Thessalonica, or Fedosia, a fortified sea-port town of Russia on the S.E. coast of the Crimea, and on the western side of a wide gulf of the same name; N. Lat. 45° 2', E. Long. 35° 20'. It occupies the site of the ancient Theodosia, an important town of the Greek kingdom of the Bosporus. It was founded by Milesian colonists at an early period, and was taken after a long siege by Leucon, king of the Bosporus, who named it after his wife Theodosia. He likewise made it a port, and gave certain advantages to Athenian vessels coming there for purposes of trade, so that in a short time it became a place of great commercial importance. After many vicissitudes, it came into the hands of the Genoese in the thirteenth century, and became the seat of an extensive commerce with the East by way of Persia and the Caspian. During this period it is said to have contained 80,000 inhabitants, but after its capture by the Turks in 1474, its prosperity rapidly declined. Since it came into their hands, the Russians have attempted to revive its former greatness, but with very partial success. Kaffa was declared a free port in 1806; and a museum of antiquities, botanic garden, and public library have been established by the Russian government. The harbour is protected by a promontory from the S. and S.W. winds, and there is excellent anchorage with deep water two cables' length from the shore. Pop. (1849) 8435.

KAFRARIA, or Kafriland, taken in its widest sense as denoting the country chiefly peopled by the Kafrs, extends along the eastern shores of South Africa, from the River Keiskamma, the eastern boundary of the colony of Cape of Good Hope, to Delagoa Bay, a distance of about 700 miles, and stretches inland to a distance varying from 150 to 400 miles from the sea. Within these limits are included,—1st, British Kafraria, lying between the Rivers Keiskamma and Kei. 2d, The country between the Kei and the River Umzimkulu, the south-western boundary of the British colony of Natal, called in recent maps Kafraria Proper. 3d, The colony of Natal, extending along the seaboard from the Umzimkulu to the Rivers Tugela and Umzimkulu, and inland to the Drakensberg, or Kathlamba Mountains. 4th, The country ruled by the Zulu-Kafrs, stretching from the last-named rivers to the vicinity of Delagoa Bay. 5th, The country formerly called the Orange River sovereignty, now the territory of the Free Dutch republic of that name; and, 6th, The country north of the Vaal River, under the rule of another section of Dutch boers, and called the Transvaal republic. In the narrower sense of the term, however, Kafraria is taken to include only the two first-named districts lying between the eastern boundary of the Cape Colony and Natal.

In this article, our remarks on the physical features of the country apply only to those narrower limits, but part of our observations on the people will include the whole Kafr race.

In its general formation, the country resembles the Cape Colony, rising from the sea in a series of steppes or plateaux, the walls of which are formed by ranges of hills nearly parallel to the lofty range which, for the most part, forms its N.W. boundary, consisting of the Amatola, the Winterberg, Stormberg, and Kathlamba, or Drakensberg Mountains. These steppes, however, are not so well defined as in the Cape Colony, and the surface of the country is extremely varied, in some parts presenting plane and table-land, in others a succession of gently sloping hills; in others lofty mountains rear their rugged and scarped sides, intersected by deep ravines, which form the beds of mountain torrents. The latter description particularly applies to the Amatola Mountains in British Kafraria, which have formed the stronghold of the Kafrs on so many occasions. A considerable part of British Kafraria is covered with dense bush, consisting, for the most part, of a thorny mimosa. Beyond the Kei, however, the upper part of the country is generally open and devoid of wood, except in ravines and the folding of the hills; but near the coast there are fine timber trees, in some places forming dense forests, in others scattered singly or in clumps, and giving the country a beautiful park-like appearance. The rivers in Kafraria run nearly parallel to one another, flowing from the several ranges of hills into the Indian Ocean. The most considerable of them are the Kei, the Umbashi, the Umtata, the Umzimvubu, or St John's River, and the Umzimkulu. They flow, for the most part, between high banks fringed with brushwood or in some places shaded by large trees, and, like all mountain streams, are low and feeble in the dry weather, but swollen and turbid in the rainy season. None of them are navigable, except the St John's or Umzimvubu, which will admit small craft to a distance of about 10 miles from the sea. There are no harbours on the coast, except that of East London, in British Kafraria, but it is scarcely more than an open roadstead, and far from safe.

