Library, in ordinary language, may mean either (1) a collection of books, public or private; (2) A building or apartment destined for the reception and systematic arrangement of such a collection; or (3.) a series of treatises on a particular subject,—as, for example, Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology,—or a series of works on various subjects, published on some uniform plan, such as Murray's Family Library, and the like. It is in the two former senses only that the term is employed in this article.

(1.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY PURCHASE.

In the formation of a Public Library, the first concern of the founders should obviously be to acquire a distinct conception of the aims with which it is established, and of the studies which it is intended principally to facilitate. To a great national library, indeed, all sorts and varieties of books are welcome; but a library of this kind is rather a growth than a formation. The chief libraries of a country ought, unquestionably, to be encyclopedic, because even the "trash" of one generation becomes the highly-prized treasure of another. What a Bodley, at the end of the sixteenth century, calls "riff-raff,... which a library-keeper should disdain to seek out to deliver to any man," a Bodley's librarian has to buy almost for its weight in gold at the beginning of the nineteenth century. For, by that time, it comes to be apparent that the most obscure pamphlet, or the flimsiest ballad, may throw a ray of light upon some pregnant fact of history, or may serve as the key to a mystery in some life-career which gave to an age its very "form and pressure."

But, besides these great repositories, many libraries are needed of narrower aims and of more specific character. Of these, some are professional, such as—Law Libraries, Divinity Libraries, Medical Libraries, and the like. In collections of this kind, no country, perhaps, is richer than our own; and for the formation of new ones, wherever they may be needed, many and excellent appliances lie ready to the hand. Far more difficult will be the labour of planning, advisedly and with clear forecast, those public, provincial, and town libraries in which the United Kingdom has hitherto confessedly been very deficient. The steps which have recently been taken, under Mr Ewart's Libraries Act, are proofs that public attention is now fairly roused to the importance of supplying this deficiency in an effective and thorough manner.

In the formation of a library of this description, it will be well, we think, for the promoters to fix, at the outset, upon some particular class or classes of literature, in which it shall be pre-eminently well provided. What these chosen subjects shall be, must, of course, depend in each case upon special circumstances, which will be different in different places. But be these circumstances what they may, some one important class, at least, should be selected, in which the library shall have, as early as possible, a systematic collection, not a mere chance aggregation of books. In the instances of the Town Libraries which have been recently established, the largest sum available for purchases has not (under very favourable conditions) exceeded L6000. Twice that sum would be utterly insufficient for the formation of a really valuable library upon all subjects, even if it were restricted to books in English. But a much smaller sum than L6000, if appropriated on the principle of spending most of it in the purchase of books on some one leading subject,—say, for example, on British history,—and the remainder on the best and most indispensable books, only, on other subjects of general interest, will lay the foundation of a library, which, from the beginning, will tend as well to make students as to help them.

Another point which should receive careful attention, in the establishment of a library of this class, is the collection of works illustrative of the local history of the town and county in which it is placed. Many generations have elapsed since John Bale expressed his earnest wish that in every shire of England there were "at least one library for the preservation of noble works and preferment of good learning." Had effect been given to that desire in his own day, many more of the choice treasures of the monastic libraries would have been saved from destruction, and much valuable material for local topography would have been accessible, which is now irrecoverably lost. In a Town Library, every thing of this kind which is procurable should be stored up for the future historian. Every book and every fugitive tract that bears on the history or antiquities, the fauna or flora, the trade or politics of the district; on the lives of local worthies, or on local affairs and institutions of whatever description, should be sought for and preserved. And whenever unprinted materials of this sort are known to exist in... Collection other libraries or repositories, public or private, transcripts of books by should be obtained, so that the Town Library may become the heart-quarters for all seekers into the town history.

If the fund to be expended in book-buying is large, it will be good economy to make, at the outset, a collection of bibliographical works and of catalogues. The learned Gabriel Naudé indicated the advantage of this course two centuries ago (in his curious *Avis pour dresser une Bibliothèque*) and his remark still holds good, that "by this means one may also do a friend service and pleasure, and when we cannot furnish him with the book he is in search of, direct him to the place where he may find a copy." It will also, in many cases, be good economy to draw up and to print, for circulation amongst booksellers, lists of the principal books sought for, and these may be so framed as to serve for a time by way of provisional catalogues. In the search after the best editions of our standard writers, their critics, commentators, and assailants should not be forgotten. Subsidiary works of this kind are often of very troublesome quest; but they are valuable, if not for the light they throw upon their object, at least for that which they reflect upon their age. The silliest commentator on Shakspeare, however little he may illustrate his author, will sometimes afford a very useful illustration of the history of manners, or of the growth of opinion. Whether works which exist both in separate editions and in "collections"—such as, the *Bibliotheca Patrum*, or the *Rerum Anglicarum Scriptores*—shall be purchased only in the one form or in the other; or whether both collections and separate editions shall be sought for, when the latter possess any special claims to attention,—is another question which lies on the threshold of book-collecting for a large library. In general, it may be suggested, that all the great collections which come within the scope of the library to be formed, together with the best Encyclopaedias, Lexicons, and Dictionaries of all kinds, should be amongst the earliest purchases. The Transactions of the chief learned societies, and the long sets of important periodicals, should also receive early attention. Books of this description form the true foundation and framework of a library; in addition to their more direct uses, they may render useful help in its subsequent enlargement, and, if neglected at first, there is usually little likelihood that they will be properly cared for at a later period.

In a National Library it will be praiseworthy to bestow pains on the collection of pamphlets, and of the other ephemera of literature; and it the prevailing character even of a provincial or special library be historical, "old tracts" will need to occupy much of the librarian's attention, and not a little space on the shelves. The causes that make them important are often those that make it difficult to obtain them when required.

(2.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY LEGAL EXACTION.

The exaction, by legal enactment, of copies of books for deposit in public libraries is both ancient and general. It obtains in the freest and in the most despotically governed countries. But in the former it is usually the relic of a state of things which has almost passed away, and in the latter it seems racy of the soil. Everywhere it is, or it has been, connected with a censorship of the press. In France, the Imperial Library at Paris, and that only, is entitled to a copy of every work published within the empire. In Belgium and in the Netherlands the deposit of copies is not compulsory in all cases, but is the necessary condition of copyright. In Sardinia the Library of the University of Turin is entitled to a copy of every book printed within the kingdom. In Tuscany every public library enjoys a similar right as respects books printed within the city, and the prefecture, in which it is placed. By the law of Sicily, the University Library at Palermo is entitled to a copy of every book printed in that city; and by that of Naples, four copies of every book printed in the capital must be delivered, two for the Bourbonica, one for the Brancacciana, and one for the University Library. In Rome the printers are enjoined to send five copies to the Master of the Sacred Palace, who is to keep one in his office, to deliver one to the vicar-general, one to the Vatican Library, another to one or other of two libraries—the Gymnasium or the "Sapienza"—and the remaining copy he is to return to the author. In other parts of the Papal States the practice appears to vary, and the right, where it exists, to be almost inoperative.

By the law of Spain, the National Library at Madrid, as respects the whole kingdom, and the provincial libraries, within the respective provinces, have a right to copies. In Portugal, the National Library at Lisbon, and the Town Library of Oporto, are each entitled to a copy of every book printed within the kingdom. If we turn to Germany, we find similar enactments to be almost universal, with more or less of modification. The Royal Library at Munich is entitled to two copies of all books printed in Bavaria. The Royal Library at Hanover, and the Library of the University of Göttingen, are each entitled to a copy of every book printed within the Hanoverian kingdom. In the Hanse towns a similar privilege is enjoyed by the town libraries of Hamburg and of Lubeck, but not by that of Bremen. By the law of Hesse-Cassel, two libraries, and by that of Hesse-Darmstadt, three libraries, are absolutely entitled to copies of all books published within the electorate or the duchy, respectively. The library at Fulda, in Electoral Hesse, appears to possess this privilege only with respect to books the copyright of which is secured. In Prussia the Royal Library at Berlin is entitled to a copy of every work published throughout the kingdom, whilst the University Libraries have a similar right within their respective provinces.

In Saxony a practice obtains which is different from all the usages hitherto noticed. The printer or publisher of every book is bound to deliver one copy to the appointed officer, whose duty it is to distribute the books, according to their subject and character, between the Royal Library at Dresden and the University Library at Leipzig. In Switzerland, the Geneva library alone has the copy privilege. At Berne it ceased in 1830. At Zurich it is matter of choice and custom with the publishers, but is not compulsory. By the laws of Denmark, the Royal Library of Copenhagen is entitled to two copies of all books published in the Danish possessions. The three principal libraries of Sweden (at Stockholm, Upsal, and Lund) have each a right to one copy of every work printed in Sweden; but this right does not extend to Norway. In Russia, the Imperial Library of St Petersburg is entitled to two copies of every work published within the empire.

By an act of the congress of the United States of America (31st May 1790), which has been continued and extended by subsequent acts, one copy of every work in which a copyright is secured must be deposited in the state department at Washington. There the books remain, and are publicly accessible, under certain regulations. At present they are said to amount to about 10,000 volumes; and the average annual increase appears to be about 400 volumes.

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1 Returns relating to Foreign Libraries, procured through the Foreign Office, and printed in the Commons' Sessional Papers of 1851, and 1852. These are the authorities for all the statements relating to the exaction of copies by foreign legislation, unless it be otherwise indicated. 2 Castilho Barreto e Noronha, Relatório acerca da Bibliotheca Nacional de Lisboa (1844), I. 28. 3 Jowett, Notices of Public Libraries in the United States of America (1851), 140. In England, as early as the year 1609, Sir Thomas Bodley made an agreement with the Company of Stationers by which it was provided that one copy of every book which they should print thenceforward was to be given to the Bodleian Library, and it appears that this agreement was fairly observed until the breaking out of the civil wars. Long before Bodley's day copies had been exacted for delivery to the licensers of the press; but the first parliamentary enactment by which printers were enjoined to give copies to libraries was that contained in the Sedition Act, 14th Charles II., c. 33. Three copies were to be delivered at Stationers' Hall, one of which was to be sent to his Majesty's Library, and the others to the two universities. By the famous Copyright Act of the 5th of Queen Anne, the exacted copies were increased to nine, and by the 41st George III., c. 107 (passed after the Irish Union), to eleven. This last-named enactment continued to be in force until 1835. The appropriation of the eleven copies was as follows:—1. Royal Library (British Museum). 2. University Library at Cambridge. 3. Bodleian Library at Oxford. 4. University Library, Edinburgh. 5. University Library, Glasgow. 6. King's College Library, Aberdeen. 7. University Library, St Andrews. 8. Sion College Library, London. 9. Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. 10. Trinity College Library, Dublin. 11. King's Inns Library, Dublin.

By the 5th and 6th William IV., c. 110, this privilege was abolished, as respects six of the eleven libraries above-named; and a yearly grant of L.3028 was charged upon the Consolidated Fund by way of compensation, to be distributed as follows:

| To the Library of the University of Edinburgh | L.575 | |---------------------------------------------|-------| | University of Glasgow | 707 | | University of St Andrews | 630 | | King's College, Aberdeen | 329 | | Sion College, London | 363 | | King's Inns, Dublin | 433 |

The grant was thus apportioned in accordance with an estimate of the annual value of the books which each library had actually received, on an average of a certain number of years prior to the passing of the act. Thus, the privilege having been enforced with far greater strictness at Glasgow than at Aberdeen, the former university receives more than twice the yearly sum assigned to the latter. As the law now stands, the copy of every book due to the British Museum must be there delivered, irrespectively of any demand. The other four copies are due only after demand, in writing, within twelve months of publication. (54th Geo. III., c. 156.)

The copy-exaction, even within its present limits, has always been obnoxious to the great majority of the publishers, and to no small number of the authors, who have been chiefly affected by it. Those, especially, whether authors or publishers, who own the copyright of such illustrated books as are both extensive and costly, have found the exaction to be oppressive. The popular notion, that this is a tax which falls on the consumer and not on the producer (whatever the force of so questionable an argument), is a fallacious one, although it has been repeatedly put forward under various forms. It is, in truth, a tax which seriously enhances the cost of producing precisely such books as it is most clearly the public interest to facilitate, rather than to impede, and which takes out of the market precisely those customers of whose presence there the producers ought to be most secure. Wealthy universities and prosperous guilds would figure far more appropriately in the list of subscribers to the Flora Antarctica, or the History of Leicestershire, or the Birds of Europe, than in the warehouse-book of the Stationers' Company as leviers of literary blackmail. The entire system, indeed, of exacting books without payment, belongs to the period when brain products were at the mercy of every plunderer, and copyright was a passing protection, accorded rather as a concession than as a right.

It is not surprising, therefore, that the law on this point has been largely evaded. Up to the present time, the Library of the British Museum is the only one in whose favour it has been thoroughly carried out; and even there it is only during a very few years that it has been so carried out. In 1854 the total number of books, pamphlets, &c., actually received amounted to 19,578. In order to produce this result, great vigilance and some severity have been needed. But so long as the law remains on the statute-book, it ought unquestionably to be strictly enforced.

At Cambridge, during the seven years from 1844 to 1850 inclusive, the total number of books, parts of books, pieces of music, &c., received by the University Library, was 62,348, or, on the average, 7478 yearly. The number for the single year 1850 was 7890. At Dublin, during the same seven years, the total number received was 21,260, or, on the average, 3037 yearly. The number for the single year 1850 was 3454. The disproportion between the receipts at Dublin and those at Cambridge is very great; yet it was given in evidence, on the part of both universities, that agents are employed in London, with instructions to claim every book that is published. Both returns also profess to give the number of articles, not of volumes, that are received.

In addition to the objection which, as it seems to us, may fairly be taken to the principle that underlies the enactment in question, there is another, and a grave one, which applies to the mode of using it, as respects the great majority of the participating libraries. Were all these institutions open to the public as matter of right, not of favour, the public would receive some return for the exaction, though an indirect and an insufficient one. It would still be matter of reasonable complaint that a part of the community is taxed for the benefit of the whole community. It would still be true that a national advantage ought to be paid for out of the national purse. But the Libraries of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, are not national libraries. Of the whole number under both categories, the British Museum Library is the only one to which admission is matter of clear public right, although, in practice, the regulations of the Library of the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh, and those of the Library of Trinity College, Dublin, are liberally construed. If the three University Libraries, and the Advocates' Library, should continue to possess a claim to every book published, reasonable compensation should be made to the publishers, at the public charge. Those libraries should be put on as good footing for its enforcement as that enjoyed by the British Museum. All the privileged libraries should be made accessible, without favour, under known rules. All should be bound to publish, in due concert, an accurate and full descriptive list of every publication which they have received. The literary community would thus obtain a better "Publishers' Circular" than has yet existed.

(3.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY DONATION.

Although nothing is more certain than that those who love books are usually very chary of parting with them, yet in all the great libraries we find a considerable number of volumes which have been acquired, sometimes by gift, but more frequently by bequest. Of the 562,000 volumes which are now in the British Museum, no less than... Collection 220,000 have been either presented or bequeathed. But even this goodly number would, in all probability, have been greatly increased, if, some forty years ago, there had been less narrowness of view as to the necessary qualifications for what some have called the "blue ribbon of literature"—a trusteeship. This was the great object of ambition, both to Richard Gough, the author of the Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain, and to Francis Douce, the author of the Illustrations of Shakespeare. Both of them had made valuable additions to English literature; both of them possessed fine libraries, especially rich in British topography and history; but neither of them was either a peer or a placeman. Both fortunately bequeathed their libraries to the University of Oxford, where they are worthily lodged; but of their comparative usefulness to the public, as they are, and as they might have been, not a word need be said. Since those days, it has happily become apparent, even to the official mind, that the dignity of the trusteeship is not diminished by being shared with a distinguished geologist or a great historian; and the list is now graced by the names of Murchison, Buckland, Hallam, and Macaulay, as well as by those of dukes and chancellors.

Worthy Bishop Huet, in his amusing Commentaries, has told us, in pathetic terms, of the regret with which he saw the fine library of the President de Thou disposed of in bulk (notwithstanding the pains with which the illustrious owner had entailed it as an heir-loom); but when, at a later period, it was sold in detail, part of it, he adds, "came into my possession; and . . . . from this example I was led to be sensible of the certain destruction that awaited my library, unless I should make careful provision for preventing it. Having long and attentively revolved this in my mind, it appeared to me the best plan for keeping it entire, in perpetuity, to present it to some stable society of persons bound to the rules of a religious life." Of all "stable" societies, the good bishop, as the result of his long ponderings, fixed on the Jesuits, and his "perpetuity" proved to be less than a century, although a portion of his collection had the good fortune to be subsequently incorporated (as a portion of the noble library of De Thou had previously been) with the Imperial Library of France.

Sometimes accident and caprice, at others shrewd observation and insight, will determine the fate of collections, as far as human arrangements can determine anything; but it is obvious that those libraries will be likeliest to have a good share of such acquisitions as combine evident care of the books they already possess with a wise liberality in their arrangements for access and profitable use.

There is, however, a class of books—both important and numerous—with the appropriation of which accident and caprice should never have anything to do; those, we mean, which have been printed at the national expense. Yet usually, in this country, the distribution of these books has been pre-eminently capricious. They are under the control of various departments and functionaries. Intelligible rules have rarely been laid down for disposing of them, notwithstanding that the cost of their production to the country is very considerable; and when there has been the semblance of such, they have rarely been adhered to.

Amongst the works thus produced, which are especially valuable in libraries, may be mentioned, the collections of public documents, and of historical materials (such as the State Papers of the reign of Henry VIII., and the Monumenta Historica Britannicae); narratives of Voyages of Discovery, and Reports of the naturalists, and other scientific officers connected with them; Collections of Astronomical Observations; and, generally, the various publications connected with the Ordnance Surveys, and the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Some of these publications are under the control of the Home-Secretary, others under that of the Board of Admiralty, and the Board of Ordnance. As respects none of them have systematic rules of distribution been adopted; and it would be easy, but can scarcely be necessary, to cite instances of the capricious absurdity with which they are sometimes granted to one library, and refused to another, under circumstances precisely similar.

The Reports and Papers of both Houses of Parliament are also most important acquisitions for public libraries. The select committee on the subject of the dissemination of these of the House of Commons, appointed in 1853,—to preside over which, with self-denying perseverance, under all the discouragement of failing health, was the last service of a true public servant, the late Henry Tuffnell,—strongly recommended a free distribution of these documents to all libraries which united the two conditions of secured permanency and unrestricted accessibility; but the recommendation has yet to be carried out. No objection to it has been advanced which is not a proven fallacy, and the measure needs only to be taken up by a vigorous hand in order to its proper settlement.

(4.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE.

Occasional, and sometimes munificent, exchanges of the literary and scientific productions of different countries are by no means of recent origin, but until very lately they have been accidental rather than systematic; and our own country has been a laggard in their encouragement. There is a Treasury minute of 1832, in which "the Chancellor of the Exchequer informs the board that there is the prospect of an arrangement being made . . . . with the government of the King of the French, by which an interchange of all new literary publications will be secured for the use of the library of the British Museum in the one country, and the Bibliothèque du Roi in the other." But the "prospect" has remained a prospect, except only as regards the very useful interchange of public documents between the libraries of the respective legislatures. It appears to have been about this time that the attention of Mr Alexander Vattemare was attracted to the subject of international exchanges of books, and there is abundant evidence that he has given important help in a good work. In 1853 Mr Vattemare addressed to the "convention of librarians," which met in New York, a report, in which he enumerated upwards of 130 public libraries and other establishments which had "participated in the benefits of the system of exchanges;" and stated that in this way no less than 61,000 books and pamphlets had been distributed, during five years, by his agency, in the United States and in Europe. Two years later, the Regents of the University of the state of New York, in presenting to the legislature their annual report for 1855, as trustees of the State Library, spoke in high terms of commendation of the results in that state of Mr Vattemare's exertions.

A similar agency, on a much larger and rapidly increasing scale, has been recently established by the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. On this head it is stated, in the eighth annual report (1854), that "the institution is now the principal agent of scientific and literary communication between the Old World and the New." Its system of exchange is established on a reliable basis, namely, that of the publications of the institution itself. The importance of such a system, with reference to the scientific

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1 Huet's Commentaries, translated by Alkin, ii., 355-358. 2 Treasury Minute, July 1832; presented to the House of Commons. 3 New York Library Register (1854), 87-93. 4 Report of the Trustees of the State Library of New York (1855), 6. character of our country, could scarcely be appreciated by those who are not familiar with the results which flow from an easy and certain intercommunication of this kind.

(5.) THE CONSTRUCTION AND FURNISHING OF BUILDINGS FOR THE RECEPTION OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES.

