaeus, Origen, and Ephrem Syrus, and was commented on by Clemens Alexandrinus. Still more important is the fact, that the epistle forms part of the Syriac version made so early as the close of the first century. After the Council of Nice, it was received by the churches of both the East and the West. It remained as a canonical portion of Scripture till, on purely dogmatic grounds, doubts were raised by Erasmus, Cajetan, and Luther. The second of these observed, that the salutation with which the epistle begins is that of a heathen rather than of an apostle, and one who does not even claim to be an apostle. Luther called it an epistle of straw, and considered the doctrine of justification, as set forth in James, opposed to that of St. Paul. In conformity with these views, De Wette started the hypothesis that the epistle was written by some one who assumed the name of James, in order to add weight to his attack upon Paul's doctrine of justification. This has been successfully refuted by Neander, who shows that the real difference between Paul and James consists in the different circumstances in which they wrote, and the different objects which they had in view. Paul had to enlighten those who put their trust in the justifying works of the law; James had to show the Jews that their faith as a solitary principle, without conformity of life, was valueless.

The epistle, then, is to be considered the production of James the Just, bishop of Jerusalem, and was written A.D. 62 or thereabout, immediately before his martyrdom. Some commentators complain of the want of connection in thought, but Bishop Jebb shows that there is a strong logical chain binding together what at first sight appears the most incongruous and irrelevant materials. He has also applied the principle of Hebrew parallelism with success to several passages in the epistle.

James, St. of the Sword (San Jago del Espada), a military order in Spain, instituted in 1170, under the reign of Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Galicia. Its object was to put a stop to the incursions of the Moors, these knights obliging themselves by a vow to secure the roads. An union was proposed and agreed to in 1170, between these and the canons of St. Eloy; and the order was confirmed by the pope in 1175. The highest dignity in that order is that of grand-master, which has been united to the crown of Spain. The knights were obliged to give proof of their descent from families that had been noble for four generations on both sides; they also were required to make it appear that their ancestors were neither Jews, Saracens, nor heretics, nor had ever been called in question by the inquisition.

JAMES, the name of seven princes of the house of Stuart, the first five of whom were kings of Scotland, while the last two reigned over the whole kingdom of Great Britain. James I., the younger son of Robert III., was born in 1393, came to the throne in 1424, and was assassinated February 21, 1437. His son, James II., was born in 1432, and was accidentally killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh, in 1460, being then in his 29th year. James III., the son of the last-named, was born in 1454, came to the throne in 1460, and was murdered in 1488, in his 35th year. His son, James IV., born in 1474, began to reign in 1488. He was slain with the flower of his nobility at Flodden, in 1513. James V., born in 1512, came to the throne on his father's death, in the following year, and died in 1544, in his 33d year. James VI. of Scotland, born in 1566, became king of England under the title of James I., on the death of Elizabeth, in 1603. After a reign of 36 years in Scotland and 22 in Great Britain, he died in 1625, in the 60th year of his age. James VII. of Scotland, and II. of England, the second son of Charles I., was born in 1633, and died in exile in 1701, in the 68th year of his age. (See Scotland, England, Great Britain, &c., &c.)

JAMES RIVER, a river of the United States of America, rising in the Alleghany Mountains, and flowing through the state of Virginia to the Atlantic Ocean. It first flows in a south-easterly direction, then changes to the N.E., after passing Lynchbury, and returns to its former direction a few miles above Columbia, in which course it continues to Chesapeake Bay. It is 450 miles in length,

1 Clem. Hist. Eccl. i. 9. Jameson, and is navigable for vessels of 130 tons to the port of Richmond, 150 miles from the sea, where the river meets the tide. At this point the James River and Kanawha Canal begins. The trade of the James River is considerable and increasing, forming, as it does, a great outlet for the tobacco, cotton, and other produce of Virginia.

JAMESON, GEORGE, an eminent artist, the Van Dyck of Scotland, was the son of Andrew Jameson, an architect, and was born at Aberdeen in 1586. He studied under Rubens at Antwerp; and after his return, applied with indefatigable industry to portraits in oil, though he sometimes practised in miniature, and also in history and landscape. His largest portraits were generally somewhat less than life. His pieces are all distinguished by their delicacy and softness, and their clear and beautiful colouring; his shades are not charged, but helped by varnish, with little appearance of the pencil. When King Charles I. visited Scotland in 1633, the magistrates of Edinburgh, knowing his majesty's taste, employed Jameson to make drawings of the Scottish monarchs, with which the king was so pleased, that he sat to him for a full-length picture, and rewarded him with a diamond ring from his own finger. Jameson always drew himself with his hat on, either in imitation of his master Rubens, or from having been indulged in that liberty by the king when his majesty sat to him. Some of Jameson's works are in the colleges of Aberdeen; but the best collection of his works is at Taymouth Castle, the seat of the Marquis of Breadalbane. He died at Edinburgh in 1644, and was interred in the Greyfriars' churchyard, but without a monument. Jameson was but little known in England, and has not been noticed by any English writer on the fine arts, except Lord Orford. But he was much esteemed in his own country; and Arthur Johnston, the poet, addressed to him an elegant Latin epigram on his portrait of the Marchioness of Huntly.

