the most northerly country of Europe, is bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, S. by Sweden, E. by the White Sea, and W. by Norway and the Atlantic Ocean. Its limits are not very accurately laid down by geographers; but it seems to be divided from the rest of Scandinavia by a line nearly corresponding with the polar circle, in latitude 66° 32', and is consequently almost entirely an arctic region. North Cape, its most northerly point, is situated in N. Lat. 71° 10.15', consequently its length from N. to S. is about 330 miles, and not 500, as is usually stated. From Cape Orlov, on the White Sea, to the Atlantic on the W., it extends about 700 miles; but besides this continental territory, there are a vast number of islands, which are included in the general name of Lapland. The whole country is divided into three parts, called Russian, Swedish, and Norwegian Lapland or Finnmark, and is recognised by the Swedes and Norwegians by the name of Lapmark, mark signifying, both in Swedish and Norse, land or tract of country. The very early writers, however, do not notice any country under the name of Lapmark, whilst Finnmark is alluded to, though not with such clearness as would admit of our defining the exact extent of country which went by that appellation. It has been conjectured that, in former ages, the parts of the north now known by the names of Swedish and Russian Lapland were distinguished as Russian and Swedish Finnmark previously to the period when the Finns obtained the name of Lapper, or Laplanders. Throughout Norway and Finnmark they are uniformly termed Finns, which was their ancient and most proper designation; it is only in Sweden, and Swedish and Russian Lapland, that the name of Lap is given to the inhabitants of the country. They were called Lappes by Laxo in the twelfth century; but still the etymology of the word is thus very obscure, though circumstances seem to favour the supposition that the term Lap was applied to this race of people by their neighbours the Swedes, and hence was transferred to the country which they inhabited. In the old Russian annals they are always styled Lepori, a word most probably of Finnic origin. Finnmark, which forms the most northern part of this wild and extensive territory, constitutes one extremity of the kingdom of Norway, to which it now belongs, though doubtless in ancient times it was a separate kingdom, governed by its own sovereigns. Its present boundary on the W. is Loppen, the first island in Finnmark, and which forms a line between it and the Nordlands, a part of Norway sometimes erroneously confounded with Lapland. On the N.W. and N.E. it is washed by the Polar Ocean, whilst to the E. it is bordered by Russian Lapland, which also, with Nordland, bounds it to the S.; the boundary line between the two countries being the River Tana. Its extent from N. to S.—that is, from the borders of Russian Lapland to the North Cape,—is nearly three degrees of latitude; its greatest breadth being from W. to E., namely, from the western side of Faroe to the coast above Varanger, near the borders of Russian Lapland. At the eastern extremity of Finnmark there is a considerable tract, to which both Norway and Russia lay claim. It lies between the acknowledged boundaries of each of these powers, and being now considered as neutral ground, is free to the Laplander of both countries to hunt and fish in. This district extends a little to the westward of Bugefjord, stretching nearly S. to the Enara Lake, where it bends to the E., and afterwards to the N.E., where it joins the coast. Russian Lapland lies to the S. and E. of the debatable ground above. Lapland mentioned. The river Muonio, which for a considerable portion of its early course receives the name of the Königsmühl, constitutes the boundary between Sweden and Russia. The circle of Kola, and the northern part of Eastern Kemi, constituted at one time Russian Lapland; but, by subsequent treaties, two extensive districts, all the Lapmark of Western Kemi, and the greater part of the Lapmark of Torneo, have been ceded to Russia. Thus nearly two thirds of the regions inhabited by the Laplanders are included in the dominions of the emperor of Russia. Swedish Lapland, the most southerly division, occupies the interior part of the country to the west of the river Torneo; the maritime district of Nordland, a portion of Norway, being situated between it and the North Sea. How much of the northern part of Sweden is entitled to be called Swedish Lapland, it is impossible to say. If the arctic circle be taken as the boundary line, only that portion of Sweden called North Bothnia can be considered as belonging to Lapland; but Pitea Lapmark and Umea Lapmark are sometimes mentioned as forming part of the latter country, and these are situated in West Bothnia. The cause of error may be traced to the circumstance of these nomadic tribes frequently inhabiting, at least for a portion of the year, districts of country far down in the interior of Sweden and Norway. Thus, in the latter country, the Rorass Mountains, situated between Christiania and Drontheim, are inhabited, during summer at least, by a family of Laplanders, with the never-failing herd of rein-deer. But the exact boundary line is not very material, as it has reference only to different portions of a tract of country which is under one government.

Lapland is not intersected by alps or very high mountains, as is sometimes asserted; but, from Nordland onwards, the whole region is a table-land, crowned only on its western frontier with a mountainous chain, which forms the extremity of the Scandinavian Alps, and descends from Sulitelma, of which the elevation is 6200 feet, to the height of Norwegian Finnmark. These are about 3600 feet high on the continental coast, and nearly 4600 on some islands. The sea-coast presents a remarkably bold and rugged, if not magnificent appearance. Mountain is seen piled on mountain in stern grandeur, and white with the snows of ages; and the sublimity of the scene is enhanced by the myriads of islands which are scattered in an extraordinary manner along the Norwegian and Lapland coast, as far as North Cape. Ravines and valleys intersect the interior; the elevation of the highest plains has been estimated at about sixteen hundred feet, but towards the east and the south they descend. Rocks and hills rise from the table-land, varying, to the east of 18° west longitude, from 2000 to 2400 feet above the level of the sea, but only from 500 to 600 feet above their base. These hills are rather isolated groups than a continuous chain; and at twenty leagues to the south of them the streams and rivers separate in different directions between the North Sea and the Bothnian Gulf, and between the Gulfs of Alten and Torneo. The central ridge is supposed to descend without interruption to the entrance of the White Sea, and that part of Lapland consists of extensive marshes, studded with rocks. These have been called the Koelin Mountains, and, strictly speaking, may be said to form one great chain; but the branches which it casts off to the right and to the left, the mountainous isles of Lofudien, which are merely the summits of some of its branches, and the mountains which terminate near Lake Enara in Russian Lapland, entitle it to the name of a group. Other ranges of hills, which traverse Lapland, and are connected with Finland, are lost round the numerous lochs in that country. Sulitelma, already mentioned, is the highest mountain in Lapland. The islands of Waag and Hurd have each heights rising 4264 feet above the level of the sea; and a glacier on the island of Seyland is 4155 feet high. The mineralogical structure of the Lapland Mountains has not been thoroughly ascertained. Lapland. M. de Buch informs us that the hills which he examined on the higher part of the table-land are composed of granite and gneiss. The latter rock is said to be by far the most abundant in Scandinavia, all the other primitive rocks appearing in some degree subordinate to it. Quartz is very abundant on the island of Mageröe. On the Dovefield, and other mountains, it is met with in scattered blocks; but at the North Cape the surface of the ground is wholly covered with it. M. de Buch also observed, in an excursion which he made towards the Gulf of Bothnia, a succession of calcareous and schistose rocks. These substances likewise abound in the country between the last-named gulf and that of Kandala. The land is intersected with ravines, but its elevation is inconsiderable. The whole region is supposed to rest on a base of red decomposable granite, or, as it is generally called by the natives, rapakivi. There is abundance of metal found in Lapland, particularly iron, of which whole mountains exist in that part of the country belonging to Sweden. Copper, lead, zinc, silver, and even traces of gold, have been found; but iron ore is the chief mineral treasure of the country, and might assist in introducing cultivation and an extensive trade into this desert portion of Europe, did not the scarcity of timber, and the great difficulty of conveying goods, constitute insuperable obstacles to the working of the mines in the inland and eastern parts of the country, where it would appear to be most abundant. The marshy lands are impregnated with this valuable metal, and in gneiss it occurs in beds which are sometimes nearly forty feet in thickness. Numerous minerals are found in Lapland; rock crystal in particular is very common, and the inhabitants occasionally dispose of it for amethysts and topazes.