The first difficulty which a committee, charged with such a duty, has usually to grapple with is, to reconcile the frequently conflicting claims of site and of form. A public library, and above all a Town Library, needs a site as central as can be obtained. Any library which is to be adequately kept up should be of such form as shall admit of easy and considerable enlargement, without entailing the necessity of re-arranging the existing contents. Either a cruciform, a polygonal, or a circular building will, more or less, meet these requirements, provided always, that additional space has been preserved to meet the contingency of extension, or can be readily obtained. But this is precisely the condition which it is most difficult to secure in the centre of a town. When one or the other of these advantages must be foregone, it will often, we think, be good economy to make some sacrifice in site rather than forego the benefit of an easily expandible plan. The circular, or polygonal, plan is best of all, because the most favourable to completeness and permanency of arrangement, in union with gradual and indefinite extension; and it is quite certain that no inconvenience of position will prevent a public library from being well frequented, if it be rich in books, and liberal in its regulations. This premised, we proceed to suggest other considerations which should be borne in mind in planning a library which is to be permanent, and for which adequate funds are at hand.

1. The site must be dry and airy; the building (whatever its form) isolated; and, if placed in a great thoroughfare, it should be set back as much as possible.

2. The building should be fire-proof. To this end, other materials than brick, stone, iron, and slate, should be very sparingly admitted into the structure. Such timber floors as may be used in any special departments should be embedded in stucco, upon a stone flagging, or upon brick arches.

3. The ground-floor should be vaulted, and in all the external walls there should be ample apertures and channels for ventilation. If the building be extensive, large water-pipes (fire-mains) should be carried along the roof.

4. Whenever practicable, light should be obtainable from all sides, but should be provided, as much as possible, from cupolas, or lantern-lights, which obviously favour the appropriation of the largest amount of wall-surface for book-shelves within a given area.

5. The principal rooms destined for the reception of books should be of such proportions, as to be constructed, as to admit of the greatest possible proportion of the contents being seen at once. Every shelf should be accessible without the use of steep ladders. By providing light galleries of perforated iron, with breast-high railings and with spiral staircases at each angle of the room, this advantage may be secured even in the loftiest rooms. If, for example, the library be 35 feet high in the clear, four tiers of galleries, placed at intervals of about 7 feet, would admit of every book being instantly accessible without any loss of space.

6. The reading-room should invariably be separate from the rooms appropriated to the actual collection of books; but it should be as much in the centre of the building as possible, and should be shelved for the reception of books of rare or reference (especially of such form as may be fitly termed the bibliographical apparatus of a library). One or more smaller and adjacent rooms should be assigned for the use of such readers as need special facilities for collation, copying, and other like pursuits. The reading-rooms should be provided with a series of shelved closets, for the reception of books which are in continuous use from day to day. Such shelves may be lettered alphabetically, and the books placed according to the names of the readers who retain them, as has long been the practice in the British Museum.

7. There must be an ample provision of work-rooms contiguous to, but distinct from, the rooms appropriated to books and those appropriated to the readers. In any extensive library the following separate rooms will be found essential to the thorough working and good order of the establishment—(1.) A receiving and unpacking room. This should have a separate entrance. (2.) A stamping and registering room. (3.) A cataloguing and account-keeping room. (4.) A book-binding room. If the binding be done within the library building, this room should, of course, communicate with the workshop; but if otherwise, there should still be a small separate room devoted to the business connected with the binding. (5.) A board-room or "compositing-room." (6.) A librarian's room, which, in a large library, should have its own ring-room attached. (7.) Rooms for assistants, Librarians, &c., according to the extent of the establishment. (8.) Clean-rooms, lavatories, &c., in similar proportion. In a great library, an ante-room, so placed as to afford convenience for the necessary and thorough cleansing of the books from time to time, will also repay its cost. Even in a small library, the provision of good and ample work-rooms will be found to be true economy in the long run. If the regulations of a library, whatever its extent, prescribe residence within the walls to a librarian or other officer, his apartments should be isolated from the main building.

8. It may now be assumed as a settled point, that a library of any size may be safely warmed either by open fire-places properly constructed, or by hot-water pipes carried throughout the building. If the former are used, there are ample means and appliances for ensuring their security. If the latter, they should be placed in grated channels provided in the fire-proof floors, at a distance of at least 3 feet from the nearest books. Other pipes should be carried round or near to the lantern-lights and other extensive glazed surfaces. The boiler-house should be separate from the library building, and the circulation of the heated water should be uninterfered with.

9. It may also be taken to be another point which experience has demonstrated, that gas may, with perfect safety, be introduced into a properly constructed library. The gas-fittings should always include tubes for carrying off from the burners the vapours produced by its combustion. The inner tube may be of copper, and the outer one of opaque glass; and these tubes may, with equal facility, be made pendant from the ceilings, or projecting from the walls; or, on the other hand, the lights may all be placed outside of the building—a method which may be seen in very successful operation at University College, London, and elsewhere.

10. Book-presses may be made either of wood, as is usual, or the shelves may be of enamelled iron, and the backs and uprights of galvanized and perforated rolled iron. Whatever the material, the shelves should always be moveable, so that they may be adjusted to books of any size. The cases should be perfectly plain and smooth within, having neither projecting ornament nor the shelves, nor any cavity at the sides. The lowest shelf should be at least 6 inches above the level of the floor, and there should be a clear space between the backs of the cases and the walls against which they stand. It will also be a good plan to make all the presses and their several parts of uniform dimensions, so that they may be transferable and interchangeable if necessary. All shelves intended for choice books should be covered with padded leather. Glazed table-cases, with sloping frames, should be provided for the exhibition of rare and curious books, autographs, and the other select treasures of a library.

11. For books of unusually large dimensions, either special shelves, on which they can lie flat, or "trays" constructed in the table-cases, should be fitted up. In a great library, other table-cases or tables should be fitted up with similar "trays," or with drawers in tiers, for the preservation and due arrangement of the catalogue titles or slips.

12. Reading-rooms should be provided with a special desk for cataloguing, large enough to contain several sets, and with a good supply of ring-frames of various sizes. The use of these protects books of large dimensions from injury, and such a plan promotes the convenience of readers. A very good form of reading-table and frame combined has recently been patented in the United States, by Mr. Folson of Boston, and will be found figured in the New York Literary Gazette of 1st June 1854. It is especially suitable for holding books of prints. Book-barrow or trucks, the tops and end rails of which should be covered with padded leather, are also very serviceable in a library.

(6.) OF THE PLAN AND PREPARATION OF CATALOGUES.

An accurate catalogue of some sort, well kept up, is a preparation of catalogues. cardinal point in the good management of a library. The question, on what plan the catalogue should be made, is not a very momentous one; yet very few questions of a literary kind have given rise to so many varieties of opinion. Few, it may be added, have been discussed more elaborately and sedulously by those who have striven to master them, or more flippantly by those who have been content to skim their surface.

The catalogues of public libraries have usually been either alphabetical or classed. Each plan has its special advantages and disadvantages. If the alphabetical arrangement be adopted, the cataloguer has to choose between an alphabet of authors and an alphabet of subjects. The first has the merit of being easy of construction, familiar in use, and eminently serviceable to all such readers as want the known books of known authors. But here its merit ends. For a reader who is in quest of all the books, known or unknown, avowed or anonymous, which the library contains upon a given subject, or section of a subject, a catalogue according to authors' names is almost useless. It may, indeed, lead him to all the works with which he is already more or less acquainted, but will do this only after a great expenditure of time and toil in searching volume after volume throughout the alphabet. In a great library this expenditure will be trebled, if (as has been too commonly the case) the names of authors are mixed pell-mell with the headings of anonymous books in a single alphabet. There are subjects on which the best books extant are anonymous. It is probable that every great national library contains more works without authors' names than with them. Of these anonymous books, a considerable proportion will doubtless belong to authors whose names are either known to, or conjectured, more or less plausibly, by, the learned bibliographer. But if conjecture be allowed to govern the place of a book in a catalogue, all reliability on it ceases.

If, on the other hand, an alphabetical arrangement according to the subject-matter of books be preferred, it becomes much easier to deal with the anonymous works. It is certain, also, that a large number of useful references are thus put at a glance before the student; and the plan exacts no previous acquaintance with systems of classification. But these merits have to be weighed against grave defects. Of necessity, such catalogues must deal rather with the phraseology of title-pages than with the real subject-matter of books, and must therefore fail to bring under one view all, or any near approximation to all, the books which the library contains on a given topic. In some cases, one word will have several distinct significations, and then the reader's search is obstructed by matter foreign to his purpose; in others, a subject is expressible by several synonymous, or at least convertible terms, and then all these must be turned to before he can be certain that he has the information of which he is in quest.

The schemes of classification which have been at various times propounded are multitudinous. No author has attempted to describe them all. Collections, however, more or less extensive, have been made by Peignot (Dictionnaire raisonné de Bibliologie, 1802); by Achar (Cours Élémentaire de Bibliographie, 1806); by Mr Hartwell Horne (Outlines for the Classification of a Library, 1829); by Sir John William Lubbock (Remarks on the Classification of Human Knowledge, 1834); by Brunet (Manuel du Libraire, 4th edition, 1845, Introduction); and by M. Albert (Recherches sur les Principes Fondamentaux de la Classification Bibliographique, 1847).

All the schemes which have been propounded, from Gesner's day down to our own, may be gathered into one or other of two groups, by far the largest of which, whatever its other merits, is essentially unsuited to the business of a library. The schemes which belong to the first group aim at a systematic and consecutive arrangement of all human knowledge, in accordance with some theory, either of the powers and functions of the mind itself, or of the order and succession in which the phenomena of the material world may be conceived to present themselves to its contemplation. The schemes which belong to the second group, with far humbler pretensions, seek but to sort, after some handy and convenient fashion, the instruments of knowledge for daily use. In the former case the system-maker aspires to solve some of the knottiest problems which have ever puzzled metaphysicians. In the latter case, he is content if he be found to have facilitated the buying and selling, the shelving and finding of books, by all who handle them.

At the head of the second group, Gabriel Naude has, perhaps, the best claim to stand. The general character of his scheme is indicated in the Artis pour dresser une Bibliothèque, which he published in 1627, although it was first developed in the Bibliotheca Cordesiana, which did not appear until 1643. Naude deserves the credit of having been a pioneer in the right path; but the real originator of the system which has the fairest claim to be styled a bibliographical one, was Ismael Boulland, the compiler of the Catalogue of the Library of De Thou. Boulland's Catalogue was not published until 1679, a year after the appearance of the elaborate Systema Bibliothecarum Collegii Parisiensis Societatis Jesu of Father Garnier; but it had been written several years before it was published, under the editorial care of Quesnel. Boulland makes no display of his ingenuity, by adding new classes to those of his predecessors, nor of his erudition, by coining far-fetched and sonorous names for the old ones; but he lays a firm grasp on five comprehensive classes— I. Theology; II. Jurisprudence; III. History; IV. Philosophy; V. Literature—and brings all the books with which he had to deal under one or other of these main divisions. This scheme has the advantages of simplicity, facility, and expansibility. All its main classes, with the exception of Philosophy, possess well-defined limits. All may be adjusted, by modifications of mere detail, to the extent and character of the particular library to which they have to be applied. It was to be expected, therefore, that the plan would win the favour, not only of librarians, but of men who were at once eminent booksellers and eminent bibliographers, such as Marchand, Gabriel Martin, Deburc, and Brunet. Each of these men improved some or other of its details. Most of them agreed in substituting the class Sciences and Arts for the class Philosophy, and in employing the latter term as a subdivision of the former. The class History, too, was usually made fifth in order, instead of being third. But the substance of the scheme remained unaltered; and, in course of time, it came to be embodied in an unrivalled series of catalogues, which are classics in their kind.

In this country the Paris system is best known in the form which Mr Hartwell Horne gave it when cataloguing the fine library of Queen's College, Cambridge; and when preparing his Outlines for the Classification of a Library, which were submitted to the trustees of the British Museum in 1825. Mr Horne's modifications are bolder than most of those which have been adopted by French bibliographers, and some of them possess unquestionable merit. Four out of the five principal classes he leaves intact. The class Sciences and Arts he breaks up into two, the first of which he designates Philosophy, and the second Arts and Trades. The six classes thus formed he ranks in the following order—I. Theology or Religion; II. Jurisprudence; III. Philosophy; IV. Arts and Trades; V. History; VI. Literature. In the subdivisions he introduces several changes. He removes the section "History of Religions" from the class History, and places it in Theology; and, in like manner, transfers the "History of Literature" from the class History to the class Literature. The vast and rapidly in- Those in use in the Manchester Free Library, are printed and varnished, and are placed breast-high in front of each press.

An accurate system of registration and book-keeping is of the first importance to the good working of a public library. The following may be regarded as among the appliances of this kind which are indispensable. In many libraries others will be necessary for special purposes. The account-keeping, which belongs to a lending library, in particular, will be referred to hereafter:

1. An Accession Catalogue, or Register, indicating the date of each acquisition, and how it was acquired. 2. A Donation-Book, for more ample descriptions of all gifts than are needed in the Register, in which the briefest indication will suffice. 3. A Shelf Catalogue, in which every book is entered in the shortest form, press by press, and shelf by shelf. This catalogue should be so prepared as to admit of its being used in the way of "stock-taking" from time to time. 4. A Binding-Book for entry of all books delivered to the binder, and for the due chocking of their return. 5. A Report-Book for entering the daily returns of issues to readers. These issues should be classed in the order which they take in the general arrangement of the library. 6. A Suggestion-Book for the insertion by readers of books deemed desirable for addition to the library. 7. A Ledger and Cash-Book of the ordinary mercantile kind, for receipts and disbursements. 8. An indexed Minute-Book for the board of management, or other authorities.

If the admission to the library be by way of ticket, as at the British Museum, an "Admission-book" will be required for the registration of readers, and this book should, of course, have an alphabetical index. If the library be open to all comers, there may still be a sort of "Day-book," in which readers should be requested themselves to enter their names and addresses. On behalf of the more free system of admission, there may be adduced its wide-spread prevalence on the Continent, and the extensive testimony which has been recently borne by foreign librarians and other officers to the absence of any noticeable abuse or mischief thence arising. On the other hand, it has been alleged, and (at all events, until a very late period) with much appearance of justice, that the greater facilities and freedom which it has been usual to afford in the principal British libraries to readers, when once admitted, warrant the exaction of some preliminary introduction, by way of guarantee of their respectability.

Of late, however, the operation of Mr Ewart's Act in some of the largest towns in England has brought evidence to bear on this question which is wholly new. It has been proved by experience, that an aggregate issue of 200,000 volumes may be made in one library of a densely peopled city, on the principle of unrestricted admission, without the loss of a single book. It cannot, of course, be asserted that such experience is precisely parallel, in any particular, to the case of a great national library like that of the British Museum. The wear and tear which, by this plan, falls on books that chance to be in popular demand is enormous, and of itself would necessitate restrictions for the protection of such as are not easily replaceable. The true deduction from this recent experience seems, on the whole, to be, that the metropolis, and every other great city and town in the empire, should have its free libraries, open to all who choose to enter; and that the regulations of the old libraries may, with perfect safety, be relaxed under judicious management; but it does not follow that the same rules will suit all libraries.

The applicability of Mr Ewart's Act of 1855 (18th and 19th Vict., c. 70) extends, first, to all municipal boroughs, the po-

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On this point, the returns relating to Foreign Libraries, obtained through the Foreign Office (at the instance of Mr Ewart's Committee), and presented to Parliament in the years 1850, 1851, and 1852, contain abundant and conclusive evidence.

In almost all parts of the world where civilization has made any considerable progress, traces may be discovered of the existence of libraries. At the period of the Spanish invasion of South America, for instance, emblems or pictorial representations were employed instead of writing; letters being wholly unknown: in Yucatan and Honduras there were books composed of the leaves of trees; and in the kingdom of Mexico the natives had, by way of library, histories and calendars, in which they painted such things as had proper figures by their natural representations, and such as had none, by means of various other characters, so that they expressed in this way whatever they pleased. This may be considered as a library in its earliest stage; for all those that are described as having belonged to the ancients were composed of rolls, which, though different in form from our books, supplied the place of them, and, when collected, constituted a library, even in the modern acceptation of that term.

1.—ANCIENT LIBRARIES.

As the earliest form of the graphic art appears to have consisted in inscribing or engraving characters on stone, metal, wood, or other durable substance, so the first public libraries were composed exclusively of archives deposited in the temples, that the acts relating to history and public law might there be preserved. This will be found to hold true almost universally. Men invariably begin with what is ab-

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3 Herrera, decade II., book ix., c. 4. Osymandyas, one of the ancient kings of Egypt, is said to have been the first who founded a library, and established it in a division or compartment of the edifice which has sometimes been called his palace, and sometimes his tomb. On the entrance was inscribed the words ΨΥΧΗΣ ΙΑΤΡΕΙΟΝ, The Dispensary of the Soul; whilst the sculptures upon the walls represented a judge, with the image of truth suspended from his neck, and many books or rolls lying before him. Such is the account given by Diodorus, who had himself visited Egypt, but who merely mentions the edifice, without giving us any information as to its contents. It probably contained works of very remote antiquity, and also the books accounted sacred by the Egyptians, all of which perished amidst the destructive ravages that accompanied and followed the Persian invasion under Cambyses.

Both Wilkinson and Champollion identify with the building referred to by Diodorus the well-known monument,—usually designated the "Memnonium," but preferably the "Ramesium,"—on the door-jambs of one of the inner halls of which may still be seen representations of Thoth, the inventor of letters, and the goddess Saf, his companion, with the titles "Lady of Letters," and "President of the Hall of Books." In a certain sense, this monument is familiar to thousands of persons who have never visited Egypt, as from it was obtained that "Head of the young Memnon," which has long been so conspicuous an object in the Egyptian Gallery of the British Museum.

There was also, according to Eustathius and other ancient writers, a fine library at Memphis, deposited in that temple of Phtha, from which Homer was idly accused of having stolen both the Iliad and the Odyssey, and afterwards published them as his own. From this charge, however, the bard has been vindicated by various writers, and by different arguments.

But the most superb library of Egypt, perhaps of the ancient world, was that founded by Ptolemy Soter, at Alexandria, and enriched by successive sovereigns of that country. About the year B.C. 290, this Ptolemy, a learned prince, founded an academy at Alexandria, called the Museum, where there assembled a society of learned men, who were devoted to the study of philosophy and the sciences; and for their use he formed a collection of books, the extent of which has been very variously computed. Josephus puts a speech into the mouth of Demetrius Phalerus, as addressed to Ptolemy, in which he says, that there were about 200,000 volumes in the library, and "that in a little time there would be 500,000;" but the entire story—like that as to the origin of the Septuagint—is a fable, having no sort of authority. Demetrius Phalerus was never librarian of the Alexandrian Library. Ptolemy Philadelphus, an equally liberal and enlightened prince, collected great numbers of books in the temple of Serapis, in addition to those accumulated by his father, and at his death left in it, according to the statement of Eusebius, about 100,000 volumes. He had agents in every part of Asia and of Greece, commissioned to search out and purchase the rarest and most valuable writings; and amongst those which he procured were the works of Aristotle, purchased of Neleus. The measures adopted by Ptolemy Philadelphus, for augmenting the Alexandrian Library, were pursued by his successor Ptolemy Euergetes, with unscrupulous vigour. He caused, it has been said, all books imported into Egypt by foreigners to be seized and sent to the academy or museum, where they were transcribed by persons employed for the purpose; upon which the racy copies were delivered to the proprietors, and the originals deposited in the library. He borrowed of the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and Æschylus; caused them to be transcribed in the most elegant manner possible; retained the originals for his own library; and returned to the Athenians the copies which had been made of them, with fifteen talents for the exchange. As the museum, where the library was originally founded, stood near the royal palace, in the quarter of the city called Bruchion, the books, it is supposed, were at first deposited there; but when this building had been completely occupied with books to the number of 400,000 volumes, a supplemental library was erected within the Serapeum, or temple of Serapis; and the books there placed gradually increased to the amount of 300,000 volumes; thus making, in both libraries, a grand total of 700,000 volumes.

The Alexandrian Library continued in all its splendour until the first Alexandrian war, when, during the plunder of the city, the Bruchion portion of the collection was accidentally destroyed by fire, owing to the recklessness of the auxiliary troops. But the library in the Serapeum still remained, and was augmented by subsequent donations, particularly by that of the Pergamene Library, amounting to 200,000 volumes, presented by Mark Antony to Cleopatra; so that it soon surpassed the former both in the number and in the value of its contents. Seneca affirms that the Alexandrian Library was rather to be considered a pompous spectacle for the public, than a place for the studies of the learned. At length, after various revolutions under the Roman emperors, during which the collection was sometimes plundered and sometimes re-established, it was utterly destroyed by the Saracens, under the orders of the Caliph Omar, when they acquired possession of Alexandria, A.D. 642. Amrou, the victorious general, was himself inclined to spare this inestimable treasury of ancient science and learning; but the ignorant and fanatical caliph, to whom he applied for instructions, ordered it to be destroyed. "If," said he, "these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, or book of Allah, they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." The sentence of destruction was executed with blind obedience. The volumes of parchment, or papyrus, were distributed to the four thousand baths of the city; and such was their incredible number, that six months were scarcely sufficient for their combustion.