JAMESON, ROBERT, the late distinguished professor of natural history in the University of Edinburgh, was born in Leith on 11th of July 1774, and received the elements of his education in the public grammar school of his native town. It is stated that his schoolboy acquirements gave small promise of future distinction, and his residence in a seaport not unnaturally inclined him to become a sailor; but his father strenuously opposed the wishes of the boy, and he was bound apprentice to an eminent surgeon in Leith. In due time he commenced his medical studies in the University of Edinburgh; and among other branches, he became, in 1792-3, a student of natural history, under the Rev. Dr Walker, who may justly be considered as the reviver of a taste for that science in the capital of Scotland. Young Jameson soon became a favourite pupil of that master, accompanied him in some of his mineralogical excursions, and assisted him in the arrangement of a museum which Walker endeavoured to accumulate.

This predilection for the study of natural history was increased by a visit which Jameson paid to London in 1793, when he became acquainted with Sir Joseph Banks and with Dr Shaw, then employed in that department of the British Museum. On his return to Scotland, Jameson seems to have adopted natural history as his chief occupation; and he also attended the chemical lectures of the celebrated Dr Black.

In 1794 he commenced his explorations of the isles of Scotland by a visit to Shetland, from which his father's family had sprung. Among other mineralogical excursions in different parts of Scotland, he examined the interesting Isle of Arran in 1797. The first fruit of these researches appeared in his Mineralogy of Arran and Shetland, published in 1798. This work contains dissertations on help and peat, which present little interesting, except the author's remarks on the analogy between the acid found in peat bogs and the suberic acid of chemists, and the employment of charred peat, in some countries, for the manufacture of iron. In the year 1798, accompanied by a friend, afterwards Sir Charles Bell, he carefully explored the Hebrides; and in the following year he visited the Orkney Isles, and Arran for a second time, preparatory to his work termed The Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, which appeared in 1800 in two thin 4to volumes, and contained his former account of Arran and Shetland.

Besides these publications, Jameson had read occasional papers to the Natural History Society of Edinburgh, and sent a few communications to some philosophical journals; but none of them seem to have been afterwards considered by their author as of much importance.

In 1800 he proceeded to Freyberg, for the avowed purpose of completing his mineralogical studies under the celebrated Werner. Freyberg was, at that period, considered the great mineralogical school of Europe. The impressive manner of Werner in communicating instruction, and the enthusiasm with which he contrived to impress his students, is well known; and Jameson became a devoted follower of all the dogmas of Wernerian geology. Among his fellow-students was Von Buch, and the illustrious Von Humboldt had preceded him in the same school. Both these great geologists commenced as supporters of the hypothesis of Werner, and, like Jameson, both afterwards saw reason to adopt very different geological theories.

During the two years succeeding his Freyberg studies, Jameson visited different parts of the continent, to increase his mineralogical knowledge; but in 1804 he returned to his native country, where he speedily obtained the chair of natural history, as successor to his old master, Dr Walker. The duties of this chair embraced a very wide range of subjects, which, in most continental schools, are assigned to different professors. Jameson adopted the arrangement of his predecessor, dividing natural history into—1st, Meteorology; 2nd, Hydrology; 3rd, Mineralogy, including geology; 4th, A slight sketch of phytology; and, 5th, Zoology. It was in the three first divisions of the subject, especially the third, that the prelections of Jameson were chiefly valuable; but his acquaintance with animated nature was more limited. He exhibited his anxiety to discharge his academical duties to the utmost, and his enthusiasm on his favourite subjects he failed not to impart to his students, by which a strong stimulus was given to mineralogy and geology in Scotland.