The vegetable productions of Kafraria are similar to those of the Cape Colony. Oats, barley, rye, and most kinds of vegetables grow well in the valleys, and where irrigation can be applied. Wheat will also grow, but the crop is more uncertain than that of other grain just named, which are all, more or less, subject to rust, smut, and mildew. Indian corn and a species of millet, called Kafr's corn, thrive remarkably well. Indigo is indigenous. Cotton has been planted on a small scale, and found to grow extremely well. The forests produce a variety of timber for building and cabinet-making.

The wild animals of Kafraria are similar to those found in the Cape Colony. In regard to domestic animals, horned cattle thrive well, but sheep are subject to disease, unless kept on the higher ridges. Poultry of all kinds thrive well.

The climate differs in some respects from that of the Cape; the greatest amount of rain falls in the spring and summer. The winter is generally dry. In summer the heat varies from 70° to 90°; in the winter it is seldom below 50° in the day time; but the nights are very cold, and snow falls on the mountains. The temperature is subject to great changes within the space of very few hours; but the climate is, on the whole, extremely healthy.

British Kafraria, not being within the Cape of Good Hope, is not subject to the legislation of its parliament; it is, however, under the governor of that colony, who rules it by regulations based chiefly on military law. Its chief town is King William Town, on the left bank of the Buffalo River, about 40 miles from the sea. Besides it, there are several forts duly garrisoned, scattered over the country. In the country between British Kafraria and Natal, there are no European settlers, except missionaries and a few traders. It is entirely under native rule. The British government, however, has agents or residents in some places, whose duty it is to advise the native chiefs, and to protect British interests. They have not, however, hitherto been found very useful.

The name Kafr is of Arabic origin, meaning infidel. It was applied to the natives of the south-eastern shores of Africa by the early Portuguese discoverers, who probably received it from the Moorish navigators of the Mosambique Channel. It was afterwards adopted by the Dutch settlers of the Cape. By them and their British fellow-colonists the name is applied to all the tribes of the race living within the limits mentioned in the beginning of this article, whose form and appearance, and kindred languages, show a common origin. The several tribes are distinguished by names generally derived from former chiefs from whom they or their ruling families sprung. The tribe called Amazosa inhabit the country from the Keiskamma to the Umbashi river. This is the tribe, the various branches of which have so often come into collision with the Cape colonists and the British forces. The Amatembu or Tambookies dwell on the high land at the sources of the rivers N. of the Amaxosa, and nowhere approach the sea. Between the Bashi and the Umzimkulu Rivers dwell various tribes, the most powerful of which are the Amaponda, under their chief Faku, and the Amaharca. Beyond the latter river the natives of Natal are composed mostly of refugees from the Zulu country. They are incorrectly called Zulus, being chiefly fragments of tribes formerly inhabiting Natal or its neighbourhood, who were broken up by the Zulu conqueror Chaka, and incorporated into his nation. Beyond Natal, again, as far as Delagoa Bay, the country is inha- The Gaikas and Thlambs live close to the Cape frontier, beyond the Bashu River.

The Dutch settlers at the Cape first came in contact with the Kafirs of this tribe about 1740. The Gamtoos River was then their boundary, and mutual injuries led to frequent skirmishes between them, but the first regular war took place about 1780, when a commando, as it was called, of Dutch drove the Kafirs over the Great Fish River, which was then settled as the boundary between the two races. A guerrilla warfare, however, was still being carried on, when, in 1795, under the circumstances mentioned in our article on the Cape, the British took possession of the country, which they held till 1802, when it was restored at the peace of Amiens. During this period the Dutch boers settled on the eastern frontier gave the British authorities great trouble. A force under General Vandeleur was sent against them, and succeeded in reducing them to order, but it afterwards encountered a body of Kafirs under the chiefs Congo and Thlambi, with very doubtful success. From 1802 to 1806, when the Dutch again held the Cape, matters continued in the same position on the eastern border—the boers, in more or less open rebellion against the government, and carrying on guerrilla warfare with the Kafirs.