This, at all events, is the received account of a memorable event, and, although often questioned, it has never been satisfactorily refuted. But it should be borne in mind, that the identification of the library destroyed by Omar with the library which had been established, and perhaps restored in the Serapeum, is wholly conjectural. The Temple of Serapis had itself been demolished two hundred and fifty years before by Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria, and it is certain that the library was then pillaged if not destroyed. Orosius has recorded the feelings of indignation aroused, towards the close of the fourth cen-

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1 Diodorus Siculus, lib. i., c. 2. 2 Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. i., pp. 111-116. See also Osburn, Monumental History of Egypt, vol. ii., p. 459. 3 Lettres, 285, as quoted by Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, vol. i., p. 155. 4 Joseph. Ant. Jud., lib. xii., c. 2; Encyclopédie, tom. ii., art. Bibliothèque. 5 Athanasius, lib. i., c. 4, ed. Schweighäuser. 6 Upwards of £3000 sterling. 7 De Tranquillitate Animi, cap. 9. 8 Gibbon (Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. ix., p. 440) has endeavoured to disprove the positive account given by Abu'l-Faraj, by means of negative arguments. It should be considered, however, that the direct and positive statement of an historian of such unquestionable credit as Abu'l-Faraj, cannot be set aside by arguments of a negative and hypothetical character. Libraries.

Ancient Libraries. armaria librorum, quibus diruptis, exsaniata ea a nostris hominibus, nostris temporibus memorant! Besides the two great libraries which have been already described, Alexandria possessed a third in the Sebastaeum, or Temple of Augustus, and a fourth of much later date than the others, attached to its famous "School." If the last named collection were the object of Omar's fanaticism, the loss to learning may have been less severe than has usually been imagined.

The ancient Greeks, whose poetry has been to us the primary source of all our profane literature, had as yet no other theology than the system which resulted from observations made on the theory of the different parts of nature, at a time when the Hebrews, in the books of Moses, cited by one of those ancient historians who copied the chronicles, read the account of the creation, and, along with it, a summary of the traditions of fifteen centuries of continuous history. These books composed the first collection of the Hebrews; but subsequently this people, like most others, had their archives. Those which Herod caused to be burned, with the intention of destroying the monuments of the ancient families, appear to have reached as far back as the very origin of the nation. But though he consigned the public records to the flames, those of individuals were beyond his power, and afterwards served to re-establish the history of this subjugated people. There also existed libraries, properly so called, in Judæa. One in particular is supposed to have been attached to, if not kept in, the temple of Jerusalem, and the Hebrew authors speak of "the multitude of books;" an expression which seems to imply that the collection was not confined to the sacred books alone, but included others, relating probably to the laws and institutions of Moses, and the history of the Jewish nation. The books, particularly those of history, had indeed become so numerous, that Judas Maccabeus caused extracts to be made and circulated from those contained in the library of Nehemiah, mentioned in the second book of Esdras, in which also were preserved the writings of the prophets, the compositions of David, the letters of the Hebrew kings, and the records of offerings. We know nothing of early Jewish literature beyond the books which are contained in the Old Testament. It has been supposed, however, that they had some cities celebrated on account of the sciences which were there cultivated. Amongst these may be mentioned the town called by Joshua Kirjath-sepher, or the City of the Book, which was situated near the confines of the tribe of Judah. In later times, the university or school of Tiberias was not less celebrated. It is probable that this and other academies of the same description were furnished with libraries.

Scripture also mentions a library of the kings of Persia, which some suppose to have consisted of the historians of that nation, and of memoirs on the affairs of state, but which appears rather to have been a depository of the laws, charters, and ordinances of the Persian kings. In the Hebrew text it is stated that a search was made "in the house of the rolls, where the treasures were laid up in Babylon," for a decree issued by Cyrus ordaining a temple to be built at Jerusalem; the ordinance sought for, however, was found, not in Babylon, but at Acmena, in Media. It appears that "the house of the rolls" was not a library belonging to the Persians, but a collection of the records or archives of the kingdom. In the recent discoveries in Assyria, in the palace at Nineveh, a vast collection of clay tablets, inscribed with cuneiform inscriptions was found, forming, as it were, the royal Library. The progress made in deciphering the inscriptions, in this cuneiform character, was brought before the meetings of the British Association at Glasgow and at Cheltenham, by Colonel Sir Henry Rawlinson, in two most interesting lectures. This system of cuneiform writing was found to be closely allied to the hieroglyphic expression; and, although many of the rock inscriptions of Persia were trilingual, each of the languages, the Chaldee, Assyrian, and Babylonian, being unknown, it seemed to defy all attempts at translation; yet this has been accomplished by a singular combination of learning and ingenuity. Sir Henry Rawlinson stated that about 20,000 of these tablets, more or less injured by fire, were now brought to England, and are in the British Museum; and that the extensive series, when fully deciphered, would be the means of furnishing most important additions to our knowledge of the ancient world. Of these cuneiform inscriptions, lithographic facsimiles are about to be published by the Trustees of the British Museum; and half of the impression is to be placed at the disposal of Sir Henry Rawlinson, who will, at his own expense, accompany these copies with literal translations, in Latin.

Very recently, M. Jules Oppert (to whom has been entrusted by the French government the mission of examining and reporting on the acquisitions for which the British public are mainly indebted to the research and energy of Mr Layard) has copied a considerable series of these inscribed tablets, and has expressed his conviction that there is a large class of them to which, in a special and unique sense, the designation of a "public library in clay" is applicable. These he believes to have been prepared by command of Sardanapalus V. (about B.C. 650), expressly for purposes of public instruction; and he quotes a remarkable inscription to this effect: "Palace of Sardanapalus, king of the world, king of Assyria, to whom the god Nebo and the goddess Ourmit have given ears to hear and eyes to see what is the foundation of government. They have revealed to the kings my predecessors this cuneiform writing. The manifestation of the god Nebo ... of the god of supreme intellect,—I have written it upon tablets,—I have signed it,—I have put it in order,—I have placed it in the midst of my palace for the instruction of my subjects."

Amongst the Greeks, as amongst other nations, the first libraries consisted merely of archives, deposited, for the sake of preservation, in the temples of the gods. The sacred Greek books, of which mention is made by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, under the denomination of Delphic, were of this description.

It has been often said that Pisistratus the tyrant was the first who established a public library in Athens; but the statement rests mainly on the testimony of Aulus Gellius, who wrote about seven hundred years after the time of Pisistratus. In this alleged library, the founder is said to have deposited the works of Homer, which he had collected with great difficulty, and at a very considerable expense; and the Athenians themselves were at great pains to increase the collection. The reputed fortunes of this library were various and singular, if true. It was transported to Persia by Xerxes; brought back by Seleucus Nicator; plundered by Sylla; and at last restored by the Emperor Hadrian. The entire story,

1 Orosius, ed. Havercamp, b. vi., c. xv., 421. 2 Ennius, Historia Eccles., lib. i., c. 7. 3 Inferbantur autem in descriptionibus, et commentariis Nehemiae hinc eadem; et ut construens bibliothecam congregavit de regionibus librorum, et prophetarum, et Davidicis, et epistolae Regum, et de Deoarlis. (Machab. lib. ii., c. ii., v. 13.) Considerantes enim multitudines librorum . . . . hoc opus brevandi causa suscipimus. (Machab. lib. ii., c. ix., v. 25.) 4 Encyclopédie, tom. ii., p. 229. 5 Hellanicus, apud Justinum, ad Graecos Cohortat., p. 18. 6 Ezra, chap. v., verse 17; and vi. 1, 2. 7 Rapport à M. le Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, printed in the Archives des Missions Scientifiques, Mai, 1856, vol. v., p. 179. Ancient Libraries.

However, is a conjectural one. That Pisistratus was a promoter of learning, and that he rendered eminent service by his Homeric researches, is incontestible. But that he formed anything which even remotely resembled a library, in the ordinary meaning of the term, is an assertion unsupported by adequate evidence; and just as little foundation is there for the romantic vicissitudes which complete the tale. Nor is there much better authority for the statement, that when, on the invasion of the Roman empire by the Goths (A.D. 260), Greece was ravaged, and in the sack of Athens they had collected all the libraries, and were upon the point of setting fire to this funeral pile of ancient learning, one of their chiefs interposing, dissuaded them from the design, observing at the same time, that as long as the Greeks were addicted to the study of books, they would never apply themselves to that of arms.

Strabo has stated that Aristotle was the first known collector of a library, and that to him was also due the honour of having suggested to the Ptolemies the formation of that great collection, which was scarcely more the wonder of antiquity than it has been the conundrum of modern scholarship. Aristotle bequeathed his library, with many of his own writings, to Theophratus, who appears to have made considerable additions to it, and who, in his turn, bequeathed it to Neleus. The latter, according to Strabo, carried the collection to Scopis in the Troad, where it subsequently fell into disorder, and was at length concealed in a cave, that it might escape the eager researches of the kings of Pergamus. "At length," continues Strabo, "but not before the books had been injured by damp and worms, they were sold to Apollonius of Teos,—rather a collector than a philosopher (φιλόβιβλος μᾶλλον ἢ φιλόσοφος)—who, by unskillful attempts at the restoration of defective and mutilated passages in the writings of Aristotle, increased the injury by corrupting the text." On the capture of Athens by Sylla, the Library of Apollonius—not that of Pisistratus—was seized by the conqueror and carried to Rome.

But Strabo's account of the matter—on which mainly was founded the absurd story so long current as to the loss for several generations of the Aristotelian writings—is entirely at variance with that given by the epitomist of Athenaeus, according to whom the Library of Neleus had long before been bought by Ptolemy Philadelphus and transferred to Alexandria, "with all those which he had collected at Athens and at Rhodoc." This statement accords better with the known existence and publicity of Aristotle's works, but has its own difficulties. It is, however, at least matter of reasonable probability that, from whatever cause, part of the collection went to Alexandria, and part remained at Scopis. From the rivalry of the Attalic kings with the Ptolemies, it may well have resulted that the fame of the acquisition for Alexandria of part of the library of Aristotle, may have given a keener edge to their covetousness of what remained.

Next to the Alexandrian Library, that of Pergamus was the most conspicuous, and, according to Plutarch, contained 200,000 volumes. It was founded and successively enriched by the kings of Pergamus, all of whom were zealous promoters of the arts, and to one of whom we are indebted for the invention of parchment (Charta Pergamena). Attalus surpassed all his predecessors in magnificence, and after their example devoted part of his treasures to the purchase of the principal works or writings of his age. As already noticed, the Pergamean Library was presented by Antony to Cleopatra, in order to form the foundation of a new library at Alexandria. Vitruvius makes honourable mention of both these libraries.

These particulars, scanty as they may no doubt seem, places are nevertheless sufficient to show that the libraries of Greece, in ancient times, were both numerous and extensive. But a question of much more immediate interest may be here presents itself, viz., whether any of the treasures with supposed which they were enriched still remain undiscovered, and still to where these may be supposed most likely to be found. On exist this subject various conjectures have been formed, particularly in regard to the remains of the ancient Greek historians. It is well known that many manuscripts had been collected at a vast expense in Greece for the Library of Buda, which was destroyed by the Turks in the year 1526. In this library Alexander Brasiacum had seen the whole of the Hypertexts with scholia, the works of many of the Greek fathers, and also those of classical writers. From it issued parts of Polybius and of Diodorus Siculus. A manuscript of Heliodorus, from which was afterwards printed the first edition of the Ethiopic, likewise belonged to it, having been found by a soldier, who carried it to Vincentius Obsoportus. Neander, speaking of this collection, says, "Ex media Graecia inestimandis sumptibus emerat Matthias Corvinus rex."

Constantinople and Athos have contributed the greater number of the ancient manuscripts which are still extant in different parts of Europe. Until a comparatively recent period there were monasteries full of learned men at Byzantium, and every monastery had its library. The Turks, on their conquest of Constantinople, did not indulge in that indiscriminate destruction which has sometimes been imputed to them. Mohammed II. secured the library of the Greek emperors, which his successors preserved until it was destroyed by Amurath IV. At Byzantium, Constantine Lascaris transcribed many of the works which were afterwards conveyed to the Royal Library at Madrid; and in this city were procured those manuscripts which, having been presented to Hurtado de Mendoza by Solymann II., were left by the former to the Library of the Escorial. Possevin has given partial catalogues of some of the libraries at Constantinople; and an early traveller, who visited that city in the year 1597, mentions a valuable collection which he had seen there, though without specifying its contents. With respect to Athos, it appears that there were deposited in one library alone 200 manuscripts, originally obtained from the monasteries upon the mountain; and a great part of those formerly at Moscow had been collected by the monk Arsenius, in Athos, at the suggestion of the patriarch Nicon. Thessaly, Chios, Corfu, Crete, Cyprus, Chalcé, Rhodes, and Epidauros, may also be mentioned as places which, at different times, have supplied manuscripts.

Mr Walpole long since expressed the opinion, that notwithstanding the acquisitions which have already been made, researches in the Levant should not be intermitted. By these many manuscripts may still, according to him, be rescued from destruction. No care whatever appears to have been taken to preserve them. Dr Covel mentions having seen, in the monasteries of Mount Athos and elsewhere, vast heaps of manuscripts of the Fathers, and other learned authors, all covered over with dust and dirt, many of them rotten and spoiled, and never in any instance placed upon shelves or arranged in good order. A list of the theological manuscripts in the Library of Patmos has been given by Possevin; and another, copied by the Marquis of Sligo, has been published by Mr Walpole. The actual catalogue contains the titles of 92 manuscripts, and about 400 printed volumes; but the Greek compiler has not stated any circumstance relating to the manuscripts by which an estimate of their value may be formed. He gives no information concerning the form of the letters or that of the manuscripts, or upon any of those subjects by which a knowledge of their respective dates might be obtained. But there is one manuscript mentioned in the catalogue, in regard to which it is impossible not to feel more than ordinary curiosity. We allude to a manuscript of Diodorus Siculus, an accurate inspection of which would probably determine whether the hopes which were often entertained, of recovering the lost books of that historian, were in this instance also to be disappointed.

But, without dwelling longer upon particulars, we may observe, that notwithstanding the sanguine expectations entertained by the admirers of ancient learning, very few valuable manuscripts have lately been discovered; and, with the exception of the fragments of ancient authors, deciphered from palimpsest, or rescribed manuscripts, it must be admitted, that those accidentally rescued from destruction have, in general, been either of comparatively modern date or of but little consequence. Neither the inquiries which have been extended to the African states, nor the excavations and researches made at Herculaneum and Pompeii, have recovered the lost historians, or indeed brought to light any works of importance. (See Herculaneum.)

The Hon. Robert Curzon, in the charming volume which describes his Visits to the Monasteries in the Levant, records his success in Abyssinia, Turkey, and Greece, in obtaining a number of very early and important MSS. A portion of these MSS. are described in a Catalogue of Materials for Writing; Eastern Writings on Tablets and Stones, Rolled and other Manuscripts, and Oriental Manuscript Books, in the Library of the Honourable Robert Curzon, at Parham, in the County of Sussex (London, 1849, folio). Of this volume, which contains various interesting facsimiles, only 50 copies were printed. From information communicated by Mr Curzon as to the existence of ancient Greek scrolls in the monasteries of the East, the Rev. H. O. Coxe has recently (1856) obtained leave of absence from the Bodleian Library, at the request of government, to proceed to the Levant, in search of such MSS.; and a more competent scholar for such an object could not have been found.

The French government has also turned its attention towards the same object, and has entrusted a similar mission to M. Lebarbier, a young but already distinguished student of the Ecole Francaise d'Athenes. In August 1856, M. Guigniaut, in the name of a committee appointed to examine the works and proceedings of this school at Athens, read a report to the Academy of Inscriptions, in which the first fruits of M. Lebarbier's labours are described, with more especial reference to a library designated by M. Guigniaut the "Library of the Holy Sepulchre at Constantinople." After stating that the library possesses a considerable number of MSS., M. Guigniaut proceeds: "But, unfortunately, these MSS. comprise little besides homilies, prayers, theological and controversial treatises (written at periods not very remote from our own), translations from Latin or Italian into modern Greek, . . . and works of like kind. The ancient authors, all long since published, are for the most part modern transcripts." "But," adds the learned reporter, "if the Library of the Holy Sepulchre offers little aid to classical literature, it is rich in documents which throw new light on the history of the Greeks after the fall of the Byzantine empire."

Thus far, it must be admitted, these renewed researches do not present a very promising aspect as regards that particular department of literature with which alone we have here to do. But the field is one in which the discoveries of an hour may possibly present rich compensation for the toil of years.

Rome was still in its infancy when the archives of the Etruscan Etruscans contained a continuous collection of public acts, libraries, and particularly an uninterrupted series of births and deaths, that enabled that people to fix the unequal duration of the eight centuries of their previous history, which they reckoned up to about the middle of the sixth century before Christ. The details given by Censorinus in Varro, prove that the Etruscans kept regular registers of births and deaths, from the epoch of their first establishment in Italy, which Larcher refers to the year 1344 before Christ; that, the eighth century thereafter, to which the Etruscan histories were written, must have been the sixth before the Christian era, in which other histories appeared that are no longer extant; and that, during these eight hundred years, the most extended term of human life was nearly the same as at the present day. In the works of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, of Plutarch, and other ancient authors, we also discover scattered glimpses of the history of Italy in the most remote times, and learn that the tribes or races by whom the Etruscans were surrounded had also their historical archives. It may even be supposed that the Romans, in causing their Capitoline marbles to be engraved, followed, amongst others, the example of Perneste, a city much more ancient than Rome, and which had long continued the practice of classifying, as well as engraving its municipal records. Such were the sources consulted by several historians who treated of the antiquities of different Italian nations, particularly Zenodous of Troezen, who composed a history of the Ombrians.

If the ancient Greeks had but few books, the ancient Romans possessed still fewer. Incessantly occupied in military expeditions, defensive wars, and the aggrandizement of their empire, that warlike people had no leisure, and, probably, as little inclination, to cultivate letters. It was not until they had subdued Magna Graecia that they began to emerge out of barbarism, nor until they had accomplished the conquest of Greece itself, that a taste for arts, sciences, and books was diffused amongst them. They became civilized by frequent contact and familiarity with civilization. The immediate consequence of the conquest of Greece was a more frequent intercourse with the Greeks, at once their subjects and their masters; and in proportion as they became acquainted with the literature and arts of that refined people, the asperity of character and manners which had distinguished this nation of conquerors began to disappear.

The first library established at Rome was probably that founded by Paulus Emilius, n.c. 167. Having subdued in Rome Perse, King of Macedonia, he enriched the city of Rome with the library of this conquered monarch, which was subsequently augmented by Sylla. On his return from Asia, where he had successfully terminated the first war against Mithridates, Sylla visited Athens, whence he took with him that Library of Apollon the Telan, which has been mentioned already. Lucullus, another conqueror of Mithridates, was not less distinguished by his taste for books. The number of volumes in his library was immense; and they

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1 See Mr Walpole's observations on this subject, published in Dr Clarke's Travels. 2 Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. vii.; Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique par deux Benedictins; Villoison, Anecdota Graeca, tom. ii.; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, tom. xiv. 3 Journal Général de l'instruction Publique (1836), vol. xxv., p. 419. 4 Such is the statement of Isidorus (Origines, i. vi., c. 4); though Plutarch (in Vit. Aem., tom. ii., p. 180, ed. Bryan) expressly says that he reserved for his sons, who were lettered men, the books taken from the library of King Perse. Ancient libraries were written in the most distinct and elegant manner possible. But the use which he made of his collection was still more honourable to that princely Roman than the acquisition or possession of it. His library was open to all; and the Greeks, who visited Rome, resorted to the galleries and portions of Lucullus as to the retreat of the Muses, where they spent whole days in conversation on literary subjects. But although both Sylla and Lucullus liberally gave public access to their literary treasures, still their libraries can, in strictness, be considered as only private collections. Amongst the various projects which Julius Caesar had formed for the embellishment of Rome was that of a public library, which should contain the largest possible collection of Greek and Latin works; and he had assigned to Varro the duty of selecting and arranging them; but it has been supposed that this design was frustrated by the assassination of the dictator; and that the establishment of public libraries did not take place until the reign of Augustus.