The Wernerian doctrines of Jameson were not universally received. A very different theory of the earth had been promulgated some years before by the celebrated Hutton; and it was most ably supported by the experiments and papers in the Transactions of the Edinburgh Royal Society, of Sir James Hall, and the admirable Illustrations of the Humane Theory of Professor Playfair; while a good abstract of Hutton's views was annually given in his chemical course by Professor Hope. The principal supporters of the Wernerian or Neptunian theory were Jameson and Dr John Murray, in his well written Comparative View of the Neptunian and Huttonian Theories. The controversy was carried on with spirit at the meetings of the Royal and other societies, and it did not fail, from the ingenuity and earnestness of the supporters of each theory, to impart a high interest to geological speculations. It is not a little creditable, however, to the candour of Professor Jameson, that, after having long believed and zealously taught the Wernerian theory of the earth, he did not hesitate publicly to renounce his long-cherished geological speculations, and do justice to the extraordinary merits of Dr Hutton.

Before Jameson became the professor of natural history, he seems to have resolved on producing a mineralogical survey of all Scotland; and in 1804 he published the first part of the first volume of such a work, comprehending the county of Dumfries; but the increasing duties of his chair, and his resolution of forming a museum worthy of the uni- Jameson, versity, suspended that work, which was never farther realized. We may here state that, by the inattention of some of his predecessors, and the ravages of time, the considerable collections bequeathed to the college by Sir Robert Sibbald and others had disappeared; and most of the acquisitions made by Dr Walker were, after his death, claimed by his relations as private property; so that, when Jameson began to teach, he was almost without any public museum for the illustration of his lectures. He had, however, made a fine collection of minerals in Germany and elsewhere, which he used in that part of his course; and the few and imperfect zoological specimens he found in the museum were soon augmented by his indefatigable exertions, and considerable sacrifices both of valuable time and money. In after years the purchase of the noble Dufréne collection at Paris by an anticipation of funds about to accrue to the university, a small annual grant by the government for the support of the museum, and the fees for admission, together with numerous contributions obtained at Jameson's request from former pupils, have rendered this one of the noblest museums in our islands devoted to the teaching of natural history.

These engrossing occupations did not prevent Jameson's cultivation of his favourite study. In 1804 appeared his System of Mineralogy, in two octavo volumes, with a separate dissertation on Werner's External Characters of Minerals. In the first he gave most accurate descriptions of individual minerals; in the latter, he introduced, for the first time to the British public, Werner's capital definitions and nomenclature of colours, as applicable to descriptions of minerals and animals. The third volume of his System was published in 1809, under the title of Elements of Geognosy, in which, with the phraseology, he adopted all the hypothetic views of Werner, which he there contrasted with the fiery theory of Hutton. This work never became popular, partly from the growing tendency of geologists to dispute the dogmas of the Neptunists, and no doubt also from the intermixture of German idiom in which it was delivered. A second edition of his System of Mineralogy, in three octavo volumes, was published in 1816; and at the same time, an enlarged edition of his External Characters. In both editions of his System the arrangement of Werner is scrupulously followed; but in his Manual of Minerals and Mountain Rocks, which appeared in 1821, Jameson adopted the arrangement and nomenclature, as well as the crystallography of Professor Mols. This may be considered as his last separate publication.

Jameson, however, was otherwise engaged in the cause of science. We have already noticed his labours in the formation of the university museum, an object to which he devoted a large portion of the best years of his life; and he assured the writer of this memoir that to this he had sacrificed his intention of completing the mineralogical survey of Scotland. A knowledge of his exertions in this cause induced his friends, some years before his death, to place the fine bust of him by Steel in the principal saloon of the museum.

The Natural History Society of Edinburgh had languished for several years after the death of Smellie; but it was revived through the exertions of Jameson, Dr Neill, and some other naturalists, and, under the designation of the Wernerian Society, has published seven volumes of Transactions, containing valuable memoirs, some of which are by Professor Jameson.

In 1819 he established The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, in which, for a time, he was ably assisted by Dr Brewster; but it was afterwards solely conducted by Professor Jameson.

Jameson continued to give two annual courses of lectures, until the few last years of his life. His lectures were well attended, and he had the art of inspiring his pupils with his own love of a favourite science. This was much enhanced by those frequent instructive excursions, in which for many years he was accustomed to lead his students, among the interesting geological localities around Edinburgh, during which he explained the theories of the earth, and the succession of geological epochs.

At length his health gave way, and for five winter sessions the class of natural history was taught for him by his friend and colleague, the present professor of medical jurisprudence. Increasing debility came on, and Professor Jameson died with tranquillity on 17th April 1854, in the fiftieth year of his professorship, and the eightieth year of his age.

(J. S. T.)