In 1806 the Cape was finally taken possession of by the British. The Kafirs had again taken possession of the country west of the Fish River, and committed depredations on the colonists, when, in 1811, Sir John Cradock, with a considerable force defeated them and drove them beyond that boundary. It was during this campaign that the Landdrost Stockenstrom was murdered by the Kafirs at a conference which he had sought for the purpose of inducing them to lay down their arms. In 1817 Lord Charles Somerset, governor of the colony, in consequence of disturbances on the frontier summoned a chief named Gaika to an interview with him, in which he acknowledged that chief as the head of Kafirland, gave him certain privileges, and held him responsible for the acts of the nation. This was a great error, and led to mischievous results. Gaika was not entitled to this rank. He was merely head of a sept of Amaxosa Kafirs, the paramount chief of whom was, as we have stated above, the chief of the Amagalekas at this period, one Hintza, whom Gaika acknowledged as his chief. The first consequence of this ill-advised measure was, that Gaika being attacked by a kindred chief named Thlambi, sought for and obtained the assistance of the government, which then improperly interfered in native quarrels. This led to the invasion of the colony by the Kafirs under Thlambi and Congo, and the war in 1819, during which Graham's Town was attacked by the enemy, who were repulsed with great loss by a small force under Colonel Willshire. The result of this war was the expulsion of the Kafirs from the country between the Great Fish and Keiskamma Rivers, which was declared to be neutral ground, to be occupied neither by colonists nor Kafirs, but still some of the latter were allowed to occupy it. Some time after this, in 1820, 5000 emigrants, mostly Scottish, were sent by government to the eastern part of the colony, and were at first partly located in this neutral territory by Sir Rufane Donkin, who was acting as governor in the absence of Lord Charles Somerset. The latter, however, on his return, refused to confirm this arrangement, and ordered the settlers to withdraw within the former limit of the colony, but his lordship shortly afterwards gave away large tracts of land in this territory to persons the nature of whose claims will not admit of close investigation. A year or two after this, an attempt was made, under the sanction, as it is said, of the governor, to seize the person of Gaika during a time of peace. The design was frustrated, and it served only to provoke the enmity of the Kafirs and produce hostilities. In 1828 the whole of the Amaxosa Kafirs were threatened with destruction by Chaka, the ter- rible Zulu chief, who had subdued Natal, and was advancing towards the Cape frontier. The Kafrs called upon the government for aid, but the Zulu chief withdrew his forces mainly, we believe, out of respect for British authority. A force however was sent against him, which unfortunately attacked and defeated a tribe under the chief Matwana, which had been in no way concerned in the meditated invasion, but had itself been driven from Natal by the Zulu armies. It was at this time that a large body of Kafrs of various tribes, driven from Natal and its vicinity by Chaika's armies, took refuge with the Amaxosa Kafrs chiefly with the Amagaleka branch, by whom they were reduced to a species of slavery under the name of Amafungu or Fingoeces. In 1828, Lord Charles Somerset was succeeded in the government by Sir Lowry Cole. In 1829 the chief Gaika died, and was succeeded by the infant Sandili, his son by his chief wife; but during the minority of the child, the government of the tribe now called Gaika's devolved on his elder half-brother Macomo. Macomo and his followers had hitherto been permitted to live on the Kat River, part of neutral ground, but now, on account of his attack on the Amatembu Kafrs, he was ordered to leave that locality, upon which a settlement of Hottentots was established with a view of helping to check the inroads of the Kafrs. This is the origin of the celebrated Kat River settlement. In 1833, Tyali, another of Gaika's sons, who had been allowed to live on the neutral ground, was removed to beyond the Keiskamma. Shortly afterward, both Tyali and his brother Macomo were permitted to return within this colony, but were again expelled. The course pursued towards these chiefs seems to have been very vacillating and to have been among the causes which led to the next war.

Sir Benjamin D'Urban assumed the government in 1834, and towards the close of that year a vast mass of Kafrs poured into the colony, headed by the chiefs Tyali, Macomo, and Xoxo, sweeping over the frontier district, murdering the farmers in their course, and burning their homesteads.