The honour of suggesting these valuable institutions is ascribed by the elder Pliny to Asinius Pollio, who erected a public library in the atrium of the temple of Liberty, on Mount Aventine Hill. This library, it is added, was formed ex manubhia, and in it was placed a bust of Varro. It would seem probable, from the latter circumstance, that Varro after all may have carried out the plan entrusted to him by Caesar, and that Pollio may have merely enlarged the library thus begun. The exploits that were most likely to have yielded him the spoils of war, were of a date long subsequent to that of Cæsar's commission to Varro. Augustus, amongst other embellishments which he bestowed upon Rome, erected two public libraries, viz., the Octavian and the Palatine. The Octavian Library, which was thus denominated in honour of the emperor's sister, stood in the portico of Octavia; and the charge of it was committed to Melissa, who had been manumitted by Augustus. The Palatine Library was added by Augustus to the temple of Apollo, which he had erected on the site of that part of the Palatine House which had been struck by lightning. There were deposited the corrected books of the Sybils; and, from two ancient inscriptions quoted by Lipsius and Pitiscus, it would seem that it consisted of two distinct collections, one Greek and the other Latin. This library having survived the various revolutions of the Roman empire, existed until the time of Gregory the Great, whose mistaken zeal led him to order all the writings of the ancients to be destroyed. The successors of Augustus, though they did not equally encourage learning, were not altogether neglectful of its interests. Suetonius informs us that Tiberius founded a library in the new temple of Apollo; and we learn from some incidental notices, that he instituted another in his own house, called the Tiberian Library. Vespasian, following the example of his predecessors, established a library in the temple of Peace, which he erected after the burning of the city by order of Nero; and even Domitian, in the commencement of his reign, restored at great expense the libraries which had been destroyed by the conflagration, collecting copies of books from every quarter, and sending persons to Alexandria to transcribe volumes in that celebrated collection, or to correct copies which had been made elsewhere. Various writers have asserted that there was a library attached to the Temple of the Capitol; but they have not informed us by whom it was founded. Lipsius ascribes it to Domitian; whilst Donatus refers it to the Emperor Hadrian, by whom it was at least enlarged, if not founded, and who probably erected the Tiburtine Library, at Tibur, in the vicinity of Rome. But the most magnificent of all the libraries founded by the sovereigns of imperial Rome was that of the Emperor Ulpius Trajanus, from whom it was denominated the Ulpian Library. It was erected in Trajan's Forum, but afterwards removed to the Viminal Hill, to ornament the baths of Diocletian. In this library were deposited the elephantine books, written upon tablets of ivory, wherein were recorded the transactions of the emperors, the proceedings of the senate and Roman magistrates, and the affairs of the provinces. It has been conjectured that the Ulpian Library consisted both of Greek and Latin works; and some authors affirm that Trajan commanded all the books which could be found in the cities he had conquered to be immediately conveyed to Rome, in order to increase his collection. The library of Domitian having been consumed by lightning, in the reign of Commodus, was not restored until the time of Gordian, who rebuilt the edifice, and founded a new library, adding thereto the collection of books bequeathed to him by Quintus Serenus Samonicus, the physician, amounting, it is said, to no less than 72,000 volumes. Donatus conjectures that this library was deposited in the palace of Pompey.

In addition to the imperial libraries, there were others to which the public had access in the principal cities and in the provinces of the empire. Pliny mentions a public library which he had founded for the use of his countrymen; and Vopiscus informs us that the Emperor Tacitus caused the historical writings of his illustrious namesake to be deposited in the libraries. But the irruptions of the barbarians who overran and desolated the western empire proved more destructive to the interests of literature than either volcanoes or earthquakes, and soon caused the disappearance of those libraries which, during several centuries, had been multiplied in Italy.

When Constantine the Great (A.D. 336) made Byzantium the seat of his empire, decorated that city with splendid edifices, and called it after his own name; desirous to make reparation to the Christians for the injuries they had suffered during the reign of his predecessor, he commanded the most diligent search to be made after those books which Diocletian had doomed to destruction; he caused transcripts to be made of such as had escaped the fury of the Pagan persecutor; and, having collected others from various quarters, he formed the whole into a library at Constantinople. On the death of Constantine, however, the number of books in the imperial library was only 6900; but it was successively enlarged by the Emperors Julian and Theodosius the younger, who augmented it to 120,000 volumes. Of these, more than half were burned, in the seventh century, by the command of the Emperor Leo III., who thus sought to destroy all the monuments that might impede his opposition to the worship of images. In this library was deposited the only authentic copy of the Council of Nice; and it is also said to have contained the poems of Homer, written in gold letters, together with a magnificent copy of the Four Gospels, bound in plates of gold, enriched with precious stones; all of which were consumed in the conflagration. The convulsions which distracted the lower empire were by no means favour-

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1 "Quid primus bibliothecam dicenda, ingenio hominum rempublicam fecit." (Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. xxv., c. 2.) Ovid also ascribes this honour to Pollio. (Tristia, lib. iii., c. 1.) 2 Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, ii., 426. 3 Plutarch, in Marcelllo: Suet. de Rom. Graec., c. 41; Idem, in August., c. 29; Lipsius de Biblioth. c. 7; Pitiscus, Lexicon, tom. i., p. 276; Brucker, Hist. Crit. Philosoph., tom. i., p. 20. 4 Suet. in Tibur, c. 74, et in Vespas., c. 9; Aul. Gall., lib. xvi., c. 8; Lipsius de Biblioth. c. 20; Suet. in Domitian., c. 20. 5 Euseb. in Commodo; Capitolinus, in Vit. Gordiani Januarii, c. 18; Donatus, Roma Verae, lib. iii., c. 8, p. 119; Encyclopédie, tom. II., art. Bibliothèque.

VOL. XII. able to the interests of literature. In the eleventh century learning flourished for a short time during the reign of Constantine Porphyrogenetus; and this emperor is said to have employed many learned Greeks in collecting books, and forming a library, the arrangement of which he himself superintended. But the final subversion of the Eastern Empire, and the capture of Constantinople in 1453, dispersed the learned men of Greece over Western Europe, and placed the literary remains of that capital at the mercy of the conqueror. The imperial library, however, was preserved by the express command of Mohammed, and continued, it is said, to be kept in some apartments of the seraglio; but whether it was sacrificed in a fit of devotion by Amurath IV., as is commonly supposed, or whether it was suffered to fall into decay from ignorance and neglect, it has been repeatedly asserted that the library of the Sultan contains only Turkish and Arabic writings, and not one Greek or Latin manuscript of any importance. The opinions of competent scholars continue, nevertheless, to be divided on this point. Even in Germany, where the expectation of important accessions from this quarter has confessedly declined, we find an authority so eminent on such questions as that of Tischendorff still on the side of the old belief. He thinks it probable, he says (writing in 1845), "that the seraglio of the Sultan conceals ancient and valuable MSS., though complete obscurity prevails as to their contents;" and he proceeds to ask who in our day would have credited the existence of "walled-up" libraries, yet a walled-up library was very lately one of the mysteries of Cairo.

Upon the whole, it appears that books were abundant, both at Rome and at Constantinople, and that learned men in those cities had at their command greater resources than might at first be supposed. Some idea of the quantity of books accessible to persons of study and research may be formed from the great number of references and citations to be found in the works of some authors, particularly in those of Strabo, Pliny, and some others. It is, however, to be remembered, while referring to the large number of books said to have been contained in these ancient libraries, that a very erroneous impression would be made were they to be reckoned according to modern computation. Each work being written on separate rolls, the number would necessarily be greatly increased, when the books of Livy or Pliny were each reckoned as a distinct roll, or volume; and Balbi (Essai Statistique, &c., p. 82, Vienna, 1835, 8vo.) further suggests the comparison that these rolls of the ancients might be reckoned as so many parts of books, published by subscription, or of periodicals. According to this view, the largest libraries in ancient times might be represented by the contents of a modern library containing from 50,000 to 100,000 volumes.

II.—LIBRARIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

General epithets and figurative expressions frequently convey a meaning which is calculated to mislead. Hearing constantly of "the dark ages," "the period of intellectual night," and "the season of winter in the history of man," we are apt to imagine that, during the time thus designated, the human mind was utterly palsied, and all learning extinct. But in fact, throughout that period, reason, though misdirected, was not asleep; philosophy was rather bewildered than inert; and learning was immured, but not lost. In no part of that long period which extends from the reign of the Emperor Justinian, when Greek and Roman literature everywhere lay open to the light of day, to the fall of Constantinople and the revival of learning in the fifteenth century, do we entirely lose the traces even of the classic authors, much less of sacred literature; for Libraries in each intervening age, and in every quarter of Europe, of the middle ages, there were writers whose works, being still extant, afford abundant evidence of their acquaintance with most of the principal authors of more remote times. When the empire of the west sunk under the overwhelming pressure of barbarian invasion, those institutions which had been founded and nurtured in the midst of civilization, were, no doubt, swept away by the torrent which desolated Italy, and spread its ravages over all parts of the empire. But learning, though expelled from her ancient establishments, and forced from her favourite haunts, found an occasional asylum in the monasteries, which, amidst all the violence and anarchy that reigned without, were sometimes permitted to remain in undisturbed tranquillity, respected even by the barbarians who had overthrown an empire.

It is doubtless true that comparatively little is recorded Libraries of the libraries of those ages which intervened between the fall of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, about the middle of the fifteenth century. But, every age produced learned and inquisitive men, by whom books were highly prized, and industriously collected. Cassiodorus, minister of Theodore, King of the Goths, retired to a monastery which he had built, and there founded a library for the use of the monks, about the middle of the sixth century. At a later period, Charlemagne, distinguished as a patron of learning, instituted, near Lyons, a library, which, according to the statements of historians, contained many books bound in a magnificent manner.

That on the general merits of the monastic institute the Monastic most conflicting opinions should still extensively prevail, rises; system cannot be matter of legitimate surprise, if we call to mind the fact that monasticism played a great part in the world for a thousand years; and that during that long period the most varied and incongruous views as to what a monk ought rightly to be in, and to do were current even within the walls of monastic communities. But this diversity of opinion extends also to that more limited phase of cloister life which has relation to literature. Whilst some writers contend that but for monks ancient learning would have wholly perished, others have gone the length of asserting that in monks literature has always had its worst enemies.

To arrive at any useful conclusion on such a question, it must be remembered that at no time and in no country was literature in any of its forms the main object of monastic life. In the earlier ages, when the embers of Paganism were still smouldering, the preservation of Pagan poetry would have seemed a strange employment for the confessors and missionaries of Christianity. The labours of the Scriptorium originated not so much in the love of letters as in the love of souls. As the monk became less of a mere ascetic, and aspired to become a civilizer, he necessarily began to be a collector of books, and then their author or their transcriber. But, for a long time, the books that he gathered, and those that he composed, were in the main either theological or ethical. Here and there, however, individual minds of special energy grew large enough to perceive classical beauty without relaxing their grasp of such Christian truth as they had, and became the venerated masters of numerous disciples. If monastic literature reflects but too much of the corruption of mediæval Christianity, it remains still undeniable that from Bibles transcribed by monkish hands, and from the best of the productions of the fathers of the church, preserved in monkish libraries, the men who successively wrestled with that corruption, and were the instruments by which Christianity was kept alive, drew their inspiration and their solace; and that very corruption, in some of its results, as, for example, in the re-

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1 Tischendorff, Travels in the East (1847), p. 273. 2 Taylor, History of the Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times, pp. 86, 87. At almost all periods of its history the order of St Benedict stands foremost amongst the cultivators of learning and of the arts. Yet whilst the rule of the founder contains much about visiting the sick, relieving the poor, and keeping the body in subjection, it contains very little indeed about books. Nor is there much more about them in the various constitutions of the successive "Reformers" of the order. But no order was so fortunate in the possession of a long line of men remarkable for mental vigour and force of character. If the early Benedictines are less conspicuous at periods of comparative enlightenment than at periods when all around them was gloomy, they were unquestionably the first pioneers and builders up of European civilization, and they laid its foundations broad and deep enough to resist the attacks of their own unworthy successors. They never sank so low as did most other orders of monks; and at a long subsequent period, in producing the illustrious congregation of St Maur, a service was rendered to learning—in the special sense of that term—which neither has, nor is likely to have, any parallel in monastic history.

Monte Cassino has been called the Sinai of the middle ages. It was certainly the cradle of a series of communities which spread all over Europe, and of which not the least famous were our British monasteries, such as Yarrow, Wearmouth, Bury St Edmunds, Croyland, Whitby, Reading, St Albans, all of which were distinguished for the pains taken in them about the collection and transcription of books. This system of transcription, to which alone we are indebted for all that remains of ancient learning, was carried on to an extent, of which those who are unacquainted with the history of the middle ages can form no conception. We have already had occasion to advert to the occupation of the inmates of the monastic establishments on Mount Athos, the lofty promontory which stretches from the Macedonian coast far into the Ægean Sea; and we have also noticed the immense number of manuscripts which have at different times issued from these establishments. Many manuscripts still extant prove that the copying of books was likewise practised to a great extent during the middle ages, in the monasteries of the Morea, and in those of Eubœa (Negropont), and of Crete (Candia). The latter island seems, indeed, to have been a place of refuge for learned men during the disastrous period which preceded the fall of the Eastern Empire; in its monasteries they found an asylum and the means of subsistence. In Calabria and the kingdom of Naples, fifty religious establishments have been mentioned, from which proceeded a large number of the books afterwards collected in the libraries of Rome, Florence, Venice, and Milan.1 In the monasteries of Western Europe, also, the same system of transcription was carried on. It is mainly to the labours of these establishments, that we are indebted for the remains of the classic authors, and the preservation of the sacred books, which they so carefully transcribed.

This statement needs no better illustration, or more conclusive proof, than would be furnished by a digest of some of the more important of those catalogues of monastic libraries which have come down to us in no inconsiderable number. But however compressed, it would still be impracticable to supply in this article even the briefest abstract of such a summary. We can only indicate to the reader who may desire to pursue the subject some of the sources of information to which he may resort. And this purpose will probably be better attained by directing him to books in which specimens of such catalogues have been printed, than by any enumeration of those which exist in manuscript, very curious as are some which remain as yet unpublished.

A catalogue of the library of the famous Benedictine Abbey of Corbeil was first printed by Sir Thomas Phillipps, and has been reprinted in the Leipzig journal Serapion for 1841. In later volumes of that periodical will also be found a curious series of ancient catalogues of that of Klosterneuburg (a library which still exists, and in recent days has been magnificently lodged); of Saint Vaast of Arras, and of some other monasteries of minor fame; together with many historical notices of monastic libraries (the full catalogues of which are no longer extant), chiefly from the pen of the accomplished and laborious bibliographer Mr E. G. Vogel of Dresden. An interesting series of catalogues of the books of the great monastery of Durham was edited by Mr Beriah Botfield for the Surtees Society in 1838. The catalogue of the library of the Benedictines at Whitby is printed in the Appendix to Mr Young's History of that town, as is the Peterborough catalogue in Gunton's History of Peterborough, and that of Glastonbury in Hearne's Appendix to the Chronicle of John of Glastonbury. Of the Abbey of Bec, M. Felix Ravaisson published an early catalogue in his Rapports au Ministre de l'Instruction Publique sur les Bibliothèques des départements de l'Ouest (1841).

Not less interesting, although far more concise than most of these, is that metrical catalogue by Alcuin of the treasures of the Augustinian monastery at York, which Maillou communicated to Dr Gale for publication in his Scriptores Rerum Britannicarum.

The reader who may refer to the texts of some of these catalogues, or who may turn to the many extracts from similar documents which are to be found in the Speculum of D'Achéry, the Thesaurus Anecdotorum of Martene, Durand, and Pez, and in the narratives of the literary travels of these and of other Benedictines of St Maur, will perceive that monastic collections were often of no small extent, and of not inconsiderable diversity; nor will be feel much difficulty in admitting that but for monks the dark ages must have been dark indeed.

The revival of learning is usually reckoned to have commenced in the fifteenth century; but even in the fourteenth a decided advancement in almost every department of literature is discernible. Gross and degrading ignorance was wearing away from the bulk of the community in several parts of Europe; the educated classes were acquiring a better taste and more expanded views; and a general awakening of the energies of the human mind was perceptible. This needs no other evidence than is afforded by the works of Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Chaucer, and Gower, which were not merely produced in that period, but extensively read and admired. During no part of that long tract of time which extends from the decline of learning in the sixth century till its revival in the fifteenth, had there been a total extinction of the knowledge of ancient literature; and those inestimable treasures which the religious houses had saved from the ravages of revolution, anarchy, and barbarism, now began to be drawn forth and studied. The continuance of the Eastern Empire till the middle of the fifteenth century, afforded an uninterrupted protection to Greek learning during those periods when Western Europe was laid waste by the Gothic nations; and hence, on the revival of letters, the study of the Greek authors first engaged the attention of those individuals whom an awakening impulse now directed to the cultivation of learning. But that of the kindred authors of Rome soon followed; and the monuments of ancient wisdom and genius which had been preserved in the monasteries, furnished ample materials for laying the foundations of a new and more extensive, if not more perfect, edifice of civilization.

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1 Taylor, History of the Transmission of Ancient Books, p. 83. More than half a century before the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, the learned men of the imperial city, apprehending the approaching ruin of the empire, began to emigrate into Italy, where they opened schools, and became the preceptors of princes, as well as the guides of the public taste, which they directed towards the study of the classical writers of Greece and Rome. The fall of Constantinople, in 1453, filled the Italian cities with these learned strangers. At this period the Italians required only to receive some kind of direction, and to be provided with the means of study. They had for some time been placed in those peculiar circumstances which have almost always proved favourable to the advancement of the human mind. A number of independent states were crowded upon a narrow space, throughout which the same language, diversified by dialects, prevailed, exhibiting, in a sort of reflected or secondary form, that of ancient Italy; whilst the formation of libraries, suggested or favoured by the importation of manuscripts from Constantinople, proved the means not only of making more widely known the works of the Greek authors (which had never fallen into oblivion), but of prompting those researches which issued in the recovery of the Latin writers, many of whom had long been forgotten. The appetite for books being thus revived and quickened, neither labour nor expense was spared in accumulating them; learned men were despatched in all directions throughout Europe, Western Asia, and Africa, to collect manuscripts; and, in the course of a few years, most of the authors now known were brought together in the libraries of Rome, Naples, Venice, Florence, Vienna, and Paris. Aided by the munificence of princes and popes, the scholars of the fifteenth century applied themselves to the discovery, restoration, and publication of the remains of Greek and Roman literature; and, in the course of sixty or eighty years, most of the works now known were committed to the press. Since that time additional discoveries have been made; but the principal improvements of a subsequent date have consisted in the emendation of the text of ancient authors, partly by a more extensive collation of manuscripts than the first editors possessed the means of instituting, and partly also by the lights and aids of a cautious and judicious criticism.

The invention of printing, by virtually exempting books from the operation of the law which subjects all human things to decay, has also greatly promoted the process of their renovation. By giving to the issue of an edition of a standard work a degree of importance several hundred times greater than that which belonged to the transcription of a single copy, it has called for a proportionally larger amount of learning, diligence, and caution, in the work of revision; and, by enabling each successive editor to avail himself of the labours of his predecessors, all the advantages resulting from the concentration of many minds upon the same subject have further been secured. Since the fifteenth century, therefore, the lapse of time, instead of gradually impairing and corrupting the literary remains of antiquity, has incessantly contributed to their renovation; what was then unknown or doubtful, imperfect or corrupted, has been ascertained, restored, and completed; and the learning and industry of the four centuries which have since elapsed, being constantly directed towards the same objects, have left comparatively few questions of literary antiquity open to controversy.

Several of the great libraries of Europe date their first beginnings during the hundred years between 1365, when Charles V. of France had already won renown as a collector of choice manuscripts, and 1465, when the art of printing had established itself, without having as yet materially interrupted the labours of the copyists. Within this period are included the foundation of the Imperial Libraries of Paris and of Vienna, of the Laurentian Library at Florence, and of the Library of the Vatican; and the liberal gifts of books which were made by Sir Richard Whittington to the Franciscans of London; by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, to the University of Oxford; by King Henry VI. to All Souls College; and by Niccolo Niccoli to his fellow-citizens of Florence. It also witnessed the commencement of those splendid collections of Frederick, Duke of Urbino, and of Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, which eclipsed all preceding libraries, and were counted amongst the marvels of the age. But, unfortunately, whilst the Urbino Library has escaped the almost total destruction which befell that of Corvinus, it has lost much of its value by division. Its manuscripts are still conspicuous amongst the treasures of the Vatican, but they are less accessible to students than they were in the romantic seat of the old dukes; and the printed books are scattered, some being at Castel Durante, others in the Library of the "Sapienza" at Rome, and others, again, still remaining at Urbino.