JAMESTOWN, the capital and port of St Helena, is situate at the mouth of James Valley, on the N.W. side of the island. It contains several schools, and a military and seaman's hospital. The latter is supported by a duty of a penny per ton levied on every vessel entering the port.

JAMIESON, John, DD., author of the Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, was born in Glasgow in 1759. He took orders in the Secession Church, and was for some years a minister in connection with that body in Forfar. About the year 1795 he was translated to Edinburgh, where he spent the latter half of his long life, faithfully fulfilling the duties of his office. From time to time he continued to publish essays on religious and theological subjects. Among these were his Alarm to Great Britain; or an Inquiry into the Causes of the rapid Progress of Infidelity, 1795; Vindication of the Doctrine of Scripture, in reply to Dr Priestly's History of Early Opinions; The Use of Sacred History, and some other works of this class, besides sermons. Far more valuable than any of these, however, were his Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, 1808-9, by far the best work on that subject that has ever appeared; and his Hermes Scythicus, 1814, in which he tried to show the radical affinities of the Greek and Latin languages to the Gothic. Dr Jamieson died at Edinburgh in 1838.

JAMYN, Amadis, a celebrated French poet of the sixteenth century, was born about 1540 at Chaource, in Champagne. Trained under Dorat, Turnebus, and other great scholars of that era, he early showed a great fondness for literary pursuits. Ronsard, then the acknowledged Coryphaeus of French poetry, was pleased with his youthful effusions, and had him appointed secretary and reader to Charles IX. On the death of this benefactor, Jamyn quitted the court, and returned to his native town, where he died about 1585. His Oeuvres Poétiques were published at Paris in 1575, and again in 1577. They are divided into five books, and consist chiefly of amatory and lyrical pieces, sonnets, elegies, and eclogues. He seems to have taken his friend Ronsard as his model, and though he does not equal him in fancy or passion, he is more true to nature, and shows a finer taste. Besides his original works, Jamyn published (Paris, 1574, and again in 1780 and 1784) a translation of the last thirteen books of the Iliad, and of the first three of the Odyssey, in Alexandrine verse. These translations contain many beautiful lines and numerous passages that happily recall the splendid thought and diction of the Greek original; but they are sadly marred by barbarous solecisms, giving the idea rather of a travestie than a translation.

JANESVILLE, a town of the United States of North America, capital of Rock county, in the state of Wisconsin, situate on both sides of the River Rock, 45 miles S.E. of Madison. The court-house occupies a prominent position on the summit of the crags which overlook the town. A plentiful supply of water from the river, and ample railroad communication, are local advantages which give an increasing impetus to the trade and manufactures of the town. Janesville was settled about 1836, became capital of the JANIZARIES, or JANISSARIES. See Ottoman Army, under ARMY.

Jansen or Jansenius, Cornelius, bishop of Ypres, and the author of the celebrated Augustinus, was born in 1585 at Acqui, near Leerdam, in Holland. He studied theology at Utrecht and Louvain, where he became acquainted with De Haarmanne, afterwards Abbé of St Cyran. After completing his studies with this friend at Paris, he went with him to Bayonne, and there became the head of a newly founded college. Returning in 1617 to Louvain, he was made principal of the college of St Pulcheria. Two years later, he graduated as doctor in theology. In 1630 he was made professor of the Holy Scriptures; and in 1635, bishop of Ypres. He only enjoyed his bishopric, however, for about three years, being cut off by the plague, May 6, 1638. The works of Jansen published during his life were chiefly polemical in their character, and did not attract much notice. The most important of them, and that to which he owed his mitre, was his Mars Gallicus. France was at that time endeavouring to break the power of Spain by alliances with Protestant states. The Spaniards, in their turn, alarmed by the success of the French diplomacy, raised the cry of heresy against the French, and Jansen, at the request of the Spanish court, wrote the work in question with the view of holding up to Catholic Europe the dangers that threatened the true faith were France allowed to pursue her policy unchecked.