The colonial authorities were unprepared for the invasion, but Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) Smith and the governor proceeded at once to the frontier, and with a force of about 3000 men, about one-half being regular troops, marched into Kaliriland. In the course of about nine months the Kafrs were subdued, and a treaty was entered into with them, by which the country as far as the River Kei was declared to be British, and the people subjects of the crown. During this war an incident occurred which has given rise to much discussion. Hintza, chief of the Amagalekas, who, as such, was paramount chief of the Amaxosa Kafrs, that is, of nearly all the Kafrs on the frontier, had openly refused to take part in the war; but the governor suspecting, not without reason, that he had covertly assisted to foment it, and had received cattle stolen by the Kafrs actually engaged in hostilities, crossed the Kei River and encamped near the chief's residence. Hintza, to save his country from destruction, went to the camp of the governor, who demanded of him compensation in cattle, for the property stolen from the colonists, and also the liberation of the Fingoeces, who, as mentioned above, were held in a species of servitude by the Amaxosa Kafrs. To these terms, Hintza assented, and voluntarily remained in the camp, though told he was free to depart. A few days afterwards, a report arrived that the Kafrs were murdering the Fingoeces. This the governor supposed to be the result of Hintza's orders, and that chief was informed that having broken the terms agreed to, he would be held responsible for the safety of the Fingoeces, upon which he sent to his people to stop the massacre, and his order was obeyed. The cattle demanded as compensation for the colonists' losses not having arrived within the stipulated time, Hintza was tried. He was considered responsible for their payment. He stated that his people would obey his orders, and produce the cattle, if he appeared among them supported by a British Kafrs force. The governor sent him with a detachment of troops under Colonel Smith towards the Bashee, but he was warned that any attempt to escape might cost him his life. On the road the chief clearly evinced his desire to prevent his people's cattle from being taken, and, at length, being well mounted, and seizing a favourable opportunity, he attempted to make his escape. He was pursued by Colonel Smith and those about him, and, after a desperate chase and personal struggle, he was shot dead, by a Mr Southey, in self-defence it is alleged, as the chief was on the point of stabbing him with an assegai. Other versions have been given of this transaction, but the above we believe to be substantially correct. Lord Glenelg, the colonial secretary, who had previously taken a very unfavourable view of it, was led by a subsequent enquiry to consider that Hintza had been, if not the fomenter of the war, at least engaged in a secret alliance with its authors. The account of the chief's death is taken from Sir Harry Smith's and Mr Southey's statements, but we have had opportunities hearing them confirmed by the evidence of impartial and most trustworthy persons who were near the scene.

The proceedings of the governor were disapproved of by the colonial minister, the ceded country ordered to be restored, and Sir Benjamin D'Urban was recalled.

The chief grounds on which this course was adopted, briefly stated, were as follow:—1st, That the Kafrs were justified in engaging in the war by the encroachments made on their territory, and other wrongs inflicted on them by the government and the colonists. 2d, That the war had been conducted in a manner at variance with the principles of humanity. 3d, That the proposed extension of the colonial limits would involve an expenditure for civil and military establishments beyond all proportion to the wealth and number of the inhabitants.

Lord Glenelg, at the same time, laid down rules for future intercourse with the Kafrs, of which the following is the substance:—1st, That the responsibility of villages or kraals for the acts of individuals must no longer be enforced. 2d, That the chiefs alone should be looked to for restitution of stolen property, they being left to detect offenders, or indemnify themselves at the expense of the tribe collectively. 3d, That the killing or wounding a Kafr should be considered in the same light as the like offence committed on Her Majesty's subjects.

This reversal of Sir Benjamin D'Urban's policy, and his recall, together with other causes stated in a former article, led to the emigration from the colony of a large number of Dutch boers to countries beyond the boundaries.

In December 1836 the restoration of the ceded territory took effect, and Mr Stockenstrom was appointed lieutenant-governor of the eastern frontier, for the purpose of carrying out the policy laid down by Lord Glenelg. Treaties were entered into with the several chiefs, defining their rights and responsibilities.

This policy, however, was distasteful to the mass of the frontier colonists, and Lieutenant-Governor Stockenstrom was shortly recalled, solely on the ground of his unpopularity, and rewarded with a baronetcy and a pension.

Meanwhile, Sir George Napier had succeeded Sir Benjamin D'Urban as governor-in-chief; and, during his six years term of office, peace was generally maintained. In 1844 Sir Peregrine Maitland became governor, who seems to have seen cause to alter, in some respects, the treaties made by Sir Andreas Stockenstrom. Affairs assumed a very disturbed aspect on the frontiers, and in 1846 another Kafr war commenced.