There are numerous lakes and rivers in Lapland. Of Lakes, the latter, several take their rise in the Koelin Mountains, rivers, and flow in various directions into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Bothnia. The principal rivers of the country are the Tana or Taran, which takes a north-eastern course through Finnmark, and empties itself into a bay or sound of the same name; the Alten or Alata, which is very rapid, forcing its way through the mountains of Finnmark in a north-westerly direction, empties itself into a bay of the same name; the Torneo, which issues from a lake so named, and, after being enlarged by a number of streams uniting in one channel and running nearly due south through a long course, falls into the northern extremity of the Bothnian Gulf at Torneo; and the Muonio, which rises from the Killpis Jaure, at the foot of the alpine chain of Norway, is a considerable stream, and constitutes the boundary line between Sweden and Russia, till it unites with the river Torneo, when the latter marks the limits of either country in this quarter. There are also other rivers which take their rise in Lapland, and fall into the Gulf of Bothnia, such as the Luica, Pitea, Kalix, and others. In Russian Lapland there are several considerable streams, but these have not been so well defined, nor has this part of Lapland been so fully described, as the others. The Kemi takes its rise amongst the Kemi Mountains, situated near the centre of the country, and flows into the Gulf of Bothnia. It has many imposing cataracts, of which the Taicel Koski, or the fall of the heavens, is the only one which the adventurous boatmen never attempt to cross. The Pasie, or holy stream, is the outlet of the great lake Enara, flowing thence to the Arctic Ocean. The eastern declivities of Russian Lapland are watered by the Pansoi, which discharges itself into the White Sea. The Tuloma falls from a great height, enters the lake Kola, which name it afterwards takes, and falls into Kola Bay, on the Arctic Ocean. Besides these, there are numerous other rivers which traverse the country in various directions, and either give rise to lakes, or issue from them. The abundance of Lapland. Lakes is the most prominent feature of Lapland, as it generally is of all countries situated in such latitudes. Sometimes these sheets of water occur singly, sometimes in chains, and many of them are of considerable size; but there exists such a confusion of nomenclature, that it is difficult to distinguish one from another, and apply to each its proper designation. Very often the rivers, such as the Muonio, become so broad in some parts, as often to assume the appearance of lakes, and there is little doubt they have occasionally been so termed. The most considerable lakes are; the Enara, in Russian Lapland, which is about forty miles in length by sixteen in breadth; the Imandra, which has an elevation of four hundred feet above the level of the sea, and is discharged into the Gulf of Kandalak; the Biggi Lobeek, and Biggi Jaure, one or other of which, Sir Capel Brooke supposes, is that designated by Von Buch the Jess Jaure; and many others which do not require to be enumerated. Besides these inland bodies of water, the shores are indented by extensive fjords or arms of the sea, which frequently run thirty, or even forty miles into the heart of the country.

Finmark and Swedish Lapland, including all the modern provinces belonging to Russia, have been carefully examined by Wahlenberg and Von Buch, and the vegetable kingdom distinguished into six zones, concentric with the Gulf of Bothnia, each differing from the others in climate and productions. The first or lower region of the forests rises from the level of the sea to the height of five hundred feet, forming a zone generally eighty miles in breadth; and here the spruce and Scotch fir abound. The second is higher and colder than the first, rising from five hundred to eight hundred feet, and being generally only from six to eight miles in breadth. This portion has been denominated the upper region of the forests, and here the Scotch fir is still found, but the other plants disappear. The third is higher than any of the preceding, rising from 800 to 1200 feet, and for the most part about twelve miles in breadth, excepting at one place, where this becomes very great. The fir here is rarely seen, but pines are abundant. The fourth or subalpine region, rising from 1200 to 1800 feet, is a zone of about the same dimensions as the preceding, and contains birch, but coniferous trees do not grow there. The fifth is called the alpine region, or the country of the dwarf birch; and the sixth, which is the highest and most northern of all, varies in breadth according as it is indented by the sea. It is the region of perpetual congelation and eternal snow, producing no trees, and scarcely any vegetation whatever. The vegetable scale in Norwegian Lapland has been marked by Von Buch. The following table is intended for seventy degrees of north latitude.—Limit of the red pines, 730 feet; of the birch, 1483; of the Vaccinium myrtillus, 1908; of the dwarf birch, 2576; of the Salix myrsinites, 2908; of the Salix lanata, 3100; and of perpetual snow, 3300. The species of plants which constitute the Flora Lapponica are not numerous, but they abound in individuals, and the vegetation here is decidedly superior to that of the other countries round the Frozen Ocean. Mosses and lichens cover the plains and rocks which are elevated more than a thousand feet; and were the inhabitants more industrious, these might be rendered useful as dye-stuffs. The rein-deer's lichen is of a bright yellow colour, which, however, is fugitive, the yellow giving place to white as the plant dries or withers. The mosses and lichens constitute the food of the cattle, and from a species of the latter a wholesome and nutritious flour is extracted. The rocky country is the region of these cryptogamia. The Rubus chamaemorus, and the Vaccinium myrtillus, occur in the neighbourhood of the extensive marshes; but reeds or aquatic plants are found on the banks of lakes or rivers. A plain surrounded by rocks, and covered with moss and other alpine herbage, forms a Lapland meadow. Rein-deer moss is quite indispensable to the Laplander's herd. It is hardly to be met with on the Finnmark coast, but on the continent it is found in abundance, though not so plentifully as in the interior parts. It thrives best in a flat extent of low ground, consisting of morass or forest well saturated with moisture. On this account Finnmark, which is rocky and mountainous, does not abound so greatly in this moss as the level plains and morasses of Russian Lapland, where it grows in the greatest profusion, immense tracts of country being wholly covered with it. Of trees, twenty-six kinds have been enumerated, including the salix. There are no less than nineteen species of willows; the others consist of Scotch and spruce fir, birch, alder, poplar, mountain ash, and bird cherry. Apples, pears, plums, and cherries, scarcely grow at all, although carefully cultivated; but considerable varieties of berries are spontaneously produced, amongst which are black currants, and raspberries of an exquisite fragrance. It may be stated, that in Swedish Lapland the vegetable productions bear a nearer resemblance to those of Siberia than the plants of the western part of Lapland, which, towards the sea, are analogous to those of Scotland and Iceland. The most abundant indigenous vegetables are the sorrel, which is prized on account of its antiscorbutic properties; the angelica, a highly-relished article of food; and the lichen rangiferina, the staple of the rein-deer during winter. Towards the south are gardens in which the vegetables of the temperate zone are cultivated; and various flowers, including roses, carnations, and the like, also adorn these enclosures. Potatoes reach the size of poppy-heads (those of Finnmark are very sweet, and of a waxy consistency); French beans, broad beans, and tobacco, where care is taken with it, are raised, but neither peas nor white cabbage come to perfection.

With respect to the climate and vegetable productions of Alten, Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke observes, "in speaking of its horticulture, it might be supposed that the produce of a country under the latitude of 70° would be extremely scanty. This, however, is not the case. Most kinds of vegetables succeed perfectly well, and are cultivated in sufficient abundance for the wants of the inhabitants." This traveller then proceeds to mention the cultivation of the potato, which is raised to some extent in Finnmark.

Most of the wild animals common to Norway and Sweden are found in Lapland. Bears are numerous; and though the rein-deer evades destruction by the rapidity of its flight, yet cows, goats, and sheep frequently fall victims to their rapacity. These animals are extremely partial to a certain kind of berry which is abundant in the country; but they likewise feed on grass. Wolves and foxes are plentiful, and the former are likewise very destructive to the tame animals; the skins of the latter are much prized in the north of Europe. The glutton, which is strongly furnished with teeth, as well as very sharp

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1 Much confusion exists regarding the names of places and things in Lapland, and every writer must experience difficulty and be exposed to error in describing any portion or feature of that country or its inhabitants. Mountains, lakes, and rivers have frequently, indeed in almost every instance, more than a single appellation assigned to them; so that what is called by one name in any given work, will be found described under another designation in every other. This is particularly the case with regard to rivers, which, from their source to the sea, sometimes change their names two or three times. Lapland, nails, is common; and its skin, on account of a white shining streak with which the neck is marked, is held in great estimation. In the woods the glutton frequently surprises the rein-deer, by suddenly descending upon it from the branch of a tree, and killing it by mangling the neck with its teeth. Otters of different kinds, ermines, a species of white weasel, squirrels whose skins are beautiful and much valued, the mus lemmus, a species of marmot peculiar to the country, and field-mice in vast numbers, are all natives of these high latitudes. The beaver is found in some parts, but seldom on the rivers. The wool and the skin of this animal are marketable commodities. Hares are bred in great numbers; and they are distinguished by the striking peculiarity of changing their colour from gray to white during winter. Coverlets are made from their skins. There are three species of martens found; the steen-mouser, which inhabits the rocks; the birke-mouser, which makes the birch-tree thicket its home; and the furir-mouser, which haunts the fir-trees. There are said to be a few elks, but of wild rein-deer the number is very great. From these to the individuals of the race which have been domesticated, the transition is natural. The most valuable part of a Laplander's possessions, and the chief object of his care, is the rein-deer. It unites in itself the best qualities of almost every other animal which has been found essential to the comfort of man in other countries to which it is a stranger, being at once the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the stag of Lapland. Its milk is so rich as to require being diluted before it is used. Its flesh is superior to that of the sheep; and, from its tractability and natural power of endurance, it drags the sledge of the Laplander with extraordinary speed and perfect safety over the desolate and chilling regions of snow which he inhabits. It is, moreover, easily maintained, finding its food, the favourite moss which goes by its name, amongst the frozen wastes during winter with perfect ease. These animals are also said to feed on frogs, snakes, and mountain-rats, and to be very partial to human urine, which they lick up with avidity whenever it comes within their reach. But the possession of this invaluable quadruped is very uncertain, for the wandering herds sometimes disperse themselves in the woods, from which it is difficult for the shepherd to dislodge them. They are, besides, not easily milked, nor yield but a small quantity at a time, so that a large flock is necessary before the head of a family can be supplied with a sufficiency of food and milk.