Within the same period, too, is comprised the foundation of the oldest of those town libraries in which Germany has become rich. As early as 1413, Andreas von Slommow established a library at Danzig in connection with the church of St Mary. His example was followed by Conrad von Hildesheim at Ratisbon in 1430; by Heinrich Neidhart at Ulm in 1440; and by Conrad Kulmhofer at Nuremberg in 1445. Nor was France far behind in a similar foundation, although in that country the first step was not followed up with equal vigour. There is an account of the purchase of books for a public library by the Common Council of Aix in the year 1419. For any such record, or for any entry at all respecting such an institution, in the proceedings of an English municipality, it will, we fear, be necessary to descend almost two centuries. The striking contrast which for many generations existed between Great Britain and some of the continental states, as respects the possession of libraries publicly accessible, was none the less, but rather the more, deplorable for the fact that in earlier days it had been, as there is good hope that in future days it will yet be, quite otherwise. In that first "revival of letters" for which the Europe of the middle ages was so greatly indebted to the genius and energy of Charlemagne, we find Alcuin writing to his imperial patron, that nothing so wrought within him a longing to return to England as the memory of the books which there had abounded, and of which in France there were so few. He repeatedly urges the Emperor to send messengers to England for manuscripts. So highly were those prized which he had himself brought with him to the court, that they became the foundation of a special school of scribes and illuminators in the country round Aix-la-Chapelle, which for many ages, it is said, remained faithful to Saxon traditions.

More than five centuries later we find the patron saint of British book-lovers, Richard Aungerville, Bishop of Durham, in the midst of his lamentations at the degeneracy of morals, and at the supremacy of the lust of power and gain. over the old love of knowledge, bursting into a cry of triumph at the apparent dawn of a brighter day. He quaintly recalls, indeed, the almost tumultuous pleasure with which, in his youth, he used frequently to visit "Paris, the paradise of the world!... where are delightful libraries in cells redolent of aromatics,... flourishing green-houses filled with all sorts of volumes,... but thinks there are already indications, that as "the admirable Minerva once deserted Athens, and then retired from Rome, she has, in like manner, given the slip to the Parisians, and has at last happily reached Britain, the most renowned of islands."

The good bishop practised what he taught. He is the first recorded donor of books to the University of Oxford. His example was followed by several other prelates and eminent personages; but all these benefactions were destroyed in the stormy days of the Reformation. Perhaps of all the incidental losses that were swallowed up, if we may so speak, in that great gain, there was none more deserving of regret than the loss of a precious opportunity for adding literary to religious reform. Many of those who most hated monkish corruptions have borne striking testimony to the worth of monastic libraries, even after long years of neglect and injury. That stern opponent of the Romanists, Bishop Bale, for example, keenly laments that in "turning over the superstitious monasteries so little respect was had to the libraries, for the safeguard of those noble and precious monuments.... Avarice was the... dispatcher which made an end both of our libraries and books, unto the no small decay of the commonwealth." And then he adds, in glowing words, that expression of deep regret that so favourable an occasion had not been seized for the establishment of county libraries throughout England, to which we have elsewhere adverted, and concludes thus:—"But to destroy all without consideration is, and will be, unto England for ever, a most horrible infamy among the grave seniors of other nations."

It was not until the reign of James I. that Great Britain could boast even a "Royal Library" worthy of the name. In 1570 Sir Humphrey Gilbert had vainly pressed on the attention of Queen Elizabeth the superior advantages which men of letters enjoyed in other countries, and the national glory which would result from the establishment of a royal academy and library upon an adequate scale. But what the monarch failed to do was in process of time undertaken by some private persons. In 1580 Clement Littil laid the corner-stone of the Library of the University of Edinburgh. In or about 1588, Sir Robert Cotton commenced that noble collection of manuscripts which long afterwards was to become not the least fruitful germ of our National Museum. In 1597 Sir Thomas Bodley resolved (to use his own words) "to take his full farewell of all state employments,... and to set up his staff at the library door in Oxon." And, in 1601, a most worthy, though unusual, memorial of military gratitude, laid the foundation of the fine Library of Trinity College, Dublin.

Our historical summary of the growth and fortunes of these and of some others of the more conspicuous European libraries must needs be a brief one. We arrange it under the main divisions of (1.) British, (2.) Foreign, (3.) American and Colonial collections, and begin with those which are of nearest interest.

(1.) BRITISH LIBRARIES.

The Library of the British Museum, which is now deservedly considered as the great national depository of science, literature, art, and antiquities, has been composed of various collections successively obtained, and is not more remarkable for its numerous and valuable manuscript acquisitions than it is for that energy in its recent management, which within a few years has raised the collection of printed books, from a position comparatively mean, to one of—to say the least—substantial equality, with the oldest and most favoured of the great collections of Europe.

The Museum owes its immediate origin to the bequest of Sir Hans Sloane, whose collections were purchased agreeably to the terms proposed, in the name of trustees, for the public use. The department of printed books consisted originally of Sloane's Library, which was increased by other collections, including manuscripts of the highest importance. In 1757, George II., by an instrument under the Great Seal, added the Library of the Kings of England, the printed books of which had been slowly collected from the time of Henry VII., and the manuscripts from a much earlier date, to be afterwards mentioned. This collection was very rich in the prevailing literature of different periods; and it included, amongst others, the Libraries of Archbishop Cranmer, of Henry Prince of Wales, and of Isaac Casaubon. His Majesty annexed to his gift the privilege which the Royal Library had long possessed, of being supplied with a copy of every publication entered at Stationers' Hall. The same department was further enriched, in 1763, by a donation from George III. of an extraordinary collection of pamphlets and periodical papers (published in England between 1640 and 1660, and chiefly illustrative of the civil wars in the time of Charles I.), which had been formed by Geo. Thomasson, a royalist bookseller in London. These tracts include a most extensive and singular series of ephemeral productions on various subjects, and amount, in the aggregate, to 2220 volumes, containing about 34,000 separate publications or articles. Many of them are single leaves, or broadsides, with woodcuts and portraits; and their value is enhanced in having the dates of publication written on each, and sometimes their prices. That the old Royal Library, which had been under the charge of some of the most learned men in England, should not have been preserved entire, and kept as a distinct portion of the Museum, is matter of serious regret. But, by ill-advised economy, the books were not even always preserved, but many of them, from time to time, sold as duplicates, notwithstanding the interest attaching to dedication copies to different monarchs, and to the splendid and curious bindings of the time, ornamented with the royal arms and cyphers.

It would be vain to attempt a detailed enumeration of all the additions which have since been made, whether by gift or by purchase. Amongst the smaller acquisitions may be mentioned Dr Thomas Birch's library; two collections of books on musical science from Sir John Hawkins; and one from Dr Charles Burney; Garrick's collection of old English plays; numerous classics from the library of Thomas Tyrwhitt, with his manuscript notes; Sir William Musgrave's collection of biography; a collection of classics, enriched with Dr Bentley's manuscript notes; a library of ceremonials, processions, and heraldry, from Mrs Sophia Sarah Banks; and a collection of Italian history and topography, from Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Amongst the larger and more important are, the general library collected by the Rev. Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode, consisting of books of great rarity, and in the finest condition; the law library of Mr Francis Hargrave; the library of science which belonged to the Baron von Moll of Munich; the Libraries of M. Giorgi, author of the Histoire Littéraire d'Italie, and of the Rev. Dr Charles Burney; and Sir Joseph Banks's library of natural history. Four separate collections of tracts, illustrative of the revolutionary history... of France, have been purchased at different times by the trustees, in the exercise of the powers with which they are invested. One of these is the collection formed by the last president of the parliament of Brittany, at the commencement of the revolution; two others extend generally throughout the whole revolutionary period; and the fourth consists of a collection of tracts published during the reign of the Hundred Days in 1815; forming altogether a body of materials for the history of the revolution as complete in regard to France, as the collection of pamphlets and tracts already mentioned is with respect to that of the civil wars of England in the time of Charles I. Another feature of the Museum Library is its progressive collection of newspapers from the first appearance of these publications, early in the seventeenth century. Sir Hans Sloane had formed a great collection for his day. But to this was added, in 1818, the Burney collection, purchased at the estimated value of L1,000; and, during a long time past, the Commissioners of Stamps have continued periodically to forward to the Museum copies of all newspapers deposited by the publishers in their office.

In 1823 the Royal Library collected by George III. was presented to the British nation by his successor, George IV., and ordered by parliament to be added to the library of the British Museum, but to be kept for ever separate from the other books in that institution. The general plan of its formation appears to have been determined on by George III. soon after his accession to the throne; and the first extensive purchase made for it was that of the library of Mr Joseph Smith, British consul at Venice, in 1762, for which his Majesty paid about L10,000. In this purchase was included the chief portion of a very extensive and valuable series of drawings and engravings, to be afterwards mentioned, which formed a separate and interesting division of the royal library. In 1768, Mr (afterwards Sir Frederick) Barnard, the librarian, was despatched to the Continent by his Majesty; and, as the Jesuits' houses were then being suppressed, and their libraries sold throughout Europe, he was enabled to purchase, upon the most advantageous terms, a great number of valuable books, including some very remarkable rarities in France, in Italy, and in Germany. The entire collection was formed and arranged under the judicious direction of Mr Barnard, assisted by Mr George Nicol, bookseller to his Majesty for upwards of half a century. Many of the rarest books were secured by him for the collection, at the sale of West's, and other libraries. In addition to the purchase of Consul Smith's books, there remained, as the nucleus of the library, those of Charles II., and subsequent monarchs, chiefly presentation and large-paper copies, which were not included in the previous gift of George II. to the Museum. It may also be noticed, as a matter of regret, that a few of the more remarkable volumes were retained by George IV. We know of at least four books that were specially withheld when the library was transferred to the Museum in 1823. One of these is a splendid copy, the finest, perhaps, in existence, of the Psalterium, from the press of Fust and Schoeffer, in the year 1457, being the earliest book known with a date. It is superbly bound in garter-blue velvet, having on the sides the royal crown and cypher in solid gold, with embossed gold corners and clasps. The second is The Doctrinal of Suppence, the only book known to have been printed by Caxton on vellum. A third volume is the Shakespeare, second edition, of 1632, of no great rarity, but remarkable in having been presented to Sir Thomas Herbert by Charles I., with the king's autograph and his favourite motto, Dux spiro spero. A fourth volume is that rarest of the Aldine Virgils, a copy of the edition of 1505. These volumes are now preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor. There was likewise retained, and is now deposited at Windsor, a very extensive and important collection of drawings and sketches by the old masters, arranged and bound in volumes, among which are numerous drawings by Leonardo Da Vinci, Raffaelo, Michael Angelo, the Caracci, Guercino, Claude Lorraine, Nicolas Poussin, and others. A selection of these in facsimile was engraved and published by Chamberlain, 1797, large folio. Here, also, are those beautiful and masterly portrait-drawings of illustrious persons in the court of Henry VIII., by Holbein, of which Chamberlain's imitations are so well known. The Royal Library was fed, during a period of sixty years, by an annual expenditure of about L2,000; and it is in itself perhaps one of the most complete libraries of its extent that was ever formed. It contains selections of the rarest kind, especially of scarce books which appeared in the first ages of the art of printing; in particular, it boasts of nearly forty volumes printed by Caxton, a larger number than can be found in any other library, with the exception of Earl Spencer's. It is also rich in early editions of the classics, in English history, and in Italian, French, and Spanish literature; and there is likewise a very extensive collection of geography and topography, and of the Transactions of learned academies. The number of volumes in this library is 65,250, exclusive of a valuable assortment of pamphlets—about 19,000 in number—and it appears to have cost, in direct outlay, about L130,000. When the King's Library was added to that which previously belonged to the Museum, the number of duplicate volumes in the two collections was found to be about 21,000 volumes, of which the committee of the House of Commons recommended that not more than 12,000 should be parted with; and hence, by the gift of George IV., a clear addition was made to the National Library of more than 50,000 volumes.

Another most important addition to the library of the Grenville Museum was the bequest of the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville, in 1846. It consists of 20,240 volumes, and cost upwards of L54,000. The books are arranged in a separate apartment; and for rarity, judicious selection, and beauty of condition, and for the number of copies of books on large paper, it is equal to any collection of the same extent that could be named. Among many choice treasures that might be specified, we may mention the Mentz Latin Bible (usually known as the Mazarine Bible), by Guttenberg, circa 1455, 2 vols., on vellum; the unique copy, on vellum, of the first edition of Liey, by Sweynheim and Pannartz, 1469; that of the first edition of Ovid, by Azzoguidi; a copy of the Aldine Virgil of 1505; a splendid set of De Bry's Voyages; an uncut copy of Purchas's Pilgrims; a first Shakespear, 1623, one of the finest known; and a remarkable series of early editions of the Orlando Furioso. The Grenville collection was not actually deposited in the Museum until 1847. During that year was also added, by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, a very extensive series of Chinese books, which had been collected by Robert Morrison, Esq., of Canton. It contains 476 distinct works, in 11,509 volumes, and is especially rich in the history and politics of China. The other most noticeable additions of recent years have been.—(1.) The collection of Hebrew

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1 The celebrated Armada newspaper of 1588 is now acknowledged to be a forgery, and few forgeries have been so long successful. The honour of its detection is due to Mr Thomas Watts, of the British Museum. Who was the forger can but be conjectured. The papers were elaborately concocted, and were found—partly in print and partly in manuscript—amongst the collections of Dr Thomas Birch.

2 Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Royal Library, 18th April 1823.

3 This volume was purchased at Mr Edwards' sale, in 1815, for 860 guineas.

4 Parliamentary Return of 3d March 1848 (Sess. Paper, 139). literature formed by Dr Michael of Hamburgh (who died in 1846), extending to 3970 distinct works, in 4420 volumes. This library included about 400 Bibles and Commentaries; 860 scientific works; a series of documents illustrative of the history of the Jews before and after their expulsion from Spain, and several fine specimens of early printing from the presses of Lisbon, Soncino, and Naples; and, (2) a vast and systematic selection of books in every department of literature and in all languages, chosen with express reference to the previous deficiencies of the library, as they were ascertained on a careful survey in 1843, and described in Mr Panizzi's elaborate Report of the 1st January 1845, which was subsequently printed amongst the Parliamentary Papers of that year.

The aggregate of the collections, the most conspicuous of which we have thus enumerated, augmented by many minor gifts, by claims, now strictly enforced, under the Copyright Acts, and occasionally by liberal grants of Parliament for purchases, have placed the library of printed books in the British Museum on a level with the most famous European collections, and, perhaps, second only—even in point of numbers—to that of the Imperial Library at Paris. The average yearly additions amount to about 13,000 volumes; and the entire library is reckoned to contain 562,000 volumes. When Mr Panizzi, now principal librarian, became keeper of the printed books in 1837, the number of volumes was barely 240,000; so that (exclusively of the bequest of Mr Grenville), 300,000 volumes have been acquired, arranged, catalogued, and made accessible to readers, under the official rule, and mainly by the strenuous exertions of one keeper, and that, during a term of office which, compared with many official periods, marked by no such acquisitions, may almost be designated a brief one. Nor is this all. Within the same period the whole of the old library—the royal collection alone excepted—has been removed from its former habitation, subjected to an arrangement entirely new, and, to a considerable extent, has been re-catalogued, without any noticeable interruption of its public use. Assuredly, in the entire history of libraries, we meet with no parallel to these achievements; and to them will soon be added another claim to the gratitude of students, in the provision of a reading-room on a scale of unequalled magnitude, with appliances worthy of the library, the public utility of which they are designed to extend.

The Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum is not less valuable and important. It embraces several distinct collections, of which the first to be noticed is,—(1.) The Royal collection. This contains about 1950 volumes, which formed the other portion of the ancient Royal Library of England, presented to the nation by George II., in 1757. These manuscripts date from the reign of Richard III. to that of Charles II., and are described in a catalogue by David Casley, printed in 1784 (of which an enlarged and corrected edition is much wanted). Among these precious manuscripts, one of the most remarkable is the Codex Alexandrinus, a present from Cyril, Patriarch of Constantinople, to King Charles I. It is in four quarto volumes, written upon fine vellum, in uncial characters, probably between the fourth and sixth centuries, and is believed to be the most ancient manuscript of the Greek Bible now extant. Many of the other manuscripts came into the royal collection at the time when the monastic institutions of Britain were destroyed; and some of them still retain upon their spare leaves the honest and hearty anathemas which the donors denounced against those who should alienate or remove the respective volumes from the places in which they had been originally deposited. This collection abounds in old scholastic divinity, and possesses many volumes, embellished by the most expert illuminators of different countries, in a succession of periods down to the sixteenth century. In it are also preserved an assemblage of the domestic music-books of Henry VIII., and the Basilicon Doron of James I., in his own handwriting. It also contains several chronicles and other volumes, which appear to have been executed for Edward IV.; a volume of French romances, presented by Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, to Queen Margaret of Anjou, and others richly illuminated. (2.) The Cottonian collection, which was purchased for the use of the public in 1700, and annexed by statute to the British Museum in 1753, is especially rich in historical documents, from the time of the Saxons to that of James I. These MSS., to the number of 958 volumes, had been collected by Sir Robert Cotton, who was born in 1570, and died in 1634. Subsequently to this acquisition for the nation, a fire, on the 23rd October 1731, broke out in Ashburnham House, where these MSS. were then deposited, when serious losses were sustained. From the detailed "Report from the Committee appointed to view the Cottonian Library," &c., printed by order of the House of Commons (1732, folio), we learn that: "114 volumes were either lost, burnt, or entirely spoiled, and 98 others damaged, so as to be defective; so that the said library at present consists of 746 entire volumes, and 98 defective ones." Within these few years, a considerable number of the burnt fragments and damaged MSS. have been most skilfully restored. The Cottonian Library likewise contains numerous registers of English monasteries; the charters of Edgar and of Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, near Winchester, written in gold letters; and the manuscript called the Durham Book, being a copy of the Latin Gospels, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, written before the year 800, illuminated in the most elaborate style of the Anglo-Saxons, and reputed to have once belonged to the Venerable Beda. This collection is also rich in ancient charters, and in royal and other original letters and state papers, and comprises the correspondence of most of the great personages, not only of this country, but throughout Europe, from the earliest periods at which letters were written until the commencement of the seventeenth century. (3.) The Harleyian collection, formed by Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford (1661-1724), was purchased in 1753 for £10,000. It contains 7639 volumes, exclusive of 14,236 original rolls, charters, and other deeds. Although somewhat miscellaneous in its character, historical literature in all its branches forms one of its principal features. It is particularly rich in heraldic and genealogical manuscripts; in the visitations of counties, and in English topographical collections; in parliamentary and legal proceedings; in originals, copies, and calendars of ancient records; in abbey registers; in manuscripts of the classics, amongst which is one of the earliest known of the Odyssey of Homer; in missals, antiphonaries, and other service-books of the Roman Catholic Church; and in ancient English poetry. It possesses two very early copies of the Latin Gospels, written in gold letters; and also contains a large number of splendidly illuminated manuscripts, besides an extensive mass of correspondence. It further includes about 300 manuscript Bibles or biblical books, in Hebrew, Chaldaic, Greek, Arabic, and Latin; nearly 200 volumes of writings of the Fathers of the Church; and many works on the arts and sciences, amongst which is a tract on the steam-engine, with plans, diagrams, and calculations, by Sir Samuel Morland. (4.) The Sloane collection, to the extent of 4100 volumes, consists principally of manuscripts on natural history, voyages and travels, works on the arts, and especially on medicine. It comprises the chief of Kaempfer's manuscripts, with a portion of the voluminous medical collections of Mayerne, including the annals of his practice at the court.