Jansen died in the bosom of the Romish Church, and was one of her most devoted champions; but he left behind him in MS. a work which was the means of damaging the cause of that church very nearly as much as the Reformation itself. This was the Augustinus Corneli Jansenii, published two years after his death by his literary executors Fromond and Calen. The last twenty years of his life had been spent on this self-imposed task. "Ten times," says Sir James Stephen, "he read over every word of the works of St Augustine; thirty times he studied all those passages of them which relate to the Pelagian controversy. All the fathers of the church were elaborately collated for passages illustrative of the opinions of the bishop of Hippo. With St Austin as his text and guide, Jansen proceeded to establish, on the authority of that illustrious father, those doctrines which in our times and country have been usually distinguished by the terms Calvinistic or Evangelical. Heirs of guilt and corruption, he considered the human race, and each successive member of it, as lying in a state of condemnation, and as advancing towards a state of punishment, until an internal impulse from on high awakens one and another to a sense of this awful truth, and infuses into them a will to fly from impending vengeance. But this impulse is imparted only to the few; and on them it is bestowed in pursuance of a decree existing in the divine intelligence before the creation of our species. Of the motives of their preference, not even a conjecture can be formed. So far as human knowledge extends, it is referable simply to the divine volition, and is not dependent on any inherent moral difference between the objects of it and those from whom such mercy is withheld. This impulse, however, is not irresistible. Within the limits of his powers, original or imparted, man is a free agent—free to admit and free to reject the proffered aid. If rejected, it enhances his responsibility; if admitted, it leads him, by continual accessions of the same supernatural assistance, to an acquiescence in those opinions, to the exercise of those affections, and to the practice of those virtues which collectively form the substance of the Christian system." The appearance of a work putting forward such views as these threw the city of Louvain into a ferment; but the harsh measures taken to suppress the heresy only caused it to take deeper root and spread its branches more widely. From Louvain it passed into France. Fiercely opposed, especially by the Jesuits, it was as keenly defended by Jansen's old friend St Cyran, the young Arnauld, and with him the whole Port-Royal. The theological faculty of Paris then took up the case, and Cornet, the syndic of that body, named a commission to select and report upon the offensive views in Jansen's book, and end the dispute by referring the whole affair to the pope. The five following points were fixed upon—1. That there are some of God's commandments beyond the power of even the best of men to obey, however anxious they may be to do so, insomuch as they have not yet received the measure of grace necessary to an acceptable obedience. 2. That even in an unregenerate state man is incapable of resisting inward grace. 3. That in the fallen state of nature, merit and demerit do not depend on a liberty which excludes necessity, but on a liberty which excludes constraint. 4. That the semi-Pelagians, while they admitted the necessity of an inward preventing grace for the performance of each particular act, were yet heretical in maintaining that this grace was of such a nature that the will of man was able either to resist or obey it. 5. That it is semi-Pelagianism to say that Christ by his death atoned for the sins of all mankind. After much intriguing and delay, the whole affair was laid for judgment before the reigning pope, Innocent X. In his bull of May 31, 1653, entitled Cum Occasione, that pontiff pronounced the first four points heretical, and the fifth rash, impious, and blasphemous. This bull was accepted and promulgated in France and the Netherlands with the royal consent. But it was far from giving universal satisfaction, and the Jansenists, who now counted in their ranks Pascal and Nicole with the whole Port-Royal, began to oppose and expose the intrigues of the Jesuits with all their might. Acknowledging that the five propositions in question were rightly condemned by the pope, they denied that they were to be found in the Augustinus in the sense in which they were condemned. Again the Jesuits appealed to the sovereign pontiff, and Alexander VII., in his bull of Oct. 16, 1656, entitled Ad sacraum, declared that the five propositions were contained in Jansen's book, and had been condemned by his predecessor in the sense intended by their author. Not content with this settlement of the question, Alexander sent into France a formula embodying the substance of this bull, which all the ecclesiastics of that country were called upon to sign, on pain of suspension, and even excommunication. The whole body of the French clergy, except four bishops, refused to comply, and their obstinate resistance holds a conspicuous place in the church annals of that era. It was proposed to bring them to trial; but they had powerful friends at court and in the parliament, and the idea fell to the ground. Meanwhile the Port-Royalists, not content with a passive resistance, carried the war into the enemy's country. Besides exposing the wide-spread corruption of the whole Romish Church, they singled out the Jesuits as winkling at, and even openly promoting it, for their private ends. To counteract the evil influence of this false priesthood, they wrote admirable text-books on various branches of education, disseminated biblical knowledge, and by their own lives set the example of a high and pure morality. The appearance of the Provincial Letters embittered the controversy which raged with unabated fury till the Peace of Clement IX. restored quiet to the church for a time. This pontiff declared himself satisfied if the bishops would subscribe themselves, and make others subscribe, purely and simply, though they expressly declared that they did not desire the same submission for the fact but for the right. The liberal policy of Innocent XI. went far to restore general harmony. In 1698, however, the smouldering fire again broke out into a fierce and open flame. In that year appeared the Moral Observations on the New Testament of Father Quesnel, then re-