In shape they resemble stags; and their hair, at first gray, becomes blanched before it falls off. They cast their horns annually; those of the male are often two feet and a half in length, and their points are frequently as far asunder. They are generally four feet in height from the foot to the top of the back; and the length from the shoulder to the tail is two feet. A cracking noise is heard when they walk, which is asserted by some writers to result from the hoofs striking together when the foot is raised, but there are other opinions upon this subject.

The rein-deer is subject to various diseases from which other animals appear to be exempt, and during summer they are attacked by the cestrus tarandi, a large kind of bee, whose eggs, deposited in the skin, produce ulcerations not unfrequently destructive to the fawns. This great enemy of the rein-deer will pursue it for many miles; and in hot weather the Laplander takes a journey of some hundred miles to the sea-coast, principally for the purpose of avoiding its attacks. The cestrus nasalis, another tormentor of the rein-deer, makes small punctures within the nostrils, and there deposits its eggs. It is a singular fact, observed by Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke, that the rein-deer increases in size the farther north it is found. Cows, sheep, goats, and horses, have been naturalized in Lapland; but the management of these animals, together with other particulars regarding the rein-deer, we will afterwards have occasion to recur to.

Of birds there are many found in Lapland which are unknown in other countries, such as the Lapland woodcock, the Swedish mock-bird or nightingale, called, from its melodious notes, "the bird of an hundred tunes," together with a peculiar species of the owl, magpie, woodpecker, woodcock, and others of the feathered races. Flocks of birds of passage resort to Lapland during summer for the purpose of breeding, amongst which may be enumerated the eagle and falcon tribe, owls larger than common, and occasionally white, crows or rooks in great numbers, ravens, partridges, large bustards, magpies, pigeons, plovers, ptarmigans, swans, wild geese, eider ducks, cocks of the wood, varieties of grouse, curlews, and various other feathered frequenters of the field or lake. Only a very few species of birds remain during winter, there being little subsistence for them in such chilly wastes of snow and ice. Common frogs and lizards are the only amphibious animals found. No venomous animal is to be met with in Lapland, but insects are in hot weather as numerous and annoying as in tropical climes. Besides the two already mentioned, the interior forests of Lapland swarm with gnats, which attack both man and beast with the greatest fury. The rivers abound in excellent salmon, and the lakes in perch, pike, trout, char, and other fish. The seas are also well replenished with the finny tribes, such as cod, tusk, and ling; and whales, particularly that species called the fin whale, so difficult to be captured, abound upon the Lapland coast. These enormous animals are very plentiful about Cape North; and Sir Arthur Capel Brooke was informed by the Laplanders that they are extremely partial to cows and horses, and will pursue a boat in which these are until they are landed.

The climate of Lapland is of course very cold, but it Climate. is milder than that of any other region on the same parallel, the coasts of Siberia, for instance. The temperature of the air is regulated by the height above the level of the sea, and the distance from the Gulf of Bothnia, and may be divided into two regions, the inland and the maritime. It may be laid down as a principle which generally holds true, that in the former the winter is severe and the summer hot, whilst in the latter the winter is comparatively mild and the summer cold. An open and ever agitated sea is one great cause of the mildness of temperature which is experienced on the northern coasts of Finnmark; but the maritime climate is much colder on the other side of Cape North, and the harbours on the coast of Eastern Lapland are sometimes blocked up in the middle of June. In the inland parts the summer is short; but in the sixty-six days during which there is no night, the crops are sown, ripened, and reaped. At this time the enlivening songs of birds are heard, and the earth is in some places covered with flowers. There is no darkness, and the coolness of evening is never felt. The heat is thus very oppressive, particularly in confined places, such as valleys. At this time insects are exceedingly troublesome. Acerbi, a traveller in Sweden and Lapland, found the degree of heat fifty-two of Fahrenheit in the shade, and eighty-one in the sun. The ground was so hot as to give uneasiness to the feet, whilst it oppressed the lungs; and the shrubs which were met with at distant intervals afforded little or no shelter to the traveller. In various parts of Lapland the days during summer are in brightness, geniality, and sereness, equal to those of more propitious latitudes, and both delightful and healthy. Von Buch found the mean temperature of the month of July nearly sixty-three degrees at Altengaard, in north latitude sixty-nine degrees. In winter the cold is so excessive, that mercury, and even brandy, frequently freeze Lapland, in the open air. All the lakes and rivers are covered with ice of great thickness, and the whole face of nature is buried beneath a sheet of snow several feet in depth. During the winter solstice the sun continues seven consecutive weeks below the horizon, when only a partial twilight prevails; but this "darkness visible" is to a considerable extent compensated by the superior brightness of the moon and stars, and the vivid beams of the aurora borealis, the light of all these luminaries being augmented by the whiteness of the snow, which keeps up a perpetual reflection from the earth's surface. Thunder storms sometimes occur during the depth of winter. When a thaw comes on, the atmosphere is filled with vapours; but during the prevalence of the north wind the air is clear and the sky is serene.

Vegetation depending more upon the heat of summer than the cold of winter, Enontekis is superior to the North Cape in bringing the productions of the ground to maturity, notwithstanding that the mean temperature is lower, because the heat during the summer is higher at the former than at the latter place. The covering of snow here also, as elsewhere, serves to retain the heat which the earth has imbibed during the warmer months, and preserves it in a better state for vegetation. At Enontekis the snow continues on the ground from October till May, whilst at the North Cape, being open to the sea-breezes, it is exposed to frequent thaws; nor is it likely, under such circumstances, it can ever lie so deep. On some of the inland elevations, particularly in Finnmark, if the summer be very cold, it lies during the whole year, and entirely prevents vegetation from making its appearance, with the exception of some of the cryptogamia.

The soil of Lapland is generally sterile. The greater part of the country is covered with rocks or moss, or gravelly plains, or a kind of turf composed of mosses decayed by the frost, and impregnated with standing water. There are a few tracts of tolerable soil, especially in the more southern districts. The agriculture of Lapland is hence very trifling, for the soil yields but a very inadequate return for the labour which the hardy native bestows upon it; and in general he finds a more ready means of supplying himself with what he requires, by barter with the Russians. The following quotation, however, from Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke, presents a more favourable view of the climate and its productions than might have been anticipated. After mentioning the culture of the potato, already alluded to, and which is likely to be very beneficial to the country, as rendering it less dependent upon Russia for a supply of bread corn, he proceeds: "To this it may be added, that barley and rye are cultivated to some extent in parts of Finnmark, particularly at Alten, although no agriculture is carried farther north; and this circumstance alone would induce us to form no unfavourable opinion of the climate of a place situated near four degrees beyond the polar circle. The Scotch fir, too, reaches Talvig in seventy degrees; and the molteber (mollus chamaemorus) flourishes to the very verge of the North Cape, in 71.10.15, where the winter night is ten weeks in length."

Much obscurity veils the origin and early history of the inhabitants of Lapland. The Samoyedes, Esquimaux, Greenlanders, and Laplanders, appear to have been originally the same people. The more immediate ancestors of the latter were probably the ancient Finns, for the description which Ptolemy and Tacitus give of the Finni exactly corresponds to that of the highland Laplanders of the present day. There is also a race of people inhabiting Finnmark, quite distinct from the Laplanders, called the Quains.

Professor James D. Forbes, who visited Finnmark in 1871, thus speaks of the Quains:—"A stranger has some difficulty to understand their relation to the Laplanders, with whom they are easily confounded, both being often called Finns. It is, indeed, in Finnmarken itself that the Lapps are most frequently, but inaccurately described as Finns. The Quains, however (who, like the Lapps, are foreigners), properly come from Finland, whilst the Lapps belong principally to the opposite or western side of the Gulf of Bothnia. Their appearance (excepting, however, their dress), their habits, and even their language, are essentially distinct; the Lapp is dwarfish in the extreme, and the form of the countenance resembles that of the Tartar tribes. The Quain, or Finnlander, or Esthonian, with some features in common, is moderately tall, and has a skull more of the usual European type. Their habits are absolutely diverse: the Quain being domestic and fond of agriculture, the Lapp essentially nomadic and incapable of steady labour; so much is this the case, that some writers consider the distinction as referring rather to occupation than to race. Of the capacity of the Quains some difference of opinion exists. Von Buch considers them to have done much more for Finnmarken than the Norwegians themselves, and that they are even now its most civilized inhabitants, and by far its best agriculturists. The report of the Aiden Company's officers is less favourable; but it is quite possible that mining industry is unsuited to their tastes and habits. The language differs as much from the Lappish as Swedish does from the German. Though their costume is similar, their houses, substantially built of logs, are roomy, comfortable, and of course permanent, unlike the Lapps. The appearance of the Quains in Norway is believed not to date earlier than the commencement of the last century. They are stated by Von Buch to have been driven out of their native country by the wars of Charles XII."