Parliamentary Return of 20th March 1849 (Sess. Paper, 140). of England from 1611 to 1649; and it also contains 30 volumes of Dr Sloane's correspondence, and a considerable collection of medical and other scientific documents, with numerous manuscripts on history, poetry, and miscellaneous subjects. Some of the drawings of animals in this collection are exceedingly rich and accurate; two volumes upon vellum, are from the pencil of Madame Merian; and one relates entirely to the insects of Surinam. (5.) In 1807 the collection of manuscripts formed by the first Marquis of Lansdowne was added to these libraries, having been purchased by parliament for L.4925. It is divided into two parts; the first consisting of 121 volumes of the very important state papers and correspondence of William Lord Burghley, during the long reign of Queen Elizabeth; in the second there are more than 50 volumes of the papers and letters of Sir Julius Caesar, Judge of the Admiralty, and Master of the Rolls; the collections, in 107 volumes, of Dr White Kennet, Bishop of Peterborough; several ecclesiastical registers of English priories; the correspondence of Henry Cromwell, as Chief Governor of Ireland; various ancient English chronicles; and numerous other historical, genealogical and topographical manuscripts of great importance. Amongst the minor volumes is a manuscript of Hardinge's Chronicle, presented by the author to King Henry VI.; a French version of the sacred Scriptures upon vellum; five volumes of Saxon homilies; and a facsimile of the Vatican Virgil, executed by Bartoli in 1742. To these may be added, a Chinese map, and nearly two hundred drawings, in the first style of eastern art, representing the dresses, customs, and natural history of the interior of China. (6.) Another large collection of manuscripts, about 500 volumes, almost exclusively belonging to the faculty of law, was purchased in 1813, of the representatives of Francis Hargrave, and cost L.8000. Amongst these, besides numerous copies of early reports, is an abridgment of equity, in 43 volumes, by Sir Thomas Sewell, Master of the Rolls. (7.) The collection of manuscripts, amounting to 520 volumes, chiefly of the Greek and Latin classics, which had been formed at a vast expense by the Rev. Dr Charles Burney, was purchased in 1818. Amongst these is the Towneley Homer, a manuscript of the Iliad, similar to that of the Odyssey in the Harleian collection; two early manuscripts of the Greek rhetoricians; a volume of the mathematical tracts of Pappus; and a Greek manuscript of Ptolemy's Geography, adorned with maps of the fifteenth century. (8.) Two Oriental collections have also been added. One of these, made by Mr C. J. Rich, whilst British Consul at Baghdad, and purchased by parliament in 1825, contains, amongst other rare manuscripts, several copies of the Syriac version of the Scriptures, which are believed to be of great antiquity. The other, a collection made in different countries of the East, and consisting chiefly of Arabic and Persian manuscripts, was bequeathed to the Museum in the year 1827, by the collector, Mr J. F. Hull. (9.) In 1829 a small but valuable collection of manuscripts, partly relating to French history, and partly of a literary character, was bequeathed to the Museum by the last Earl of Bridgewater, accompanied by a small real estate, and a sum of L.5000 to be invested, and the proceeds, as they became available, applied in the purchase and binding of manuscripts. A further sum of L.7000 was bequeathed to the intent, that the interest thence accruing should be paid to the librarian or librarians having charge of the collection. In 1838 this "Egerton Fund" was largely increased by the bequest of L.2372, three per cent. consols, by the late Lord Farnborough, expressly as an addition to it, for further purchases of MSS. (10.) The last distinct collection is that of the Howard-Arundel manuscripts, acquired from the Royal Society in 1831, partly by exchange, and partly by purchase, at an estimated value of L.3560. It consists of more than 600 volumes, contains many manuscripts of interest in almost every branch of learning, and is rich in materials for the history of our own country and language. The ancient rolls and charters of the Museum, many thousands in number, form another division of the department of manuscripts, with a distinct catalogue. These records and deeds partly belong to the Cottonian, Harleian, and Sloane collections, and partly are accumulated additions, being chiefly illustrative of English history, and of monastic and other possessions.

These are the larger and separate collections. The Additional Manuscripts, as they are called, consist of smaller collections, which have either been acquired by purchase, or are the gifts or bequests of individuals. Amongst these may be specified, Madox's collections for the History of the Exchequer, 94 vols.; Rymer's materials for his Fœdera, used and unused, 58 vols.; Dr Birch's historical and biographical manuscripts, 378 vols.; the decisions of the judges upon claims made in the city of London after the great fire of 1666; Sir William Musgrave's obituary; Cole's collections for a History of Cambridge and Cambridgeshire, with materials for the Athenæ Cantabrigiensæ, 92 vols.; various Coptic and other ancient manuscripts taken from the French in Egypt; Ducarel's abstracts of the archiepiscopal registers at Lambeth, 152 vols.; a long series of calendars of the Originalia Rolls, from Henry VIII. to 2 James I.; Sir Andrew Mitchell's diplomatic correspondence with every part of Europe during his residence at the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia; Sir William Burrell's and Mr William Hayley's joint collections for the History of Sussex, 41 vols.; Mrs Bank's manuscripts on heraldry, processions, and archery, 66 vols.; Abbot's drawings and descriptions of American insects, in 17 vols. 4to; Wolley's collections for Derbyshire, 53 vols.; Sir Joseph Banks's foreign correspondence; Essex's and Ker-ric's collections on Gothic architecture and costumes, 49 vols.; the Stepney papers; the papers of the Count de Puysaye, chiefly relating to the Chouan war and the Royalists of La Vendée, from 1793 to 1825, in 117 vols.; the Jernyn collections for a History of Suffolk, in 51 vols.; and the still richer collections on the same subject, extending to about 160 volumes, of the late Mr Davy of Ufford; the materials collected by Archdeacon Coxe, whilst employed in the compilation of his various historical and other works, in 206 vols.; numerous manuscripts, being 604 vols., illustrative of Italian history, selected from the collection of the Earl of Guilford; 310 rolls, commonly known as the Chancellor's Rolls, being duplicates of the great Rolls of the Pipe, between 9 Henry II. and 17 James I.; the smaller King's collection, being 440 vols., which formed part of the Library of George III.; the topographical collections of Samuel and Daniel Lyons, being chiefly materials for the Magna Britania and Environs of London, 64 vols.; Egyptian Papyri, partly purchased from Mr Salt and others, and partly presented by Sir J. G. Wilkinson; an extensive collection of ancient Irish manuscripts, including copies of the Breton Laws; a selection, made at an expense of more than L.2000, from the manuscripts possessed by Mr Richard Heber; and the voluminous Indian correspondence of the Marquis of Wellesley, from 1798 to 1805, in 1331 vols. A general enumeration of these additional manuscripts will be found in a useful volume, by Mr Richard Sims, of the Department of Manuscripts, entitled Handbook to the Library of the British Museum (1854, 12mo.). But valuable accessions continue to be made; and at present the entire number of manuscripts, exclusive of original deeds and charters,

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1 This manuscript was purchased by Dr Burney, at the price of 600 guineas. amounts to nearly 40,000. Among the more important additions of the last few years, besides a series of royal and other letters, from the library of Mr Dawson Turner of Yarmouth, we may notice the splendid Bible, in two vols., of Charlemagne; the celebrated Bedford Missal, executed for John, Duke of Bedford, Regent of France, under Henry VI. (which was formerly in the Harleian collection, and is now restored to it, after passing through many hands); a valuable and extensive collection of documents, illustrative of the Civil War period; the correspondence and other papers relating to the captivity of Napoleon at St Helena; and a remarkable series of papers of the Florentine family of Gualterio, extending to about 400 vols., and rich in materials for Italian history during the last century.

But no accession to this department, of recent date, can vie in interest with those venerable fragments of antiquity, which have been brought from the Nitrian desert, mainly by the zealous researches of Mr Archdeacon Tattam, and of which such excellent use has already been made by the learned author of the Corpus Ignatianum [Ignatius]. The grotesque custodians of these Syriac MSS. have been described with more than photographic vividness by Mr Carzon, and his pictures of his own experiences in the search of books, enhance our surprise that so much has been recovered. Three several consignments of MSS. from Nitria have reached the Museum since the beginning of 1843, amounting in the whole to about 600 vols. Some of these contain several distinct works, but a considerable proportion of them are more or less imperfect. It has, however, repeatedly happened, that portions of the same work have been received at different times. Probably the entire collection contains, either in works or fragments of works, not less than 1200 distinct MSS., of which the earliest are at least as old as the beginning of the fifth century, and the latest are of the beginning of the fourteenth. Amongst them are some of the oldest Biblical MSS. in existence. There is a copy of the Pentateuch, for instance, dated 464. There are nearly 30 vols. which contain various books of the Old Testament in the Peshito version, and more than 40 containing portions of the New Testament in the same version—many of them of the sixth century. Of liturgical and patristic works there are great numbers,—some of them palimpsest,—and of early and curious contributions to ecclesiastical history, not a few.

The catalogues of the Printed Books are in two series; first, the printed catalogue of 1813-1819, in 7 vols. Svo. In the reading-room of the Museum for consultation, is a copy of this catalogue, inlaid and interleaved with manuscript additions, between the years 1819 and 1849, in 82 vols. folio. Another catalogue, still in progress, contains the subsequent additions, and extends to upwards of 300 volumes in folio. There are other special catalogues, such as of music, pamphlets, &c. The general printed catalogue, commenced in 1841, by Mr Panizzi, as yet embraces letter A only, and does not include books acquired since the close of the year 1838. An interleaved copy, with additions, is bound in 16 vols. Of the library of George III., there is a printed catalogue, 1820-1839, 5 vols. imperial folio. There is likewise a catalogue of the geographical and topographical collection attached to the library of George III., printed in one vol. folio, to match the general catalogue of this library, and also in two vols. Svo, 1834. Of the Grenville Library, there is an excellent descriptive catalogue, the first portion prepared under Mr Grenville's own direction. It forms 3 vols. Svo, 1842-48. All the catalogues are alphabetical; and there is yet no general classed catalogue, although a sum considerably exceeding L5,000 was paid many years ago by parliamentary grants as "expenditure on account of a classed catalogue." The absence of a complete catalogue, in a printed form, either classed or alphabetical, of a library such as that of the Museum, is undeniably a public inconvenience. "As are the catalogues of a library, so will be its utility," is an old and true adage. No skill or industry can make a catalogue in MS. fully supply the place of one in print; and we cannot doubt that the energy which has already done so much, will in due time confer on students and on the public at large this advantage also. The printed catalogues of the Manuscripts are—1. That of the manuscripts of the old Royal Library, by David Casley, 1734, in 4to; 2. That of the Sloane and other manuscripts, heretofore undescribed, by S. Ayscough, 1782, in 2 vols. 4to; 3. That of the Cottonian manuscripts, by Joseph Planta, 1802, in folio; 4. That of the Harleian manuscripts, by H. Wanley and R. Nares, 1808, in 4 vols. folio; 5. That of the Hargrave manuscripts, by Sir H. Ellis, 1818, in 4to; 6. That of the Lansdowne manuscripts, by F. Douce and Sir H. Ellis, 1819, in folio; 7. That of the Arundel manuscripts, by the Rev. J. Forshall, 1840, in folio; 8. That of the Burney manuscripts, by the Rev. J. Forshall, 1840, in folio; 9. That of the Oriental manuscripts (by various authors), published between the years 1836 and 1852, in 6 vols. folio; 10. That of the Greek Papyri, 1839, 4to; and, 11. That of select Papyri, chiefly in the Hieratic character, 4 parts, folio, 1841-1844. Manuscript catalogues of the additions in the departments of printed books, and manuscripts to the latest time are kept in the Museum reading-room. There are also separate manuscript catalogues of the collection of tracts relating to the civil wars in the reign of Charles I.; of the Cole manuscripts; of the Chinese books; of the collections of printed musical works, maps, charts, &c.

The Library of the Royal Society consists chiefly of printed books of science and general literature, which may be consulted by all the fellows, and from which books may also be borrowed by them under the regulations prescribed by the statutes; nor have the Society, at any time that is remembered, ever refused to lend books or manuscripts to learned men not belonging to their corporation, who had occasion to consult them. The foundation of this library was laid in 1667, by the noble gift which John Evelyn induced Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk, to make to the Society, "to dispose thereof as their property, desiring only that in case the Society should come to fail, it might return to Arundel House, and that this inscription, Ex dono Henrici Howard Norfolkensis, might be put upon every book given them." This Arundel Library included a considerable number of books which had formed part of the magnificent collection of Matthias Corvinus, already mentioned. Evelyn, whilst speaking of the choice treasures it contained, goes on to add: "I should not have persuaded the duke to part with these, had I not seen how negligent he was of them, suffering the priests and everybody to carry away and dispose of what they pleased, so that abundance of rare things are irrecoverably gone." Mainland, the historian of London, writing in or about 1755, tells us that, by a bequest of Mr Francis Aston, made in 1715, and by other additions, this library had already come to "excel all the public libraries of this city in point of goodness and value."

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1 We have indicated but a small portion even of the most remarkable of these Syriac MSS. Probably the best general account of them is that published in vol. Ixvii. of the Quarterly Review (1845). 2 Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on British Museums (1835), pp. 134, 179. 3 C. G. Heyne, Biographisch-Dogmatisches, von A. II. L. Heeren, Göttingen, 1813. 4 History of London (2d edit. by Entick), pp. 1285-1288. The number of volumes he states at 3625. It has now become about 41,000; and the collection is, as it ought to be, eminently rich in the literature of the mathematical and physical sciences. The transfer of the Arundel MSS. to the British Museum has been already adverted to. The titles of the books presented to the Society have been inserted at the end of the latter volumes of their Transactions. A carefully prepared catalogue of the scientific books was printed in 1839, Svo, and another of the miscellaneous literature, manuscripts, and letters in 1841. There is also a catalogue in MS. of the maps, charts, drawings, and engravings, which exceed 5000 in number.

The Library of the Royal Institution was founded in 1803 by a few gentlemen, for the immediate use of the subscribers to that establishment; but any person may, upon the recommendation of a patron, always have access to it. This collection consists of nearly 27,000 volumes, including the best and most useful edition of almost every Greek and Roman classic, with the translations in English and other modern languages; the class of mathematical science in all its branches is very full, including the best scientific journals, and transactions of learned societies; and the historical department, founded on the collection of Mr Astle, which was purchased by the managers at the formation of the library, is, in its various divisions and subdivisions, exceedingly interesting. A catalogue, methodically arranged, with an alphabetical index of authors, by William Harris, was printed in 1809, in Svo. Of this catalogue a second edition appeared in 1821, and a third in 1856. The Library of the London Institution was commenced in 1808, under the direction of Professor Porson, and has been admirably continued under the care, successively, of Mr Maltby, of Mr Upcott, and Mr Richard Thomson. Next to that of topography, the departments of classical literature, mathematics, and history are the most amply stocked. It is also rich in bibliography, there being few works absolutely necessary to be consulted by the bibliographical student, which may not be found in this valuable collection.

There is an excellent printed catalogue of this library, chiefly compiled by Mr Thomson, in 4 vols. Svo; printed between the years 1835 and 1852. The present number of volumes exceeds 60,000, and includes a fine series of tracts on a wide range of topics. Alike as respects compactness of arrangement and beauty of appearance, this library is a model which will repay careful study.

There are many other libraries in London worthy of notice, more especially the London (Subscription) Library, in St James's Square, established in 1841, and containing upwards of 65,000 volumes. A catalogue was published in 1853. Valuable Law Libraries are also connected with Lincoln's Inn, the Inner Temple, and the Middle Temple. The first-named collection contains 28,000 vols. of printed books and 900 MSS., and its earliest beginnings date from the year 1522. The Inner Temple Library contains upwards of 16,000 volumes of printed books, and about 500 MSS. The Middle Temple Library was founded by a bequest of Robert Ashley, Esq., in 1641. A century later it contained barely 4000 volumes, it now contains about 21,000 volumes. Of all these libraries printed catalogues are extant. Sion College, London Wall, dates the foundation of its library in 1630, and contains upwards of 40,000 volumes; and, like Dr Daniel Williams' Library, in Redcross Street, founded in 1716, and opened in 1729, is rich in old English theology. Both collections are accessible to the public. That of Dr Williams, indeed, is open to all comers, and is the only one in London which is so unrestrictedly available. It contains between 20,000 and 21,000 volumes of printed books, and about 200 MSS.

To John Williams, successively Bishop of Lincoln and Cathedral Archbishop of York, is due the honour of having founded libraries, the first strictly public library in the English metropolis. "With strong propensity of mind to enlarge the boundaries of learning," says his biographer, Bishop Hacket, "he converted a waste-room, situate in the east side of the cloisters, . . . into a goodly library, . . . and stored it with a vast number of learned volumes; for which use he lighted most fortunately upon the study of that learned gentleman, Mr Baker of Highgate, who . . . had collected the best authors in all sciences, in their best editions, which being bought at L500, . . . were removed into this store-house [apparently in or about the year 1620]. When he received thanks from all the professors of learning in and about London . . . because they had free admittance, . . . it compelled him to unlock his cabinet of jewels and bring forth his choicest MSS. A right noble gift in all the books he gave to this Serapaeum, but especially the parchments." The Cathedral Library of Westminster now contains 11,000 volumes; the foundation of Archbishop Williams having been liberally built upon by many succeeding benefactors. How choice a collection it is—despite some losses in the time of Charles I.—a glance at Mr Botfield's account of it will quickly show. And how suitable to its character is the habitation selected for it by the founder, may be seen in one of the charming word-pictures of Geoffrey Crayon: Books so valuable, and, if lost, so hard to be replaced, must needs be watched with careful eyes. But it is with regret we read the stringent official reply to the inquiries of the Cathedral Commissioners in 1854: "Accessible only to masters of the school, and to the Minor Canons."

Nearly all the Deans and Chapters in England possess libraries of greater or less magnitude, and many of them are now liberally opened to the public under proper regulation. At St Paul's Cathedral, however, the rule is as briefly emphatic as at Westminster: "Accessible only to members of the Chapter," is the oracular response. This Library was founded by Henry Compton, Bishop of London, 1713; the old library of the Chapter having been scattered or alienated 60 years before, and part of it removed to Sion College. The Library, not having been very largely increased (there is no endowment), still carries in its aspect the impress of Bishop Compton's vigorous individuality. The number of volumes has been officially returned as 8000.

The Cathedral Library of Durham is of almost equal value with that of Westminster, and is of somewhat larger extent, possessing about 11,000 printed volumes, besides 520 MSS. of considerable worth. It unites, with a portion of the old monastic library, the liberal benefactions of Dean

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1 Weld, History of the Royal Society, vol. ii., p. 474 (1848). 2 This catalogue comprehends, first, a synoptical table of the classes; secondly, a plan of the arrangement, in classes, of the books themselves; thirdly, a general classified catalogue of all the books; fourthly, an index of authors' names and works; and, fifthly, an index of anonymous works, and of many different subjects, of which some account is to be found in the library. 3 Report of the Bibliographer, p. 53. 4 Hackett, Institutes of Divinity, p. 47. We have quoted this conclusive testimony with the more precision, since the very existence of this public Cathedral Library has been questioned in Notes and Queries for 1855. 5 First Report of the Commissioners on Cathedral and Collegiate Churches (1854), p. 37. 6 Notices of Cathedral Libraries (1849), pp. 433-441. 7 The Sketch Book, vol. i., pp. 227-229 (1833). 8 First Report, &c., ubi supra. 9 Ibid., p. 4. 10 Ibid. Sudbury, in the sixteenth century, and of the princely Bishop Cosin, in the seventeenth. It is so well kept up that the printed books which Mr Botfield counted in 1818 to be 7259 volumes, had increased in 1854 by nearly 4000 volumes; and is so liberally managed, that "it is accessible to all persons, without any distinction, religious or other, who are in such a position as to be deemed fairly responsible for the safe return of the books entrusted to them." At York, too, part of a more ancient library is combined with the bequests of the widow of Archbishop Matthew (1629), of Dr Fothergill, and of Dr Burgh. The collection is valuable, extends to about 8000 volumes, and is accessible to the public five days in the week. Canterbury and Exeter have each about 5000 volumes, and both collections include many books of the highest literary and antiquarian interest. With respect to Canterbury, there is a singular contrast between a statement on this point in the catalogue of 1802, and another made 30 years later, in reply to the inquiries of the Record Commission: "This Library... is rich in MS. materials relating to the civil and ecclesiastical history of the country," says the one. "It is not believed that there is anything in the collection likely to be of the least public interest," says the other. Lincoln and Llandaff have each about 4500 volumes; Norwich, 4350; Ely, 4000; Worcester, 3600; Winchester, 3500; Carlisle, 3174. Most of the others range from 2000 to 3000 volumes; and many, even of the smallest of these ecclesiastical libraries, possess books of considerable value, which are not unfrequently the remnants of once splendid collections. It is undeniable that access to some of them has, in former times, been grossly abused, but there is evidence that the mischief has usually resulted, less from publicity than from want of proper regulations. At all events, it is certain that the strictest seclusion may be as destructive to books as the most lax use of them. That memorable cathedral library, whence certain jackdaws acquired "the expensive habit of using Anglo-Saxon MSS. to line their nests,"—as we have been lately told by a caustic Edinburgh Reviewer,—was assuredly not too public, although, in one sense, much too accessible.