The immediate cause of this war was an attack, in which a Hottentot was killed, made by a party of natives on a escort which was conveying a Kafr, who had committed a theft, to Graham's Town for trial. There is no doubt the Kafraria. Kafrs were eager to find a pretext for war, although the conduct of the colonial authorities on this occasion was not wholly free from blame. The Gaikas were the chief tribe engaged in this, but they were, in the course of it, assisted by the Tambookies. A British force marched into Kafrland, the Amatola Mountains were stormed and taken possession of by a burgher force under Sir Andries Stockenstrom, who afterwards defeated the Tambookies under Mapassa. The Gaikas again occupied the Amatolas, but at length Macomo surrendered himself, the Kafr who killed the Hottentot was given up, and peace seemed to be restored. On the arrival, however, of Sir Henry Pottinger in 1847, hostilities recommenced, and were carried on with great energy, till at length Sandilli, the chief of the Gaikas, surrendered himself as a prisoner. In October 1847, Sir Henry Pottinger was succeeded by Sir Harry Smith, who, after exacting the submission of the chiefs, and proclaiming himself paramount chief of the Kafrs, liberated Sandilli. The country was again declared to be under British rule, and a part of the land was disposed of to white settlers. At the same time a machinery of government was established in the country, consisting of a chief commissioner, assisted by subordinate magistrates, and a police force, partly composed of Kafrs, armed with muskets and bayonets.

During the temporary peace which ensued, the convict agitation took place, of which some account is given elsewhere (see Cape of Good Hope), but it is referred to here because some persons have, not without reason, in part attributed to it the war of 1850, as the Kafrs may have considered that the divisions which that agitation caused between sections of the population, especially between the Dutch and British, presented a good occasion for renewing hostilities. Another cause of the subsequent outbreak was, we think, the too hasty weakening of the military force on the frontiers after the last war, by sending away several regiments. This measure of false economy was enjoined on the governor by the ministry at home, who, in their turn, were urged by a strong party in Parliament to diminish the military expenditure.

About October 1850 it was reported that the Kafrs, excited by the eloquence of a pretended prophet, named Umlangeni, were preparing for war. Sir Harry Smith proceeded to the frontier, but refused to believe that an outbreak was at hand, although many signs of the coming storm were observed and pointed out by the authorities and people on the spot. However, he summoned Sandilli and the other chiefs to an interview. Sandilli refused obedience; upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs, the governor declared him deposed from his chiefship, and appointed an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be chief of the Gaika tribe. This measure is said to have been the immediate cause of the ensuing outbreak; but there is no doubt that the Kafrs had already determined on war. On the 24th of December Colonel Mackinnon, being sent with a small force to capture Sandilli, was attacked in a narrow defile by a large body of Kafrs, and compelled to retreat with some loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the Gaika tribe. The settlers in the military villages, assembled in fancied security to celebrate Christmas day, were surprised by the treacherous foe, many of them murdered, and their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in quick succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man. The greater part of the Kafr police deserted, many of them carrying off their arms and accoutrements. Flushed with success, the Kafrs in immense force surrounded and attacked Fort Cox, where the governor was with an inconsiderable force. His situation was truly critical. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to relieve him; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the occasion. At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied by Colonel Mackinnon, he dashed out of the fort, and through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode to King William's Town,—a distance of 12 miles. Meantime, a new enemy appeared. A large number of the Kat River Hottentots, who had in former wars been our firm allies, rose in rebellion. This revolt was followed by that of the Hottentots at other missionary stations; and part of the Hottentots of the Cape Mounted Rifles followed their example. We have only space to state the general results of the war. After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided, and due preparations were made, Sir Harry Smith and his gallant force soon turned the tide of war against the Kafrs. The Amatola Mountains were stormed; the paramount chief Krill, who all along covertly assisted the Gaikas, was invaded and severely punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith left the country in consequence of his recall, and was succeeded by Lieutenant-General the Honourable George Cathcart. The new governor completed the work which his predecessor had so well advanced. Krill was again attacked and reduced to submission. The Amatolas were finally cleared of Kafrs, and small forts erected among them to prevent their reoccupation.

Having subdued British Kafraria, the governor turned his attention to another region. During the war, the Orange River sovereignty had been the scene of anarchy and confusion. Collisions had thus taken place between her Majesty's troops and the Basuto tribe, under the chief Mosheb, caused by the alleged depredation committed by that tribe on the Dutch farmers and another tribe called Bozolongs. At one time matters were in so critical a state in this region that the British resident there wrote the lieutenant-governor of the neighbouring colony of Natal, to send some Zulu Kafrs (as the natives of Natal are called) to his assistance. In a very short space of time the lieutenant-governor raised the required force, which, together with a small party of military under Captain Parish of the 45th regiment, marched in the middle of winter over the Drachenberg Mountains into the sovereignty, the lieutenant-governor accompanying the force to the summit of the mountains, where his jurisdiction terminates.