The Finnmark Laps have been divided into two classes, the fishing or Shore Laplanders, and the rein-deer or Highland Laplanders. From their different habits of life, there is a marked distinction between the two; and there is yet another class of poorer Laplanders, who are numerous in all parts of Swedish and Russian Lapland. These are called Skogslapper, or Wood Laps, dwelling almost entirely in the wooded parts of the country, their herds of deer being too small to enable them to live in the mountains. During summer they live in tents; in winter they construct sod-huts, resembling the gamoises of the coast Laps.

This kind of Laplander is unknown in Finnmark, the country being mountainous, and nearly destitute of forests. The mountain Laps of the latter country are for the most part wild and savage, both in appearance and habits. They exhibit a degree of haughtiness and proud independence of spirit, which is wanting in individuals of the race who inhabit the plains of Russian Lapland or the shores of the northern coast. Until softened by a present, they are surly and morose in disposition; and their suspiciousness of temper detracts much from any hospitality which is apparent in them. The stranger must therefore remove this natural mistrust of the Lap before he can expect to receive from him any attention; and brandy, above all things, is the most potent softener of his feelings. This, or a present of tobacco, is so efficacious as to render him quite a different person, and willing to perform any service to the donor.

The dress of the mountain Laplander of Finnmark does not materially differ from that of the inhabitants of other parts of Lapland. In winter they are entirely clothed in rein-deer skins, consisting of a paask, or frock of rein-deer fur, or, what is more common, a muskota or sheep-skin garment. This is belted up by the leathern girdle (bougan), to which is suspended the knife, the tobacco pouch, and shooting apparatus when they follow the chase. The first is a long knife, not unlike that of a butcher, the handle of birch root, and the blade of great substance and strength. Lapland. The driving peask is composed of the thickest and best skins his deer afford; and, as a further protection whilst travelling, a broad bear-skin tippet covers the shoulders, and reaches nearly as low as the elbows. The lower part of the dress consists of the bellinger, a sort of loose spat-terdashes or leggings, which, being drawn over a pair of long, loose deer-skin pantaloons, reach from the ankles high up the thigh. These are whole, and fastened or tightened at the top by a running string, and covered over at the bottom by the skullomaper, or high rein-deer shoes, and the komager band, which is a long, narrow band, going several times round the ankle, keeping the whole tight together, and preventing the possibility of any snow from getting in; for the upper parts of the bellinger are of course covered by the peask, which, when girded up, reaches just below the knees, but, when loose, falls down nearly to the ground. In summer, the heat of the weather compels them to make an alteration in their dress, and the rein-deer peask is exchanged for a round frock of wadmal cloth. This goupe or summer frock, which is generally made of the skins of young deer, extends below the knees. On the head is worn a small low cloth cap (gorpier), turned up all round, with a facing of fine rein-deer fur. No shirt is worn next the skin, linen being a luxury with which the Laplanders are entirely unacquainted. The use of stockings is likewise unknown, but a substitute is found in the soft dried grass called zena, with which the shoes are well stuffed. The hands are protected by rein-deer gloves, or rather mittens, being without fingers, but stuffed with the same kind of grass as the shoes. Almost every part of the winter dress of the Laplander is thus furnished by the useful animal which is the companion of his wanderings. The peask is made from the whole hide of the deer killed during winter; the bellinger and gloves, of the skin covering the legs and thighs of the animal; and the shoes are taken from the skin between the horns, and covering the crown of the head. The fur is worn on the outside, and, from the peculiar closeness and thickness of its texture, it is impossible for the cold to penetrate it. Every part of a Laplander's dress is worn loose, and thus the blood is allowed to circulate freely, an advantage which could not be enjoyed were the clothes tight on the skin. The dress of the coast Laplander is entirely similar to that of the mountaineer, except that when the weather is not warm, he usually wears a sheep-skin garment called smadda; and the wool being next the skin, it is rendered nearly as warm as the rein-peask, though this also he commonly wears in winter. The former, however, being the produce of his own flock, and made up by himself, is naturally in more general use. The rein-deer skins are obtained by barter from the highland Laplanders, and being made into garments by the inhabitants of the coast, who are expert at this kind of work, are again sold or exchanged for silver money, or the necessaries they may require. The women have some skill in embroidery, and collars and cuffs of the wadmal dresses, both male and female, exhibit their taste in the art of adorning. The dress of the females very much resembles that of the men. In winter a frock or peask of sheep-skin, worn with the woolly part inside, is bound to the waist by a belt, to which a small knife is suspended. In summer the sheep-skin frock is exchanged for one of wadmal cloth. The cap is sometimes made of various kinds of cloth, and it is usually encircled by a ribbon. The fondness of these people for anything gaudy is very conspicuous in their summer dress, for the necessities of winter compel them to keep it more unvaried. During the hot months the Lapland costume is very picturesque, from the variety of colours combined in it. It is then, particularly on the sabbath-day and on holidays, that he shows his pride, by making his appearance in all the finery that his means will afford. The usual colour of Lapland's kofte or daily frock is white, with several edgings of blue and red cloth round the bottom and cuffs, but his Sunday garment is of a more ornamental nature, and frequently of thin cloth, richly embroidered in party colours round the cuffs and collars. In some parts of Lapland koftens of black cloth are met with, and those that are wealthy sometimes array themselves in scarlet ones. On extraordinary occasions, other parts of their dress are also of a finer nature than what is commonly worn. As may be supposed, even the best species of cloth which finds its way to these regions, is of a very inferior quality; it is chiefly of German manufacture, although cotton from England is also found here. Those of the women who can afford it, adorn their persons with rings, and ribbons of the gayest colours flutter around their bonnets. Like the Greenlanders, and other inhabitants of high latitudes, females wear pantaloons like the men, a practice which was in all probability had recourse to for personal comfort, in regions where open garments would have unnecessarily exposed the body to the cold. It may be mentioned, that the dresses of the families of the merchants who live on the coast are very superior, in point of elegance, to the garments of the native Laplanders.

The difference of character between the highland and coast Laplander has already been adverted to. The former is known by his haughty expression of countenance, and proud independence of demeanour. The more domestic habits of life of the coast Laplander, render him a more quiet and inoffensive being, and give to his features a milder and a somewhat vacant expression. Speaking of the Laplanders in general, they must be considered as a diminutive race, though not such pigmies as is commonly supposed. The Norwegian Laplander is superior in stature to the rest of the race, and this difference is probably to be attributed to the freer and purer air of his mountains rendering him more hardy and robust. The average height of the highland Laplander may be considered as varying from five feet to five feet two inches. They sometimes, but very rarely, exceed this stature. The characteristic features of the race are small elongated eyes, high cheek-bones, wide mouth, and a pointed chin, with little or no beard. Their hair is generally brown, or dark coloured. Their bodies, from their habits, are naturally spare, and devoid of corpulence, though in general they are ill made. They are buoyy and muscular, possessing greater strength than their stature would seem to indicate, active, and capable of enduring almost any fatigue. Their hands and feet are remarkably small; their voice is weak, and its tones have a squeaking effect upon the ear of a foreigner. In their moral character the Laplanders exhibit some marked peculiarities. Their passions partake of the torpor of the climate, and flow in a slow, cool, and regular course, unbroken by those sudden ebullitions and transports which characterize the men of warmer latitudes. Love, or the amatory feeling, is but a lingering spark, only sufficient to answer the purposes of nature. They possess in a remarkable degree the virtue of continency, and the conjugal relation is rarely or never violated, although both their parental and filial affections are weak. Anger and bloodthirstiness are unknown to them; and Sir A. Capel Brooke found, in 1823, that, during the space of twenty years, only one murder had been committed in Finnmark. Although they are generally cautious, mistrustful, and suspicious, especially of strangers, as well as cunning in their commercial dealings, yet theft is almost unknown amongst them. The absence of this vice is proved by the fact, that locks, bolts, and other safeguards, are considered as unnecessary appendages to a door. They have been accused of avarice, but without any just reason; for whatever strictness they may Lapland observe in bargain-making does not arise from a wish to hoard up money, but that they may be more bountifully supplied with their favourite beverage, brandy, of which they are excessively fond. Drunkenness is not only common, but may be said to constitute a feature of their character. In temper the coast Laplander is of a kinder nature than the mountaineer, and he is more inclined to hospitality, although this virtue is by no means very conspicuous in either. They are generally passive, without much courage, and altogether of a very peaceable and inoffensive disposition. They now exhibit little of a warlike spirit, although in former ages they were frequently the cause of terror to the Norwegians. Notwithstanding their credulity, health is a blessing which the inhabitant of Lapland enjoys in a high degree. They were formerly addicted to degrading superstitions; and the witchcraft in particular which was exercised amongst them has passed into a proverb. Milton alludes to this circumstance when he speaks of dancing "with Lapland witches." They were famous for their empire over the winds, which they disposed of in hags to the credulous mariners. In performing their infernal rites, the instrument used was the magical drum, by beating which as an accompaniment to other ceremonies, they fancied they had the power of foretelling future events, curing diseases, and exorcising evil spirits. Their mythology was distinguished by an universal idolatry, in which the elements were typified, and a polytheism, by which every object in nature was changed into a god. But on these wild creations of the human mind in a state of ignorance and barbarism it is unnecessary to dwell. The rites by which the worship of their deities and idols were celebrated are now unknown, being supplanted by those which have their origin in the milder and purer genius of Christianity.