The Library of Printed Books, founded by Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of King James I., which, until recently, occupied the four galleries over the cloisters of Lambeth Palace, is now more worthily lodged in the noble hall built by Archbishop Juxon, and skilfully restored under the superintendence of Mr Blore. The number of volumes contained in this library is estimated at upwards of 25,000 manuscripts, many of which are of extreme rarity. In ecclesiastical history and in biblical literature, few collections contain so large a number of scarce and curious editions. The class of English topography is also extensive and valuable. The first catalogue of printed books was drawn up by Bishop Gibson; it was afterwards transcribed in a fair hand by Dr Wilkins, and has been continued by his successors in the librarianship to the present time. The manuscripts, many of which are extremely valuable, are arranged in seven sets or divisions, distinguished as Codices Lambethiani, Whartonianai, Careciani, Tenisoniani, Gibboniani, Miscellanei, and Sutteniani. This department, besides being rich in copies of the sacred writings, contains Expositions of the Fathers of the Church; Missals, and Hours of the Holy Virgin; a number of papal bulls; various treatises of Wycliffe; manuscripts relating to the history of France, and other European nations, particularly Spain, Italy, Poland, Germany, and Holland; 17 volumes in folio of the Shrewsbury correspondence; besides several letters to and from Charles II.; and certain manuscripts on heraldry and genealogy, written or corrected by Lord Burghley. But perhaps the two greatest curiosities in this collection are the ancient French version and exposition of the Apocalypse, ornamented with miniature paintings; and the Latin copy of the Apocalypse, also beautifully illuminated, which is supposed to have been written in the thirteenth century. A catalogue of these manuscript treasures, compiled by the Rev. H. J. Todl, the then keeper, was printed in 1812, in one volume folio, at the expense of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In two separate volumes, the Rev. S. R. Maistland has given a very accurate list of the earlier printed books (prior to 1550), and an index of the English books printed before the year 1600, in the Lambeth Library.

The different colleges of Oxford and Cambridge have libraries of various extent attached to them; but in each university there is at least one great or principal library, as the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and that of Trinity College, besides the Public, or University Library, at Cambridge.

The Bodleian Library, so called from the name of its illustrious founder, was instituted towards the close of the reign of Elizabeth, by Sir Thomas Bodley, who, having become disgusted with some court intrigues, resigned all his employments about the year 1597, and immediately afterwards, as we have seen, undertook the generous task of restoring the public library at Oxford, which had been despoiled of its contents in the reign of Edward VI. With this view, he despatched from London a letter to the vice-chancellor, offering not only to restore the building, but to provide a fund for the purchase of books, and the maintenance of proper officers. This offer being thankfully accepted, he commenced his undertaking by presenting to the library a large collection of books purchased on the Continent, and valued at £10,000. Other collections and contributions were also, by his example and persuasion, presented to the new library. The most important of these, perhaps, was a considerable portion of the very valuable library which had belonged to Jerome Osorius (who has been called the Cicero of Portugal), successively Bishop of Sylvas and of Algarve, in which last see he died in 1580. This library having been captured by the Earl of Essex, in the assault on Faro, in 1596, shortly after the expedition against Cadiz, part of it was by him presented to Bodley, in order to enrich the collection he was then forming. The additions thus made soon swelled to such an amount that the old building was no longer sufficient to contain them. The edifice was accordingly enlarged; and when Bodley had succeeded in enriching his collection beyond his most sanguine expectation, he drew up for its government a body of statutes, which were subsequently incorporated with those of the university. The Bodleian Library was first opened to the public on the 8th of November 1602; and has since found numerous benefactors, more especially Sir Robert Cotton; Sir Henry Savile; Archbishop Laud; John Selden; Sir Kenelm Digby; Thomas, Lord Fairfax; Dr

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1 Botfield, ut supra, p. 91. 2 Todd, Catalogue of the Books, &c., of Christ Church, Canterbury (1802), Preface. 3 Appendix to the Report of the Commissioners on the Public Records (1832). 4 Edinburgh Review, vol. xxvii., p. 165; art. "Cathedral Reform" (1839). 5 Repertorium Bibliographicum, p. 97. 6 Monson, Account of the Wars with Spain, p. 32. Sir William Monson was himself captain of the Earl's flag-ship in this expedition. "The only thing that was afterwards attempted," he says, "was Pharos, a place of no resistance or wealth, only famous by the library of Osorius, who was bishop of that place; which library was brought into England by us, and many of the books bestowed upon the new erected library of Oxford." The recent inquiries of the Oxford Commissioners gave opportunity for the consideration of the general state and working of the Bodleian, and of the other Oxford libraries, of which advantage was taken for the obtaining of much valuable testimony, but not, unfortunately, including that of the Bodleian officers, the Commissioners having no power to take other than volunteered evidence. Of such as was tendered an able summary is given in the Report. The conclusions at which the commissioners arrived are briefly these:—(1.) That all the Oxford libraries should be placed under the general superintendence of the professorial delegacy previously proposed. (2.) Admitting the cogency of the objections to any indiscriminate permission to take out books, they are yet of opinion that, "under certain restrictions, and in peculiar cases," books, and even MSS., should be lent; and they refer to the precedent already existing in virtue of a considerable donation of Anglo-Saxon works made to the Bodleian, on the express condition that the Professor of Anglo-Saxon should be permitted to borrow them. Duplicates, they are of opinion, should be lent freely. (3.) They suggest an extension of the reading-room accommodation, and a larger and more accessible supply of books of reference, strictly so called. (4.) They recommend an alteration of the period of the official visitation of the library, so that it shall not take place in full term. (5.) They advise an increase in the number of sub-librarians.

The commencement of the year 1857 has been marked at Oxford by a proposal which would both effectively carry out one of the recommendations we have cited, and (probably) benefit that other public library which the University owes to the generosity of Dr Radcliffe. Dr Acland, present Radcliffe librarian, suggests the conversion of the well known Radcliffe building into a Bodleian reading-room, and the removal of the books to the new Museum of Science, to which in their character they are so closely allied. Of this collection we need only say that, as a library of science, it is worthy of its founder, although it has not at all periods been managed exactly in his spirit. For many years the sum of L500 a-year was applied out of the Radcliffe estate for purchase of books. That sum, a few years ago, was reduced to L200, and the reduction led to the accumulation of large arrears in important scientific works, portions of which were already in the library. Radcliffe bequeathed L40,000 in ready money, and L250 a-year in land for ever. The value of the bequest has "greatly increased of late years," says Mr Strickland, "in consequence of the 'railway town' of Wolverton (containing 2000 inhabitants) having sprung up on the Radcliffe estate;" but, he adds, "though the Radcliffe trust was specially destined by its founder to public uses, no balance sheet of receipts and expenditure is ever laid before the public."

We have yet to mention, before proceeding to the libraries of individual colleges, a small but well selected collection of foreign literature—French, Italian, and German—which was commenced in 1847, as part of Sir Robert Taylor's "Institution for teaching the European languages." It contains nearly 10,000 volumes, of which about 4000 were bequeathed by the Rev. Robert Finch, and the remainder purchased by the University, to all members of which it is accessible.

The libraries of the different colleges are many of them considerable, some of them extensive, and not a few of them enriched with much that is both curious and rare. Bishop Rede contributed the first part of the collection of

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1 Accounts of the Income and expenditure of the Bodleian Library, 1827-43. 2 In a return to an order of the House of Commons, dated January 1849, Dr Bandinel reported the number of printed volumes as about 220,000, and of MSS. 21,000. During the years 1826-46, the average annual addition of the former was about 4480 volumes. 3 Report of the Oxford University Commission (1852), pp. 115-117. 4 Ibid., pp. 117-119. books in Merton College, which has since been augmented, both in manuscripts and in printed books, by the liberality of succeeding benefactors. University College Library possesses a considerable collection of printed books and manuscripts, together with some works of art. Balliol College Library suffered by the depredations of the visitors appointed by Edward VI.; but the damage was afterwards repaired by a supply of books from Durham College, and by successive donations. The Library of Queen's College contains some curious manuscripts, chiefly heraldic and political, a valuable series of coins, a collection of numismatical works, and a fine orrery. This library has been largely increased of late years, chiefly in consequence of the noble gift by Robert Mason of L50,000, to be applied to the purchase of books; and the additions thus made appear to have been admirably selected. The books of New College occupy two spacious apartments, and there is also a collection of manuscripts. The Library of Lincoln College is chiefly remarkable for a collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts made by Sir George Wheler in his travels. That of All-Souls' College is an excellent collection; it was founded by Colonel Codrington, who left L10,000 for the purpose, besides his own library, valued at L6000 more; and was admirably arranged, under the superintendence of Sir William Blackstone. It fills a room nearly 200 feet long. In the Library of Brazen-nose College, the ancient custom of chaining the books to the shelves was strictly observed until the year 1780, when this conservative practice was abandoned. This collection is of considerable extent and value. The Library of Corpus Christi College is enriched with a valuable set of Aldine classics, with many manuscripts and printed books, of great rarity and in excellent preservation, and with the manuscripts of Twyne and Fulman, the Oxford antiquarians. The Aldines were collected by the founder, Richard Fox. In 1755, Lord Coleraine gave to this library a large and valuable collection of Italian literature. The Library of Christ Church would probably have exceeded that of any contemporary establishment, had Wolsey been able to complete his original design, which was not only to supply it with such books as had appeared since the invention of printing, but also with copies of the most valuable manuscripts in the Vatican. This collection is principally composed of the extensive and valuable library bequeathed—the books relating to the British History and Constitution alone excepted (these being left to his son, the fourth Earl)—by Charles Boyle, third Earl of Orrery, amounting to 10,000 volumes; of that left to the college by Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury, consisting of printed books and manuscripts, with a collection of coins and medals, together estimated to be worth L10,000; and of the contributions of many other benefactors. In 1767 the numismatical series was further enriched by the collection of British and English coins belonging to Dr Barton, and, in 1780, by that of oriental coins collected by Dr R. Brown, canon and regius professor of Hebrew. The Library of Trinity College was instituted by the founder, Sir Thomas Pope, who was also the first contributor of books. The collection was afterwards enlarged by various benefactions, and is now one of considerable extent. The Library of St John's College contains a valuable collection of printed books and manuscripts given by Archbishop Laud; whose zeal on its behalf seems (once, at least) to have led him to use his influence for the diversion thither of a rich gift intended for the Bodleian; many specimens of natural and artificial curiosities, and relics of antiquity; with a collection of Greek, Roman, and English coins, bequeathed by Dr Rawlinson, along with his books. In the Library of Wadham College are many early printed books, and a good collection of classics and works on theology, together with French, Italian, and Spanish literature. The Library of Worcester College is a considerable collection, and particularly rich in architectural books and manuscripts. Exeter College Library, though of comparatively small extent, is distinguished for its liberal accessibility. Of the several collections of manuscripts, amounting to 3237 articles, preserved in the different colleges and halls in Oxford, we are indebted to the Rev. Mr Coxe for an admirable catalogue, 1852, 2 vols. 4to. A minute descriptive catalogue of the MSS. in the Ashmolean Museum, by Mr W. H. Black, appeared in 1845, 4to.

In summing up such information as they had gathered respecting the college libraries, the Oxford Commissioners suggest that a more liberal use of them may safely and discreetly be accorded; and that it is worth while to consider whether or not a co-operative arrangement might be effected to carry out, within reasonable limits, such a division of subjects as would enable the libraries to supplement, to some extent, each other's deficiencies.

The Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, is extensive, Cambridge and is contained in a very magnificent structure built by Sir Christopher Wren, being 190 feet in length, 40 in breadth, 38 in height. The collection is separated into thirty library "classes," distributed in cases of oak; and extends to nearly 43,000 volumes. Amongst other literary curiosities, there are some interesting manuscripts in the handwriting of Milton. They are contained in a thin folio volume, which was discovered by Professor Mason amongst the papers of Sir Henry Puckering, and consist of the original MS. of the Masque of Comus; several plans of Paradise Lost, composed at the period when the poet intended to have made that subject the ground-work of a tragedy; and the poems of Lycidas, Arcades, and several others. Here are also the Arabic manuscripts left by Dr Gale, and the collection relating to English antiquities by his son Dr Roger Gale; Sir Isaac Newton's copy of his Principia, with his manuscript notes, and his letters to Roger Cotes; and the voluminous Shakspeare manuscripts and printed books of Edward Capel, a catalogue of which was printed by Mr Steevens. More recently Trinity College has received a collection of special interest and value by the bequest of Julius Charles Hare,—a man whose heart was as capacious as his intellect, and whose library, alike varied and choice, reflected his fine tastes. This bequest amounted to 4300 volumes, and is rich in departments of literature, and more especially of German literature, which are rarely well represented in an English library.

To Trinity Library all members of the College have free access; and undergraduates, under the authority of their tutors, are permitted to borrow as many as six books at one time. The books are seldom damaged, say the Commissioners of Inquiry into Cambridge University (in their Report of 1862), and they add—"It is difficult to produce a more striking proof of the safety, under the requisite precautions, of allowing the most liberal use of a great public library."

The University or Public Library of Cambridge is large, University and contains much that is valuable or curious both in the library, department of printed books, and in that of manuscripts. The printed books comprise a fine series of editiones principes of the classics, and a very considerable proportion of the productions of Caxton's press. Its chief founder was Thomas Scott (or Rotheram, as he is more usually called, from his birth-place), Archbishop of York. His earliest donations occurred about 1475; and although some of them have disappeared in the lapse of time,

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1 Letters . . . . from the Bodleian Library (Sir K. Digby to Langbaine), vol. I., p. 4. 2 Expertorium Bibliographicum, p. 110. 3 Report of Cambridge University Commission (1852), p. 132. others yet remain. It is pleasing to notice that one of the earliest imitators of his example was a mayor of the town, John Harris by name. Archbishop Parker was also a benefactor. But the library suffered many losses; and although, for a brief period, it enjoyed possession of the Lambeth collection (as it had been left at the death of Archbishop Abbot), the borrowed treasure had to be restored, when the Restoration so materially altered the relative position of Bishops and Puritans. The University Library continued to be a very poor collection until, in 1666, Tobias Rustat (one of the gentlemen of the king's bedchamber), gave L1,000 "to be laid out in the choicest and most useful books for the public library." This sum, with a like amount given to St John's College, Oxford, was invested in a Norfolk manor and advowson, and its proceeds are now L250 a year. Four years afterwards, Bishop Hacket bequeathed 1092 vols., which had cost him about L1,500. But the Rustat fund was the main support of the library until in 1715 it made the important acquisition of the fine collection that had belonged to Dr Moore, Bishop of Ely, amounting to 30,000 volumes, which were munificently purchased for 6000 guineas by his Majesty King George I, who presented them to the library, and further gave L2,000 towards fitting up the apartments destined for their reception. Bishop Moore's collection, which is singularly rich in the productions of the early English printers, had been offered to the Earl of Oxford for L6,000, and on his refusal, was purchased and presented as has just been mentioned. Cambridge may, for more reasons than this, regard its own history as affording striking exceptions to the rule of Georgian indifference to learning, even if due allowance be made for political sympathy. The benefactions of George I. and of George II. to this university exceed, in the aggregate, L16,000 of the money of that day. This gift appears to have increased the number of volumes to 44,000. Since this date the chief benefactors have been the Rev. William Worts, and the Rev. John Manstre, both of whom left funds to be applied to the purchase of books, which, together, produce at present L850 a-year. The copy-tax gives about 3300 volumes a-year on the average; and the University taxes each of its members six shillings a-head towards the maintenance of the library. This poll-tax produced, in 1851, L2,050, subject, however, to the duty on income. A method of classifying the books in the public library of Cambridge was long ago proposed by Dr Middleton, but no catalogue of them has yet been published. The number of printed volumes in this library is now a little above 197,000. Amongst the manuscripts—which amount in the aggregate to 3163—contained in it are,—(1), the celebrated copy of the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, known by the name of the Codex Beze, which was presented to the university by that distinguished reformer; (2), Magna Charta, written on vellum; (3), several very valuable manuscripts purchased at the sale of Dr Askew's collection; (4), some curious Syriac manuscripts presented by the Rev. Dr Buchanan; (5), a Coptic manuscript written upon long narrow papyrus; (6), a Koran upon cotton paper superbly executed; (7), other Oriental MSS., some of which were presented by Burckhardt, and some by the East India Company; and (8), the celebrated MSS. relating to the History of the Waldenses, given by Sir S. Morland in 1658, several volumes of which Mr Gilly asserts have "been stolen from the University Library within the last 50 years;" whilst Mr Power is of opinion that it "is uncertain whether there ever came into the library more than those 14 vols, which are there still."

Vol. I. of a general catalogue of the MSS. has been recently published (1857).

The Library of Corpus Christi College contains 482 other volumes of ancient manuscripts. Most of them were collected after the dissolution of the monasteries. They comprise works of the Fathers and of the Schoolmen; a valuable series of documents illustrative of the History of the Reformation; and of other civil and ecclesiastical affairs, and the concerns of various religious houses; and some of them are in the old Saxon character. They were bequeathed by Archbishop Parker, and are described in Nasmith's Catalogue, 1777. St John's College Library contains one of the most valuable and extensive collections of books in the university, particularly in biblical and classical literature, and is also enriched with some first editions which came originally from the Harleian collection. The Pepysian Library, preserved in Magdalen College, is so called from the founder, Samuel Pepys, secretary to the Admiralty in the reigns of Charles II. and James II., who bequeathed to this college his very curious library, together with his prints and drawings. It is remarkable for a collection of old English ballads, in 5 volumes folio, begun by Mr Selden, and continued to the year 1700; for a singular collection of the popular literature of the day, bound up in volumes as "penny merriments;" and for two volumes of Scottish poetry, collected by Sir Richard Maitland, of Lethington, and known as the Maitland manuscripts. Percy, in his Reliques, has made a judicious selection from the former; and, in 1786, Pinkerton published copious extracts from the latter. Pepys's collection of prints and drawings, illustrative of the history of London, and his rare British portraits, are particularly valuable. A volume entitled, The Book Rarities in the University of Cambridge, illustrated by original letters and notes, by the Rev. C. H. Hartshorne, 1829, 8vo, describes many of the more valuable printed books preserved in the Cambridge libraries.

As respects Town Libraries of a strictly public character, England has always been poorly supplied. There are, indeed, a few cities which have long possessed what might have proved the groundwork of such collections, but in almost every instance these small foundations of the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries have fallen into neglect. Since the passing of the "Public Libraries Act" of 1850 a new era in this matter has begun, but the libraries that have been founded in pursuance of the legislative measures then initiated are not limited to one portion of the empire. Such brief account of them, therefore, as can here be given will be most fitly placed on a subsequent page. At present we proceed to notice the more eminent of those English collections which are private property.

Nearly two centuries ago John Evelyn lamented "the English sad dispersions many noble libraries have suffered in these late times; one auction . . . of a day or two having scattered what has been gathering many years." "Hence it is," he adds, "that we are in England so defective of good libraries among the gentlemen, and in our greatest towns." He then passes in review all the collections of mark that he had himself known, most of which had already, he says, "passed under the spear, owing to some dark influence and constellation now reigning malevolent to books and libraries, which can portend no good to the future age."

Of the collections thus noticed, which were exceptions, as yet, to the common fate, those of Pepys, to whom he was writing, of Bishop Moore, and of Lord Berkeley, have been preserved for the public, as we have seen; but not one of those which were left in private hands has, we believe, survived to our own day, although two or three curious libraries which had escaped Evelyn's notice still exist. A few years later, John Bagford (best known for his MS. collections on the history of printing), enumerates (besides some minor ones) twenty-one private collections of known importance, of which only one seems to have so continued intact. In 1810, again, we find a list of nine libraries, described as "a few of the chief private libraries in the kingdom." Of these six have been sold; one (Mr Grenville's) has become public, and one we are unable to trace. The remaining collection, that of Lord Spencer, is unquestionably the finest private library in Britain, and is, perhaps, the finest in the world.