To punish Mo-besh and the Basutos, General Cathcart, with a force of 2500 men, now marched into the sovereignty, and, after some fruitless negotiation with the chief, was attacked by his tribe in overwhelming numbers, all mounted and well armed. The action lasted a whole day, and terminated in a doubtful victory, the loss on the side of the British being thirty-eight men killed and many wounded. The chief Mosheb, however, showed singular forbearance. Feeling, as he said, assured that the partial success which had crowned his arms could be only momentary, and that he never could hope to contend with the British forces, he sent, on the night after the battle, for a missionary residing near him, and had a letter written to the governor suing for peace. The request was granted, and the governor and his force retired. Not long after this event the sovereignty was, as mentioned in the article on the Cape, given up to the Dutch boers. On his return from this expedition, General Cathcart instituted measures for securing the permanent peace of the frontiers. He issued regulations for governing the country under martial law. The mountain part of it, from which the Gaikas had been expelled, was made a royal reserve, in which certain military posts were to be established, to serve as centres of villages to be occupied by colonists on condition of military service. The General considered it necessary to the success of his measures that an adequate regular military force should be kept in the district, until some organized corps of military colonists could be sent to colonize it. General Cathcart left the colony in 1854, and was succeeded by Sir George Grey, K.C.B., late governor of New Zealand, who has given a general outline of the policy he proposes for the government of Kafraria. The chief features of it are, the establishment of institutions for the education of the children and the relief of the sick, and the employment of the Kafirs on the construction of roads to open up the country. He estimated the cost of these measures at £45,000 per annum, £40,000 of which is to be provided by the British Parliament for a limited period. Parliament in 1856 made this grant. Sir George Grey has further proposed the introduction of military pensioners from this country. This measure could not be carried out, owing to the unwillingness of the pensioners to go out; but their want is likely to be in some degree supplied by the settlement of the disbanded German Legion in the country.

We proceed to give some account of these tribes. The Portuguese, in the sixteenth century, found the country from Delagoa Bay to the southward of Natal peopled by Kafirs divided into small tribes. Little is known of them until 1810, when an extraordinary character arose in the country just north of Natal. This was Chaka, son of the chief of a small tribe called Zulus. Owing to accidental circumstances, he was brought up by the chief of a neighbouring and very powerful tribe called the Umtelwas. This chief dying without heirs, Chaka, probably owing to his abilities, succeeded to the chiefship of that tribe, as well as to that of his own. The two tribes, thus united and ruled by a master-spirit, became a powerful nation, and went forth like a consuming fire to spread destruction among other tribes far and wide. Natal was almost depopulated, the majority of the people being annihilated, or incorporated into the conquering host. Some broken tribes took refuge with the Amaxosa Kafirs, by whom they were enslaved, under the derisive name of Amafingu or Fingoes. Chaka formed his warriors into regiments, and established a stern military discipline, which against other natives made him almost invincible. We have seen that he was on the point of attacking the Amaxosa Kafirs, but he desisted from doing so on finding that they were protected by the British government, for which he expressed the greatest respect. He possessed great intelligence, and extraordinary military skill. He was capable of noble and generous acts, but his general conduct was that of a cruel, relentless despot. The wanton massacres committed by his orders almost exceed belief. During his reign a party of British settled in Natal and were kindly treated by him. In 1828 he was murdered, at the instigation of his brother Dingaan, who succeeded him. Dingaan imitated the bloody acts of his brother, without possessing his ability or generosity. Towards the end of 1837 a part of the Dutch boers who, as we noticed in our article on the Cape, left the colony in 1836, found their way to Natal. One Retief, their leader, and about sixty-five followers, sought an interview with Dingaan, by whom they were barbarously murdered in cold blood. A bloody war then ensued between the boers and Dingaan, in the course of which the latter, at the head of a force 14,000 strong, was signalily defeated with great loss by a party of 360 boers. During these hostilities, the governor of the Cape sent to Natal a small detachment of troops to try to prevent further bloodshed, but, being found useless for such object, it was soon withdrawn. A brother of Dingaan, named Panda, now joined the boers, with a large section of the natives. The combined force completely routed Dingaan, who fled to the neighbourhood of Delagoa Bay, where he was murdered by a tribe with whom he had taken refuge.