The habitations of the Laplanders now demand description. The mountaineers live in tents, which differ in no respect in summer and winter, and are of very simple construction. They are formed by six beams of wood rising in a pyramidal form, and meeting nearly at the top, covered with thick and coarse cloth, a flap of which, left loose between two of the beams, constitutes the door. The height of the tent is generally about six feet, and the whole circumference of the inside seldom exceeds fifteen or eighteen feet. The floor is strewn with rein-deer skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus serve for either lying or sitting on, the tent being too low to permit of the occupants assuming the erect posture, except in one place. A stone frame is made in the middle for the fire, and there is a hole at the top to which the smoke must find its way; but its speedy egress is by no means considered as necessary to comfort. The flames thickly impregnate the whole tent, as well as "all which it inhabiteth;" a species of jumpaning highly valued, as affording a protection in winter against the cold, and in summer against the swarms of mosquitoes. Cabined and confined in this limited domicile, it is here that the Laplanders, seated on their heels in the manner of the eastern nations, or squat like toads, spend in all the beatitude of idleness the moments which they can spare from their pastoral avocations. The different provisions are kept in boxes attached to the stakes; and boxes are ranged on the inside round the cloth or covering; but these precautions are often unavailing against the impetuosity of the blast, whilst the thinness of the tent naturally exposes the inmates to the severity of the weather. In regard to habitation, the shore Laplanders have a decided superiority over those of the mountains. The gammie or hut of the former is usually about five feet in height. It is generally of a circular or oblong form, having the appearance of a large rounded hillock, which name it may be said to deserve, being composed of turf laid on branches of the birch, and supported underneath by a wooden frame-work of stronger materials, to bear the weight of the whole. The entrance is by a low, narrow passage, at the extremity of which is the door communicating with the part inhabited. Around them are generally enclosures for the cattle, and several racks of coarse fodder for their winter food. The farming stock of the coast Laplander consists of a few sheep, and sometimes a cow or two, which are kept in the enclosure during the summer season, and in winter occupy the same buildings with their owner, being supported during the latter partly by the coarse fodder which he has been able to collect, but chiefly by the remnant of his fishing produce.

Necessity has rendered the highland Laplander a wanderer, and habit has made that mode of life a second nature to him. It is upon the rein-deer that he almost entirely depends for subsistence; and hence their welfare is the chief object of his care, in promoting which he is compelled annually to take long journeys to the sea-shore for the purpose of avoiding the attacks of insects. His habits of life are thus in a great measure formed; and the year is divided between his abode on the mountains and his migrations to the coast, whilst his life as a whole consists of the extremes of bodily fatigue and total inaction, plenty and want. When he is hungry, and has the power of gratifying his appetite without restraint, he is perfectly ravenous, and devours a quantity sufficient to support him for several days. Those who inhabit high latitudes, where subsistence is precarious at certain seasons, seem all to have a remarkable capacity of stomach, and to be capable of eating an enormous quantity at a meal, so as to serve them for five or six days, without being annoyed by the load. The necessities of their situation have compelled them to practise this frequently, and custom has rendered it easy. The Laplander's household economy, it may readily be imagined, is simple in the extreme. His food during the period of his summer rambles is spare and frugal, and without any indulgence in rein-deer venison, his favourite food and the luxury of the winter season. In summer he is intent only on increasing the number of his flock, and on providing against his future wants. He contents himself then generally with milk, and the remains of the curd and whey after making his cheese. The first is taken sparingly, on account of the small quantity which a single deer yields, as well as of the great importance it is to him to secure a good quantity of cheese for his winter stock, and to guard against any disaster that might befall his herd and reduce him to want. As he milks his herd during the summer season only, when this approaches a close, some milk is generally preserved for the purpose of being frozen. This serves not only for his own individual use during the winter, but, being highly prized for its exquisite delicacy in this state, it constitutes an article of trade; and the merchants with whom the Laplander deals, and who then repair to the interior, gladly purchase it at any price. Though the rein-deer milk is thus of a very rich quality, yet the cheese made from it is extremely bad, and unpalatable to any one but a native. It is made by simply placing the milk in a large iron pot over the fire, which, with the addition of rennet made from the stomach of the deer, quickly coagulates. The curd is then pressed, and the whey, being separated from it, is put into shallow moulds of about the size of a small plate. Bad as it is, the hardy Laplander is very partial to it both raw and roasted; in the latter state it appears at the tables of the merchants, and is rather more eatable than when unprepared. When heated, an oily juice exudes from it, which is found of great use in removing the effects arising from being frost-bitten. Butter is seldom if ever made of rein-deer milk by the Laplanders, but it is so by the Finland settlers, who in many parts of Lapland keep herds of rein-deer, the colour of which, it is said, is peculiarly white. The Laplanders sometimes vary their dishes by mixing different kinds of wild berries with the whey, the latter being previously boiled till it acquires some degree of consistency. They are no less fond of the roots of the angelica, which has an agreeable taste, and likewise possesses antiscorbutic properties. Much value is set upon the blood of the rein-deer, from which a variety of dishes is prepared, care being always taken to preserve it when the animal is killed. It is also supposed to possess antiscorbutic properties. Those who reside upon the coast subsist chiefly on fish, with a little beef and mutton occasionally. The furniture consists of horn spoons, pots and kettles made of brass or copper, and sometimes of stone, wooden bowls capable of holding about twelve quarts, a basket for holding cheese, and a barrel for oil and other liquids. Some of the richer natives possess the more showy utensils, such as pewter plates, and spoons of silver. The highland Laplanders obtain all the artificial light which they require from the fire alone, but those on the coast use a rude sort of lamp. One or two shelves for cheese run along the upper part of the house; and a few rennet bags, containing the milk for winter use, are suspended from the roof. Oval fir boxes, answering for paniers, are employed in transporting their goods; two of them, weighing about two pounds each, are carried by one rein-deer. The most ornamental article of furniture is the cradle, which is a piece of wood hollowed out, and having a recess for receiving the head of the child, and being provided with cords, by which it is fastened to the mother's back when she travels. In shape it somewhat resembles the sledge, with the lower part open, and the upper protected by an arched covering made of leather, which shelters the head of the infant. It is stuffed with soft moss, is portable and safe, and, when slung on the back, the head of the child appears above the shoulders of the mother, whose hands are left at liberty, and who is otherwise little inconvenienced by her burden in travelling.

The herds of the Laplanders vary much in size, and this circumstance constitutes their riches or poverty. He who has 1000 rein-deer is accounted rich, though instances are by no means rare of one individual possessing 1500 or 2000 animals of this description. With three hundred a family may live in tolerable comfort, but with one hundred subsistence is precarious, and fifty reduces a Laplander to the state of a mendicant. He is no longer independent and able to keep a separate establishment, but generally joins his herd to that of a richer proprietor, whom he serves in the capacity of a servant, milking and tending the herd. Sometimes when thus reduced he migrates to the sea-coast, where he supports himself by fishing or otherwise. If successful in his efforts, he returns, purchases a herd, and resumes his pastoral habits. It more generally happens, however, that having once become a coast Laplander, he remains so to the last, being naturally too thoughtless and improvident to carry his views beyond the exigencies of the moment. Should the herd of the mountain Laplander be at all numerous, it rarely happens that the possessor is aware of the exact number, there being a superstition prevalent amongst them, that counting the flock, like numbering the heads of the Israelites, will be attended with evil. During the day they are allowed to wander over the hills where they please, but watched by a shepherd, who observes their motions, and is assisted in his duties by several dogs. These are in readiness not only to guard against any attack of wolves, but also to prevent the herd from being too widely dispersed, and to assist in bringing them to the fold in the evening to be milked. After they are brought into this enclosure, and secured by a cord attached to the horns, and held either in the hands, or fastened to some shrub, the women bring their bowls from the tent, and proceed in the operation in the usual way. Many of the deer are very refractory whilst this is going on, and, butting with their horns, not unfrequently overthrow the female in attendance. The Laplander justly sets a very high value upon his dogs, the services of which are invaluable. The breed is remarkable for the smallness of its size, resembling the arctic fox in every thing but colour.

The employment of the highland Laplander may be said to be entirely confined to the care of his deer; and when men not actively engaged in tending them, he most frequently stretches himself in his tent in a state of listless ease, or amuses himself by fashioning a rein-deer's horn into a spoon. But this monotony is occasionally broken by a hunting excursion, in which he pursues the bear and other animals. Parmigans, foxes, gluttons, martens, and other animals, he either shoots, or catches by means of traps and snares. He has several kinds of sledges, both for the conveyance of himself and of his effects. The pulk, which is intended for the use of merchants and other travellers, in form resembles a boat, and is about seven feet in length by sixteen inches in breadth, and generally about eight inches in depth, the back board or stern part being about sixteen. The head of the pulk comes to a point like a canoe; the stern is flat, and the bottom or keel convex. Above it has an oval half deck in front, covered with seal-skin. This is the close pulk; the open sledge wants the deck, but its general dimensions are similar to the other, and it is made, like it, of birch wood, although of ruder construction, and finished with less care. For the conveyance of goods, there is another open sledge of much larger dimensions, being about eight or nine feet in length, and of proportionate breadth. One deer is sufficient for a sledge, to which it is attached by a very simple harness, consisting of a collar of rein-deer fur for the neck, a trace which passes between the legs of the deer, and through a broad belly-band of cloth fastened round the body of the deer. There is of course a bridle and rein, and round the neck is a loose band of cloth, to which a bell is suspended, the sound serving to keep the party together. Although the difficulty of preserving the equilibrium of the pulk is at first very great, yet, so expert is the Laplander in guiding it, that the chief accidents that happen to him in his winter expeditions arise either from losing his way, or being caught by snow-storms or snow-drifts. Without these convenient vehicles it would be impossible to traverse a country so rugged and broken as Lapland, and even with this advantage as to locomotion, the difficulty is very great. The speed with which the animal travels is remarkable, ten miles an hour being easily accomplished at a trot, and probably double that space at a gallop. In the interior parts of Lapland travelling is suspended during summer, roads being unknown here; and it is only in winter that, by the aid of this invaluable animal, the country can be traversed. In some parts of Lapland, rein-deer have been made available for agricultural purposes, such as ploughing and harrowing; but this only happens when the proprietor is very poor. They are likewise employed during the winter season in drawing hay and fodder loaded upon trays. The Laplanders, especially those of Finnmark, have a mode of travelling by means of the skie or snow-skait. It is made of wood, is very narrow, but frequently more than seven feet in length. In many parts of Lapland the greatest use made of them is in pursuit of wild rein-deer, and the other animals with which the country abounds. With these he makes rapid progress, and undertakes very long journeys without any other means of locomotion.

Various reasons induce the mountaineer to repair to the Migration coast during the summer season. First, that his herd of rein-deer may escape the gad-fly, with which, in June, July, and August, the rein-deer are much tormented; and secondly, to sell or barter the disposable commodities which he has collected during winter. These consist of the skins and horns of the deer which he has killed for the support of his family during winter; and the skins of other animals which he has succeeded in capturing, such as the bear, fox, glutton, and marten, and the feathers of the ptarmigans which he has shot or ensnared. All these are valuable articles of commerce to him; and, by bartering them with the merchants of the coast, he is enabled to procure others that are necessary to his comfort in winter, such as coarse cloth, meal, gunpowder, and tobacco. It is also a matter of belief with the Laplander that it is absolutely necessary to the existence of his rein-deer, that they should once during the summer drink salt water; and this forms another and a very strong inducement for him to visit the coast. The deer eagerly drink salt water, and the draught is said to be efficacious in destroying the larvae of the gadfly, which lays its eggs in the hide of the animal previously to quitting the forest. The annual migration of the Laplander commences in June, by which time the snow is generally off the ground, and consequently his mode of travelling is no longer in sledges. These, with all his winter necessaries, are left behind him in his summer expedition, and he commonly deposits them in the storehouse which almost every highland Laplander possesses, near his church, in the neighbourhood of which he generally remains during the winter. The distance which he has to travel varies according to the situation of the coast to which he is bound, but sometimes exceeds three hundred miles. Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke, speaking of migrations, observes, "The Swedish Laplanders that repair to the coasts of Tromsö and Senjen belong chiefly to Torne Lapmark, inhabiting the shores of the Tornæa Träsk. These parts are also the resort of those from Enontekis, in Russian Lapland. The Laplanders from the other Lapmarks make for other parts of the Norwegian coasts which are nearest to them; and, though the distance may be less, they do not, I believe, ever bend their steps toward the Gulf of Bothnia, preferring the coasts of Norway, from the absence of wood, the freshness of the breezes, and the freedom from the insects which swarm in the forests that skirt the shores of the gulf, as well as in their own."

In studying the health and safety of their herd, they generally make choice of the numerous islands on the western coasts of Norway and Lapland, from their superior coolness, as well as from the absence of bears and wolves. These also present a great advantage in being very convenient stations for fishing, and possessing good harbours; whilst fish likewise resort in great numbers to the numerous fiords or bays, and narrow channels between them. This is the reason why on the whole of the northern line of coast the mainland is nearly uninhabited, with the exception of the borders of the fiords, though the only supply of wood is to be found there; whilst almost all the rocky isles so profusely scattered along the coast possess inhabitants, although generally barren in the extreme. After the mountain Laplander has reached his fishing station, he erects his tent of coarse wadmal cloth, and proceeds to barter his skins, furs, and other articles of commerce, for necessaries which he requires, but principally for brandy, which he drinks to excess. Indeed it sometimes happens, that when he is about to return to his winter quarters, he is occasionally obliged, though reluctantly, to part with his deer, in order to supply himself with what is absolutely necessary to his existence. The mountain Laplander makes it a point to be paid in silver in all his dealings with the merchants; and he frequently amasses a considerable quantity of dollars, which he usually buries in the ground in some spot near his tent. In September, he breaks up his summer quarters, and gradually retires into the interior parts of the country. The circumstances which oblige him to return is the want of rein-deer moss on the islands, and also of fuel, both of which are readily procured in the interior parts of the country. The want of the latter is said to have led to the gradual and almost entire depopulation of the Finnmark coasts. His stock of necessaries and household utensils are packed in a kind of wicker pannier, one of which hangs on each side of the deer, and, by slow and easy stages of six or seven miles a day, he reaches that part of the continent where he intends to fix his winter abode. Venison constitutes the principal article of food of the highland Laplander in winter, the only season when he kills his deer for supporting himself and his family.

The coast Laplanders support themselves entirely by the fishery fishery, which is astonishingly productive, 2000 lbs. weight &c. of cod-fish being caught in a day by means of lines alone. From the great number of small Russian vessels which frequent the coast at certain seasons, they find a ready sale for the fruits of their industry, receiving in exchange chiefly meal, brandy, tobacco, and the like. Whales are abundant, particularly what is called the fin whale, which is long, active, swimming with great strength and speed, and consequently difficult to capture. It is usually killed by darting the harpoon into the body, and then breaking it close off. No more notice is taken of it at the time, but the wound generally proves mortal, and in a few days the animal is found cast upon some part of the neighbouring shore. The value of a good whale of this kind is about L150, or 1000 specie dollars. The owner is known by a mark on the barb of his harpoon, by which he identifies his property; but law entitles the finder to one third of the booty. Great quantities of other kinds of fish, particularly the sey or coal-fish, are likewise caught. The latter are taken by means of nets, and this fishery constitutes one of the most lucrative branches of the Finnmark trade, as does the down of the eider-duck. Plaice of a huge size, halibut, and eelini of all hues and sizes, are likewise amongst the fish taken; but of shell-fish there are few or none, the northern shores, from their nature, being particularly barren of testacea. Halibut of 500 lbs. weight is frequently taken, and it is esteemed a great delicacy. The farming stock of the coast Laplander consists of a few sheep and goats, and sometimes a cow or two; but pigs are little known in Finnmark, and do not constitute part of his property, sheep being of superior utility in furnishing him both with food and raiment; and his wants are, besides, very limited. On the approach of winter the whole of the cattle are brought from the mountains, where they are sent to graze during summer, and are shut up in stables. The weight of the cattle is not considerable. During winter, as a substitute for fodder, they are almost entirely fed upon fish, to which they are very partial. Some of the shore Laplanders keep rein-deer, but these animals very rarely constitute part of their property.