The boers proclaimed Panda chief of the Zulus. In 1842 Natal was taken possession of by the British government after some severe fighting with the boers, and in 1845 it was created a separate government under a lieutenant-governor and other officials. As Panda's rule was nearly as cruel as that of his brothers, numbers of his subjects, chiefly those who had been subdued by Chaka, fled into Natal for protection. These refugees, very few of whom belong to the Zulu tribe, form the greater part of the black population of Natal. Panda continues to rule over the Kafirs, country lying between Natal and Delagoa Bay, commonly called the Zulu country, and his power is still very formidable; but, owing to his fear of the Dutch boers beyond our jurisdiction, and other causes, he has hitherto remained on friendly terms with the British authorities.

In regard to form and appearance there is a slight difference between some of the tribes inhabiting so vast a tract, i.e., of the country. They may, however, be described generally as tall and well-formed; having regular features and well-developed foreheads; with skins varying from black to copper colour, and crisped woolly hair like that of the negro, only growing in small detached tufts. The Amaxosa are lighter in the skin, taller, and with an expression of countenance more fierce and haughty than the Natal and Zulu Kafirs and the kindred Fingoes.

The Kafirs generally are acute and subtle, with the usual faults of savages, duplicity and cruelty. They have, however, redeeming traits; for they are faithful when trusted, and not incapable of gratitude. Polygamy prevails universally—wives are purchased with cattle, and are compelled to work for their husbands, who pass their time in indolence, except when engaged in the exciting pursuits of the chase or war. A Kafir cannot marry a blood relation, but he may marry the widow of a deceased brother. As children, especially daughters, are valuable, instances are not unknown of old or impotent men giving out their wives to younger men, reserving his right to the children procreated. The clothing of the Kafirs consists of a cloak made of skins, or, latterly of a blanket. They wear armlets and necklaces made of animals' teeth or beads. They are also fond of wearing brass rings on their arms. Their war dress is more elaborate, consisting of kilts of skins, and head-dresses of feathers of various kinds. Their weapons are the assegai,—a kind of spear,—one kind of it being short, with a broad blade about 12 to 18 inches long, for stabbing; the other longer in the shaft, with a narrow blade about 9 inches long, for throwing. They carry large shields made of hides. They have latterly acquired firearms, and use them with some skill.

Their chief property is cattle, and the laws regulating its succession are very complicated, in consequence of polygamy, and producing much litigation. In general the eldest son of the chief wife succeeds to the chiefship. The government of the tribe resides in the chief, assisted by his head men or councillors. Many crimes are punished with death, especially such as affect the sovereignty of the chief; others, and among them, in some cases, murder, are punished with fine or confiscation of property.

In their savage state the Kafirs have little sense of religion. They believe in a Being who made the world; but that now, if not extinct, he takes no heed of its government. They conceive that the spirits of their forefathers exercise an influence over them, and they have a strong belief in witchcraft. The witch-doctor, who professes to discover wizards and witches, plays a prominent part in their social and political system. He is the ready instrument of oppression in the hands of the chief, who, whenever he dislikes or fears any of his subjects or covets their property, employs the "doctor" to accuse them of witchcraft, for which they are killed, and their cattle is seized by the chief. They practise circumcision, eschew pork as food, and have other customs similar to those of the Jews, from whom, some have supposed, they were borrowed; but similarity of climate, and other external circumstances, will produce similar habits in men. The Kafirs also abstain from eating fish, fowls, eggs. They cultivate Indian corn, pumpkins, and a kind of millet. They chiefly live upon these articles and milk, eating little meat except in war time, when they freely kill their cattle. Their language is singularly soft and harmonious. Its structure is very peculiar and complicated. Its chief characteristic is, that the relation between words is KAFIRISTAN expressed by prefixes; those of the nouns and pronouns regulating those of the verbs and other parts of the sentence. The language has been reduced to writing, grammars formed of it, and the New Testament has been translated into it. The best grammars are those of Appleyard and Boyce of the Amaxosa Kafir. There is only one small grammar written in English of the Zulu Kafir—that by Dr Collenson, the bishop of Natal. It is, however, chiefly taken from the work of a Norwegian missionary, written in Danish.

It is almost impossible to form anything like a correct estimate of the Kafir population. We should think the Amaxosa, in all its branches, numbers not less than 200,000 souls. The Amatembu, or Tambookies, may be about 70,000. The Amapondi and their neighbours about 90,000. The Kafirs of Natal are estimated at 100,000. The population of the Zulu and other Kafir countries it is impossible to estimate.

(K.F.)