In their manual arts and manufactures, that is, making Arts, the various utensils which their mode of life requires, the manufactures, Lap display some ingenuity. Their sledges and canoes are very strongly and closely put together, so as to be ements, &c. entirely impervious to water. They tan hides with the first inner bark of the birch, make strong cordage and thread of the sinews of the rein-deer, weave coverings for their tents, knit gloves, fashion wooden utensils for domestic purposes; and the women prepare the skins of foxes, fawns, otters, and other animals for sale, by stripping off the membraneous parts, and curing them with fish-oil. The Laplanders have a few amusements, but the chief is hunting, which, however, rather constitutes a part of their professional avocations, than of their choice pastimes. The bow and arrow, which formerly constituted their offensive weapons, are now supplanted by fire-arms, particularly rifles, in the use of which they are very expert. A taste for music and poetry have been attributed to the Laplanders; but this, Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke observes, is a mistake, arising from travellers mistaking Finns for Laplanders, a circumstance which very frequently takes place. Amongst the amusements of the Laplanders may be mentioned their occasionally assembling at feasts, where the favourite beverage, brandy, freely circulates, and mirth and noisy loquacity prevail. At marriage-feasts hundreds meet, and the ceremony is conducted with great formality and decorum; but the more solemn ritual of a funeral is characterized by an appropriate want of anything like parade or show.

Russian Lapland begins at the Waranger Fiord, under N. Lat. 70., and extends as far as the White Sea. Admiral Litke, in surveying its northern coast, in the years 1822-3, has noted down many interesting particulars, from which we derive the following notes:

It may appear surprising, but it is nevertheless true, that this coast, navigated for three centuries by the first maritime nations, was, before Admiral Litke's survey, less known to us than many of the most distant and uninhabited parts of the globe. Vessels trading to Archangel had, for a long time, only the Zeevaker of the Dutch for a guide. Litke, June 1822, began his survey of the Lapland coast at Cape Orlow, in about N. Lat. 67. This, the eastern extremity of Russian Lapland, consists of high, steep, and bare rocks. Near Sviatoi Nos (in N. Lat. 68.) the coast has an inviting appearance; the S. side of the islands, or indentations, being covered with beautiful turf, wild leek, and a number of strawberries, but there were no bushes. On the main shore, however, were seen low dwarf birch and juniper bushes, and numerous tracks of rein-deer. During summer, as Admiral Litke was here informed, there is no land route through Lapland; and all who are then necessitated to travel,—as, for example, clergymen, the judges, or officers of judicial courts, &c.—pass by shacks along the shore, by stations, from Kola, round the whole peninsula, as far as Kandalaksha, in the extreme north-western point of the White Sea. Between Kandalaksha, however, and Kola, they manage to travel in the usual manner.

A little to the W. of Sviatoi Nos is the mouth of the Yukanka River, which is navigable for 3 to 4 sea miles up, when rapids commence, and prevent navigation, even for small boats. On the left bank of this river lies a Lopar village, called the Yukanka Lodge; for all places of the Lopares, both for summer and winter residence, are called by the Russians pagasts (lodges). The summer houses are entered about the beginning of May, and are inhabited until the first snow, when the winter quarters are re-entered, which are 150 to 200 wersts farther inland. The rein-deer, which the Lopares bring with them to this coast, are then let loose on the islands, or on the bogs, and in autumn they are found again by their tracks in the snow. Sometimes, however, rein-deer are lost on the bogs, or are devoured by wolves. On the islands, on the contrary, they are secure; but they would not find food there. The Lopares are occupied during summer with fishery, and those on the Yukanka River chiefly take salmon, the neighbouring sea being poor in other fish. The fish taken is either used by themselves, or bartered for flour and other necessaries, brought to them from various parts of the White Sea. Sometimes they lease for a summer the whole river, or part of it, to Archangel traders. One of their most important occupations during summer is the making of their keroschki, i.e., winter sledges, which resemble a pointed trough. During the winter, the Lopares are employed with fishery in the lakes, and with the chase. The Yukan lodge consists of eleven vyeyi, inhabited by about sixty persons of both sexes. These vyeyi are made of wattles, of a conical shape, covered with thorn-bush branches and moss, and are from 7 to 10 feet wide, and 5 to 7 feet high. A small opening on the ground serves at the same time for window and door, whilst the smoke escapes through another hole at the top. In the middle of the vyeya is a hearth made of stones, where a fire is burning for the purpose of heating, cooking, and bread-baking; the latter is done in a most simple way, by making a dough of flour and water, and forming it into a flat cake, which, with one side, is laid on a hot stone, and with the other, is turned to the fire, and, when done, is called bread. The place between the hearth and the wall is filled with branches, and covered with rein-deer skins, and there the inhabitants sleep, wrapping themselves up in other rein-deer skins. Around these vyeyi prevails a filth and disorder that is frightful: the entrails of fish, heaps of bones, dogs, kettles, sledges, and keroschki, are lying about pell-mell, spreading most offensive smells. The appearance of the Lopares themselves, however, is quite pleasing. The men are dressed in short woollen overcoats, mostly of blue colour, with a similar coat underneath; worsted stockings, and shoes. The women wear Russian sarafanes, and around the head the Russian kokoshnik, or handkerchiefs.

About 30 miles N.W. from Yukanka is Cherni Nos, or Black Cape; and near it, Noknev Island,—in earlier charts, called Nagel, or Nagol. Here Admiral Litke found that the needle showed no variation. On the main shore, near Noknev Island, the principal fishes caught are salmon, bib, paltes, and pikeba. The peschchanka (sand-eel) is caught in a remarkable manner. Some time before ebb, the Lopares set about digging up the wet sand close above the strand line; with almost every step they dig out such a fish, to which, however, they must not allow a second's time, as otherwise it would be sure to dig itself in again, and escape. As soon as they perceive it, therefore, they seize it with a handful of sand and throw it violently on the ground. The fish, thus stunned, are collected in baskets or casks. It is strange that this fish is found only at ebb during the day, and never at night. The people of this place had also some sheep, which had abundant food in the adjoining pastures.

The chief island on the coast of Russian Lapland is Kildin,—not Kildin, as the Dutch call it,—and lies 11 miles E. from the mouth of the Kola Bay. It is 9 miles long, and 1½ to 3½ miles broad. Its shores are high and precipitous on the N. side, and terminate abruptly in a perpendicular rock on the W., while on the S.E. side it slopes down gently to the sea. The appearance of the S. coast is most peculiar, rising as it does in four most regular terraces, forming an amphitheatre of 500 feet in height, with a flat table-like top. This coast is everywhere clothed with the richest verdure, forming a most striking contrast with the bare granite crags on the main shore. The island consists of primary slate, and thus differs from both the islands and the main shore to the south-eastward, which show only granite.

Rein-deer, belonging to Mr Popow, merchant in Kola, are pastured on this island. He introduced them here about twenty-five years ago, and since then their number has increased from two or three couples to several hundreds. Mr Popow permitted the Lopares to use these rein-deer on condition of delivering to him the skin of every beast killed, and paying him for the meat one pud of salmon, or other fish they may take during the winter in the lakes. Excellent mushrooms, called mochoeiki (bog-mushrooms), grow in great abundance.

Kola, the capital of Russian Lapland, is situate at the confluence of the Rivers Kola and Tuloma, about 30 miles from the sea. As determined by Mr Rasumowski, who, in the last century, observed in this place the transit of Venus over the sun, the latitude of the city is 68° 52', the longitude 33° 1' E. from Greenwich. It appears that Kola was founded long before 1533, as English and other mariners traded already about the middle of the sixteenth century to Kola as to a well-known place. It was at first only a sovaldah (capital of a district), became under Peter the Great an astrog (fortified place), and since the foundation of the stadtholdership, the capital of a government. The place extends 530 fathoms along the River Kola, and 175 fathoms along the River Tuloma. Except a church built of stone, Lapland, all the houses are of wood. The streets are paved with planks. On the bank of the Kola, near the centre of the town, lies a wooden fort, being a square with five towers: since the rupture with England, in the year 1800, the cannon of this fort were removed to the priory of Solovetz, in order to put the latter in a state of defence; and since then, the walls of the fort serve only as a fence for the cathedral, and the towers are transformed into storehouses. The number of inhabitants of both sexes were estimated by Litke, in 1822, at about 800, but recent official data show that it was, in 1849, only 642.

As famous names like London, Paris, &c., call forth involuntarily the idea of incomparable splendour, uninterrupted pleasure, and constant happiness, so one thinks, at the name of Kola, of a dreary place, the seat of extreme poverty, entirely separated from the civilized world, enveloped in enduring night. Human imagination seldom knows the middle course, and, accordingly, the latter notions are as incorrect as the former ones. The officials and merchants of Kola live in a style varying little from that of the capital. In external appearance, Kola is that of a clean town; and the houses, consisting frequently of two floors, are neat. The view of the town from the N.E. is most charming; it stands on a high and abrupt bank, from which a wide plain extends, bordered on three sides by high hills.

The principal trade of Kola is in fish, particularly in hib (treksa) and poltus. The Kolars are not themselves engaged in fishing, but obtain the fish by barter, mostly from the Russian fishers trading on the Lapland coast, partly from the Norway ports of Wadö, Wardhus, Hammerfest, and even from Tromsö, to which ports the Kolars are permitted to export about 2000 tchetevert of rye flour every year.

Kola lodfi go to Archangel to barter their cargo of fish for the various merchandise they require, and some of them venture to set out from the latter place on their return home as late as October. Whilst the men of Kola are thus occupied, their wives and daughters do not remain idle. They cross in little boats to the islands to gather moroshka, the berries of Rubus chamaemorus. A boat contains usually but one young and able man, and from twelve to twenty women. Among the islands near the Bay of Kola, the Koreline Islands are considered to give the best produce of moroshka; they lie 5 miles W. from the mouth of the bay. The Kola women, however, will go still farther, to Motov Bay, and even to the Ainova Isles, at least 100 miles from Kola, in a boat. The moroshka from these isles are said to surpass in size and flavour all others, and are mostly destined for the imperial court.

The Bay of Kola, near the town, is so shallow, that even the smallest vessels can approach it only at high water. The River Kola ceases altogether to be navigable at the town; but the Tulaoma is navigable for about 40 miles, namely, to its origin from the lake. Its banks are densely wooded with splendid fir.

There is a small and bare island in the middle of the Bay of Kola, called Solnoi Ostrow (Tallow Island), from the immense number of seals which formerly used to come ashore here, but which have entirely disappeared about the end of the last century.

W. from Kola is the Bay of Motov, and Ribachi, or Fisher's Peninsula, in old maps mostly presented as an island. This difference must not, however, be altogether attributed to the inaccuracy of the old charts; for it is not merely possible, but even highly probable, that this peninsula was once separated from the mainland; and this hypothesis is the more probable, because the rising of the Scandinavian peninsula has been noticed before. Almost throughout the whole extent of the coast of Lapland, traces were found by Litke, in a height from 4 to 9 fathoms, that the sea once attained that height. On the isthmus grow very straight and thick birches; and in case of necessity, fuel can be procured from this wood, although with some difficulty. Moroshka grow in great plenty, and of exceeding beauty, on the shores of the peninsula.

The Bay of Motov is very remarkable on account of the whales which are driven thither every year, in greater or smaller numbers. Sometimes, in the course of the summer, as many as ten whales are cast up; generally fewer, but they are seldom totally wanting. All the shores are covered with bones of these animals, or remains not yet thoroughly decomposed, which emit an insupportable stench to a great distance, and by which bears and other beasts of prey are attracted to the strand. The Lopares, to whom this district belongs, consider as their property everything that is cast up by the sea, and this forms one of their contested privileges. They sell the cast-up whales to the Pomarav, who come to them, for fish and fat. The usual price of a whale is 60 rubles, which is exceedingly moderate, when we consider the quantity of train oil to be obtained from a whale. These whales are probably the Balena physalus and B. mysticetus.

On the western side of the Fisher's Peninsula is the Waranger Fiord, which has in its eastern portion the River Petchenga, celebrated, because on its banks dwelt St Triphon, the miracle-performer, who converted the Lopares to Christianity. The abode of this saint still exists at the embouchure of the River Triphon into the Petchenga, 8½ miles from the mouth of the latter. In the sixteenth century stood there the convent of the Life-bringing Trinity, to which, in the year 1556, the whole coast of Lapland W. of the Gulf of Kola, with all the inhabitants, were given for an ecclesiastical district by Czar Joan Wasilevitch. In the deed of grant, the Bays of Motov, Liza, Ura, Patrez, and Nyawden, are mentioned, and also whatever the sea casts up, such as the whale, walrus, or similar animals. In the year 1589 this convent was destroyed by the Swedes, and afterwards transferred to Kola, but subsequently entirely abolished and combined with the convent of Archangel. On the Petchenga, the church alone remained, adorned, as we are told, with rich pictures of the saints. It has no minister of its own, but one comes there annually from Kola. Petchenga is the Mecca of the neighbourhood; for every Lopar of respectability considers it a duty to worship, at least once in his life, the relics of the God-pleasing saint. In times of danger, they make vows to go to Petchenga to pray.

In the Waranger Fiord, Russian Lapland ceases; and according to Admiral Litke, Cape Weres forms the boundary. It lies in N. Lat. 69. 58, and E. Long. 29. 50, from Greenwich.

One of the latest travellers who have added to our store of knowledge of Lapland generally, is Professor J. D. Forbes, already quoted. He visited a Lap encampment near Tromsö, and gives the following interesting description:

"We at length extricated ourselves from the wood, and crossing the stream, saw the Lap camp before us on a dry and pleasant grassy space, about 2½ English miles from the sea. Some piles of sticks and mounds, which seemed like no human habitation, first attracted attention. The piles of sticks form a sort of skeleton shed, which can be covered in bad weather by a kind of rude tarpaulin. They contain barrels, clothes, and many nondescript utensils and stores, which in fine weather are exposed suspended from the bare poles. Two low round mounds of turf, overlaid with sticks and branches in a most disorderly fashion, composed the habitations of a multitude of men, women, and especially children, who seemed at first sight to be countless. Their appearance—uncouth, squalid, and diminutive in the extreme—was, I thought, decidedly unprepossessing. But an attentive survey brought out some more favourable features. The countenance was altogether unlike any I had seen, but by no means devoid of intelligence, and even a certain sweetness of expression. Notwithstanding that our party was tolerably numerous, they exhibited no signs either of distrust or shyness; and whilst some of them entered into conversation with one of the gentlemen from Tromsö, who knew a little of their dialect, and others went attended by several small active dogs to fetch some rein-deer for our inspection, from the heights, the greater part remained quietly engaged in their huts, as we had found them, quite regardless of our presence. On inquiring into their occupation, we were surprised to find them possessed of some excellently printed and well-cared-for books, particularly a bible in the Finnish tongue, and a commentary, each forming a quarto volume. We found some of them also engaged in writing. This was a matter of surprise, where we had been led to expect something approaching barbarism; and we had soon a proof that their pretension to religious impressions was not merely theoretical, for they positively refused to taste the spirits which were freely offered to them, and of which our party partook; though it is well known that excessive and besotting drunkenness used to be the great sin of the Lappish tribes, and still is of those who have not been converted to habits of order and religion by the zealous efforts of the Swedish missionaries who have indefatigably laboured amongst them.

"The Lap hut is formed interiorly of wood, by means of curved ribs, which unite near the centre in a ring, which is open, and allows free escape for the smoke, the fire being lighted in the centre of the floor. The exterior is covered with turf. The door is of wood on one side. The inmates recline on skins on the floor, with their feet towards the fire; and behind them, on a row of stones near the wall of the hut, are their various utensils. Their clothing—chiefly of tanned skins and woollen stuffs—looked very dirty. Their whole wealth consists in rein-deer. The two families who frequent this valley possess about 700 deer. We saw, perhaps, about one-fourth of that number. A few of them were driven, for our inspection, into a circular enclosure of wooden palings, where they are habitually milked. One of the men dexterously caught them by the horns with a lasso, or noose. The deer are small; but some of them carry immense branching horns, the weight of which they seem almost unable to support. At this season their long winter coat of hair came off by handfuls. They make a low grunting noise, almost like a pig. The milk is very small in quantity and excessively rich."

The whole population of Finnmark does not exceed 45,000. The degrading superstition in which they were formerly sunk has now in a great measure disappeared, along with those numerous deities which they worshipped: the wild creations of unenlightened nature have been superseded by Christianity, and a knowledge of the true God. Regular clergymen are established in the country by the different governments, and the Laps exhibit much reverence and devotional feeling during divine service, although its purport is only known to them through an interpreter. Finnmark, in regard to ecclesiastical regulations, is under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Norland and Finnmark, both of which form one diocese. Swedish Lapland has a population of only about 12,000.

Language. The language of the Laplanders is a Finnish dialect, with so great an infusion of foreign words, that the inhabitants of the two nations require an interpreter before they can understand each other's meaning. "The numerous cases," says Malte-Brun, "the varied terminations of nouns and compound verbs, the method of expressing pronouns by affixa joined to verbs, and, lastly, the negative conjugations, are characteristics equally applicable to the languages of Finland, Esthonia, and Lapland. The last is in some respects still poorer than the other two; thus there are five words for snow, seven or eight for a mountain; but honesty, virtue, and conscience must be expressed by a periphrasis. The Lapponic has been mixed, perhaps still more than the other Finnic tongues, with the German and Scandinavian, which were spoken by the conquerors, who were too often the tyrants of the Finnic race." Some old Hungarian roots are also found in it, from which circumstance, as well as from others, it has been inferred that the Laplanders are the descendants of a Hunnic mixed with a Finnic people, or perhaps a distinct branch of the great Finno-Hunnic race. The principal roots and derivatives in the Lapponic tongue certainly bear less affinity with those of the languages of Upper Asia than any other Finnic dialect. See also Leemii de Lappon. et Finnmar. Commentatio. (J.F.S.) (A.P.)