Lord Spencer's Library (the greater part of which is at Althorp, Northamptonshire), is eminently deserving of mention, not so much by reason of its extent, although that is considerable, as on account of the unrivalled treasures which it contains in several departments of literature, sacred as well as secular. This library contains more than 50,000 volumes, exclusively of the Cassano collection purchased in 1820, and was chiefly formed by George John, second Earl Spencer; the greater part of the old library of Althorp, so frequently mentioned by Evelyn, having long since become the foundation of the fine collection at Blenheim. Dr Dibdin, in his Bibliotheca Spenceriana, has devoted six volumes (in addition to the Cassano volume) to a bibliographical description of the books printed during the fifteenth century, or otherwise remarkable, either for intrinsic worth, or for beautiful typography. The foundation of the choicer part of the library was laid by the purchase, about 1790, of the collection of Count Reviczky, a Hungarian nobleman who had at first occupied himself in accumulating rare and curious works of a peculiar description. The choice condition and splendour of the entire collection are such as render it unrivalled. But, perhaps, its most remarkable feature is the unexampled assemblage to be found in it of works illustrating the origin and progress of typography. It contains several books, consisting of impressions taken from carved wooden blocks previously to the invention of metallic types, and thus exhibiting the earliest specimens of stereotype printing. In others, engraved figures constitute the principal part, to which is added a small proportion of text, and only one side of the leaf is employed, the other being left blank. Such is the Ars Memorandi notabilis per figuras Evangelistarum, supposed to have been thrown off previous to the year 1430, and consisting of a number of rude cuts of the principal events recorded in the Gospels, with text on the opposite page; and such, also, is the Ars Merendi, the subject of which is a sick man in bed, surrounded by grotesque and hideous figures of angels and demons. The taste of the time inclined to the monstrous or the absurd. In the first-named work St Luke is represented by a bull standing on his hind legs, whilst St Mark is depicted as a rampant lion. The Historia Veteris et Novi Testamenti, seu Biblia Pasperiana, also in this collection, is supposed to have been executed prior to the year 1400, and is by some considered as the earliest specimen of block-printing. Amongst the early printed and scarce Bibles in the Althorp Library may be mentioned the "Mazarine Bible," (already noticed in our account of the Grenville Library); another Bible, supposed to be the work of Albert Pfister, prior to 1460; Fust and Schoffer's Bible, 1462, on vellum; that by Sweynheym and Pannartz, 1471; the first edition of the greater portion of the Old Testament in Dutch, 1477; Prince Radziwill's Bible in Polish; besides other early copies in the different languages of Europe. This collection also contains the Latin Psalter of Fust and Schoffer, printed in 1457, being the first printed book to which a date is affixed; and another of nearly equal rarity, printed in 1459. Many of the earliest editions of the classics, beautiful copies on vellum, and works of all the celebrated printers of the fifteenth century, add to the value of this unrivalled collection. The Cassano Library,* purchased by Earl Spencer in the year 1820, and the greater part of which was soon afterwards united with his general collection, formed a valuable addition to the Althorp Library. Amongst other rarities, it contained the famous edition of Horace, printed at Naples in 1474, by Arnoldus de Bruxella, of which there is no other known copy; that of Terence, printed by Riesserger, without date, but probably not later than 1471; the earlier productions of the Neapolitan press; rare editions of the early Italian classics; specimens of early printing at Rome, including the edition of Juvenal, printed in the smaller fount of Ulric Han; together with all the rarest editions of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and other Roman poets.† The far-famed Boccaccio's Decamerone, printed by Valdarfer in 1471, which, at the Roxburgh sale, in 1813, produced the astounding price, for a single volume, of L2250, was afterwards acquired by Earl Spencer for a sum considerably less than half that amount. The Library occupies a noble suite of rooms, the entire length of which is 220 feet.

Many fine and even extraordinary collections have been both formed and dispersed by public auction within living memory. Such, for example, were Heber's, Bindley's, Sir Mark Sykes', Hithbert's, George Chalmers', the Duke of Sussex's, and the Marquis of Blandford's. Of other private libraries, such as those of the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, of the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth, of the Earl of Ellesmere at Bridgewater House, and other noble collections, interesting particulars might be given; we shall, however, only notice one other private collection, that of Sir Thomas Phillipps, Bart., at Middlehill, Worcestershire, which, we earnestly hope, may long escape any such fate. It is a noble library, far exceeding in intrinsic worth its relative extent, although the number of volumes approaches 50,000. The peculiarity of the collection consists in the very exceptional fact that the number of manuscripts far exceeds that of printed books. Its formation has been prosecuted with energy, and with large outlay, during more than thirty years, and the result is now a thing which, once seen, will never be forgotten. The most striking peculiarity of aspect lies in the long ranges of boxes, tier above tier, and of uniform size, each with its falling front, in which nearly all the books are lodged; not, indeed, for concealment, but by way of safeguard against that terrible foe of libraries—fire. The books are almost as little visible as are those of the Vatican, but how different their accessibility is known to a considerable number of students who have profited largely by their contents. In Scotland, at an early period, there were collections of

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1 Bagford, Account of Libraries (MS., Harl.) 2 Dibdin, Bibliotheca Spenceriana (London, 1814-23), 4 vols. royal 8vo, with three supplementary volumes. 3 Monthly Review (1810), vol. Ixiii., p. 4. 4 Dibdin, Alba Althorpiana, vol. I., p. 37. 5 So called from the Duke of Cassano Serra, a Neapolitan nobleman, by whom it was sold to Earl Spencer. 6 See Supplement to the Bibliotheca Spenceriana, forming vol. v. of the Descriptive Catalogue of the Books printed in the fifteenth century (1823). 7 Some of the best MSS. and books of Chalmers' Library are now in the very curious and considerable collection of Mr James Crossley, President of the Chetham Society. 8 Nor does this liberality confine itself to the writers and students of Britain. It were easy to name a score of important foreign works which have derived rich materials from Middlehill; but the many readers of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica of Dr Pertz, or manuscripts belonging to most of the religious or monastic establishments; and there are preserved brief inventories of books belonging to some of the cathedral churches. We find notices of private collections during the end of the fourteenth and the following century. But the earliest public library was that of the University of St Andrews. In a *Prognostication*, by Jasper de Laet, printed abroad in 1491, and addressed to William Scheve, Archbishop of St Andrews, who filled the see from 1478 to 1497, the author celebrates that prelate for his love of science, and for enriching the library with many precious books and manuscripts of all kinds. The library still exists, but the *phares codices* referred to have long since been dispersed. The name coder, however, was applied to printed books as well as manuscripts; and volumes are occasionally met with having the name of Scheve, and other early collectors, written or impressed with their arms on the books. The library of James IV. is alleged to have been carried by the English from Holyrood in 1547. One book, belonging to James V., being Bellenden's *Chronicles of Scotland*, translated from Hector Bocce, and printed on vellum, about 1541, and having the royal arms on the sides, is now preserved at Hamilton Palace; and the original manuscript of the same work, written in 1536 or 1537, and similarly ornamented, is at Dupplin. Mary Queen of Scots was also a collector, and partial lists of her books, including French poetry and romances, have been printed, and a few of the volumes are known and highly appreciated.

The design of forming a library was adopted by the Faculty of Advocates as early as the year 1680. The author and active promoter of the scheme was Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh. It was originally intended that it should consist merely of the works of lawyers, and of such other books as were calculated to advance the study of jurisprudence. This may be inferred from the inaugural address delivered by Sir George Mackenzie, when the library was first opened, and from several other papers relative to the subject. At its commencement, this library had no certain fund allotted for its maintenance. It depended upon and owed its increase to the donations of benefactors, together with such sums as the Faculty from time to time placed at the disposal of the curators. In the year 1700, the apartment where the library was kept being nearly destroyed by fire, it was removed to the place which, in part, it still occupies, namely, the ground floor of the Parliament House. During the nine years immediately following, it must have increased considerably, since by the act passed in the eighth year of Queen Anne's reign, the privilege of receiving a copy of every book entered at Stationers' Hall was conferred upon it, along with eight other libraries, four of which were Scottish, being those attached to the universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. It is the only library in Scotland which retains this privilege.

The department of printed books comprehends, in a greater or less degree, almost every branch of science, philosophy, jurisprudence, literature, and the arts. As might be expected, the collection of law-books is very extensive. The historical collection, also, is exceedingly valuable. The series of Greek and Roman classics, though it cannot vie with some others, is also extensive, and includes several first, and many early editions. The library is rich in modern poetry and belles-lettres, and, besides the miscellaneous department, contains a very considerable collection of voyages and travels. It is defective in the great branch of mathematical and physical science; in archaeology or antiquities; in early as well as modern Italian literature; and, generally, in foreign literature of a recent date. Amongst the separate collections are, the Astorga Library, the Thorkelin collection, and that of old Scottish books. A collection of Spanish books, amounting to about 3400 volumes, which had formed part of the library of the Marquis of Astorga, was purchased from a London bookseller in 1824, for the sum of £3000. The Thorkelin collection, so called from Professor Thorkelin, to whom it originally belonged, contains about 1200 volumes, chiefly on northern history, antiquities, and law. Of the Scottish books, those relating to old Scottish poetry are exceedingly rare and curious. There is also a collection of German dissertations, amounting to upwards of 100,000, called Count Diedrich's collection, which was purchased by Sir William Hamilton, on account of the library, for the trifling sum of £50. This library is not rich in typographical rarities; with the exception of the Mentz or "Mazarine" Bible, and some specimens of early printing in Scotland. The total number of printed volumes contained in the library was, in 1849, officially returned to the House of Commons, as 148,000. "No return," it was added, "can be made of the works received by the Advocates' Library, under the copyright acts, no account having been kept." If, however, we assume (1), that the number of volumes yearly added to the library from this source must nearly correspond with the average number so received by other libraries having the same privilege; and (2), that the books received are preserved; it will follow that the aggregate number of volumes must now (1857) have increased to at least 172,000. As to this copyright increment, there is a passage in the evidence of Mr Maidland (then Solicitor-General, and subsequently Lord Advocate for Scotland), before the Select Committee on Public Libraries of 1849, which has a claim to be quoted:—"As the library is the private property of the Faculty," said the Solicitor-General, "it may at first sight appear difficult to find grounds for legislative interference with it. But... the possession of the privilege of Stationers' Hall gives, in my view, a very sufficient ground. It could never have been the intention of the statute to give that privilege to injure authors and publishers by immediately converting the books so given to the ordinary purposes of a circulating library. As the books come from the Stationers' Hall, they are boarded, and are immediately placed upon the public tables. In this way, not only... ephemeral literature, but works of the highest value, published

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1 Registrum Episcopatus Glasnovensis, vol. I., p. xliii.; vol. II., p. 344. 2 Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, vol. II., pp. 127-137, 154-159. 3 Archæologiae Scotiae, vol. IV., p. 1-13. 4 Public Libraries: Abstract of Supplemental Return, 9th March 1849 (Sess. No. 18), p. 2.

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of the Archives des Missions Scientifiques, published by the French Ministry of Public Instruction, will be in possession of better testimony than ours on this point.

1 Registrum Episcopatus Glasnovensis, vol. I., p. xliii.; vol. II., p. 344. 2 Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, vol. II., pp. 127-137, 154-159. 3 Archæologiae Scotiae, vol. IV., p. 1-13. 4 Public Libraries: Abstract of Supplemental Return, 9th March 1849 (Sess. No. 18), p. 2.

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The first productions of the Scottish press preserved in this library should not pass unnoticed. One of these is a unique volume of poetical tracts, printed by Walter Chepman and Andrew Myllar in 1568; of which there exists a limited reissue in facsimile, 4to, 1827. The next is a copy of the well-known *Registrum Aberdonense*, of which a careful republication has recently appeared. This Register was composed by, or under the direction of William Elphinstone, then Bishop of Aberdeen, for the use of his cathedral, and printed in the year 1509; and it consists of two volumes in small octavo, but of the first volume the title-page and some leaves at the end are wanting. The second volume, printed in 1510, has at the beginning a calendar, and at the end these words:—“Opido Edinburgensi impresso iussu et impensis honorabilis viri Walteri Chepman ejusdem opidi Mercatoris quarto die Junii millesimo CCCCV decimo.” On the outside of this leaf is a wooden engraving representing a man and woman clothed in skins of beasts, with their shoulders bare, and their heads adorned with wreaths of flowers; whilst between them stands a tree, from which is suspended a shield with W. C. in cipher. The most perfect copy known is that preserved in the Library of the University of Edinburgh. in this country, are immediately converted to common circulating purposes. They do not remain a public deposit, but are, to a great extent, so destroyed by the mode in which they are used, as to be unfit to be deposited in a great public library.

The department of manuscripts, though not so extensive as in some other libraries of the same class, is nevertheless of great interest and value with reference both to the civil, and still more to the ecclesiastical history of Scotland. Soon after the foundation of the library, the Faculty appear to have turned their attention to the collection of MSS., and this important department now consists of nearly 2000 volumes. The most valuable portion consists of the MSS. immediately preceding the era of the Reformation, and includes, amongst other things, thirteen chartularies or volumes of records of the different religious houses, which escaped the general destruction in which the edifices themselves were then involved. Considerable light is also thrown on the civil and ecclesiastical history of Scotland at a later period, by the documents and other materials contained in the collections of Sir James Balfour, Sir Robert Sibbald, and Wodrow the historian. Balfour's collection, which consists of upwards of 150 volumes, was purchased in 1698. About the half of it consists of original state papers, and several very curious royal letters written in the times of James VI. and Charles I. One of the volumes consists of letters by Anne of Denmark, queen of James VI.; by Prince Henry and Prince Charles, his sons; by the Princess Elizabeth, his daughter; and by the Elector Palatine and his son to James VI., entirely of a familiar nature. From these, some partial selections were made by Lord Hailes, and printed in 1762 and 1765. Most of these chartularies, as well as the more important original letters and state papers referred to, have been published by the Bannatyne Club and other literary associations. The *Annals of Scotland*, compiled by Sir James Balfour, were also printed in 1824, 1825, in 4 volumes 8vo. But there still remain unprinted some MSS. on genealogy and heraldry, besides a considerable number of curious documents. Sir Robert Sibbald's collection, consisting of upwards of 30 volumes, was purchased by the Faculty in 1723. It is chiefly of a topographical and literary character. Wodrow's collection is much more voluminous, consisting of upwards of 160 volumes. It was chiefly from this immense mass of materials that that laborious writer compiled his *History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland*; other portions have been published by the Wodrow Society; but by far the greater portion of the collection, containing many original letters and papers, is still unprinted. His correspondence with many eminent literary characters, embracing a period of more than thirty years (from 1694 to 1726), and extending to about 30 volumes, is also full of curious information respecting the literature and history of the period to which it refers. A collection of original documents belonging to the reigns of James V., Queen Mary, and James VI., was presented to the library by the Earl of Balcarres. These MSS., consisting, as now arranged and bound, of 9 volumes folio, include letters from James V., and the Earl of Arran, governor of the kingdom in the infancy of Queen Mary, to the Kings of England, France, Norway, and Portugal, to the Duke of Guise, the Earl of Suffolk, and others, from 1539 to 1542; also original letters by Queen Mary, addressed to her mother the Queen-dowager, during the early years of that beautiful but ill-fated princess. This department also contains Lord Fountainhall's collections, in his own handwriting, including his decisions, historical notices, diary, and other matters; from which his published papers have been selected. We may likewise notice the curious and interesting papers of James Anderson, Murray of Stanhope, the correspondence of Gough and Paton, with portions of the MS. collections of George Chalmers and of General Hutton, which have been arranged and bound in several folio and quarto volumes; and also those collected by the Rev. James Scott of Perth, consisting of about 20 volumes folio, and comprising the Blackfriars' Charters, in 3 volumes; extracts from the records of the Church of Perth, in 4 volumes; the records of the Hospital from 1577 to 1732; extracts from the records of the Kirk-session; a chronicle; and a register of baptisms and deaths.

The same department includes a number of manuscripts on heraldry, genealogy, and Scottish law, besides many of a miscellaneous nature. It also contains several early MSS. of the classics, and a few illuminated missals. Amongst the former may be mentioned a very fine copy of Horace, belonging to the thirteenth century; the *Plays of Terence*, executed in the year 1436; a copy of the *Epigrams* of Martial, in perfect preservation, which, from the style of the writing, may be ascribed to the ninth century, and is supposed to be one of the most ancient manuscripts of the Epigrams extant; a copy of Valerius Maximus, beautifully written on vellum, dated 1398; Lactantius, *De Opificio Dei*, a gem of its kind; the mathematical collections of Pappus of Alexandria, written in beautiful Greek, with admirably executed diagrams; besides portions of several classics, as Cicero, Ovid, Juvenal, and Persius, all of considerable antiquity. A manuscript copy of St Jerome's translation of the Bible, supposed to have been written about the tenth century, and said to have been found in the Abbey Church of Dunfermline during the reign of David I.; the Auchinleck Manuscript is a collection of ancient English poems and metrical romances, written about the middle of the fourteenth century; it is so named after the donor, Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, one of the Lords of Session, in 1744 (from this volume Sir Walter Scott printed the *Romance of Sir Tristram*). Bannatyne's Manuscript, rebound in 2 vols. folio, being a miscellaneous collection of Scottish poetry, and written by Geo. Bannatyne in the time of his youth, 1568, likewise adorns this department of the library. It was from Bannatyne's collection that Allan Ramsay selected the poems which were printed in the *Evergreens*; and from the same source Lord Hailes extracted a volume, which was printed in the year 1770. In 1825 about 100 volumes of Icelandic MSS., amongst which are several ancient Sagas, were purchased of Professor Finn Magnusson, of Copenhagen, and added to the collection; and in the following year, Mr Elphinstone, and Mr Erskine, formerly of Bombay, presented to the library some valuable Persian and Sanscrit MSS. A beautiful manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, in 2 large folio volumes, was purchased in Germany; and the Pentateuch, besides the original, has also the Chaldaic paraphrase. A manuscript of the *Corpus Juris Civilis*, well executed, but of uncertain date and doubtful authority, and another of the *Pandects*, were likewise purchased several years ago.

The library is governed by five curators, one of whom goes out of office annually by rotation, and another is elected in his stead from amongst the body of the Faculty. Under the curators are a principal keeper or librarian, and several assistants. The library is supported partly by the acquisitions which it is continually making in virtue of the right conferred upon it by the Copyright Act, and partly by an annual sum paid to the curators for the use of the establish-

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1 Minutes of Evidence of Select Committee on Public Libraries, 1849, Q. 1444, p. 94. 2 An account of this manuscript was published by Mr Dalyell in 1811, in 8vo, two copies of which were printed in vellum. 3 Bannatyne's manuscript was presented to the library, in the year 1772, by the Earl of Hyndford. ment out of the revenue of the Faculty. Strangers arriving in Edinburgh are freely admitted to the library; and any one who is at all known is never denied the privilege of resorting to, and of reading or writing in the library. Very eminent men have been keepers of this collection, particularly Thomas Ruddiman, David Hume, Adam Ferguson, and Dr Irving, a learned civilian, well known by his Life of Buchanan, and other works.

The first volume of the general catalogue was begun in 1735, and printed in 1742, under the superintendence of the learned Ruddiman and Walter Goodall; and this was followed by two others in 1776 and 1807, all in folio; but the MS. additions which have since been made are at least equal to other two printed volumes of the same size. A catalogue of the law books was printed in 1831, in octavo; but an entirely new catalogue of the whole contents of the library has been for several years in course of preparation.

The Library of the Writers to Her Majesty's Signet, is an excellent miscellaneous collection of books in the sciences, law, history, geography, statistics, antiquities, literature, and the arts; and it has recently been rendered much more accessible by the ample and spacious accommodation provided for it. It is contained in two large and beautiful apartments, both under the same roof, with small rooms adjoining. The books are so arranged in classes or departments as to afford facilities for reference, and to exhibit, in a general way, the component parts or branches of the collection. The choice and condition of the books generally deserve particular notice; and, indeed, this library, though supported exclusively from the funds of the society to which it belongs, possesses some of the noblest and most expensive works ever published, either abroad or at home. The number of volumes may be estimated at nearly 45,000. There is a classified catalogue, formed on De Bure's system, and very skilfully executed, which was printed in the year 1805; but this applies only to a small portion of the collection, which has been very greatly increased since the catalogue in question was prepared. An alphabetical catalogue of the whole collection has been printed, in progressive parts, with (1836) a classified index, which, in a great measure, supplied all the advantages of a catalogue according to subjects. A classified catalogue of the department "Jurisprudence" has recently (1856) been completed; and it will probably be followed by other portions of a general catalogue. The government of the library is vested in a body of curators, elected by the Society. Here, as in the case of the Advocates' Library, the utmost liberality is shown to strangers, and to literary men generally.

Like most other college libraries, that of the University of Edinburgh was founded by a donation; and, for a long period, the casual contributions of benefactors constituted its principal means of support, as well as of increase. In 1580, Mr Clement Littill, commissioner in Edinburgh, bequeathed his library, consisting of about 300 volumes, chiefly theological, "to Edinburgh and the Kirk of God," and this small collection was afterwards transferred by the Town Council to the College, which they were then instituting. Littill's bequest thus laid the foundation of the University Library. But it was subsequently augmented, partly by the donations of citizens, and still more by the benefactions of persons who had received their education in the College. Amongst the latter may be mentioned Dr Robert Johnston, the Rev. James Nairne, and, above all, Drummond of Hawthornden, one of the favourite sons of the Scottish muse. His gift is the more valuable, because, independently of the high reputation of the donor, the collection is enriched with many rare specimens of our early literature. In 1627 a list of these was printed in Acta Britannica Bibliotheca Edinburgensis; but he gave several other books in 1628 and 1635. These are now collected together. A catalogue of Nairne's books was also printed in 1678. The acquisition of Dr Andrew Balfour's collection in 1697, which served as the foundation of the College Museum, has been much less fortunate. In 1764 the Library of the Incorporation of Surgeons was added to that of the College, in consequence of an agreement, which has eventually proved eminently advantageous to the former body, whatever may be the case in so far as regards the interests of the University. This collection consisted of about 500 volumes, almost entirely professional, and now of very little value. The principal bequest which the library has more recently received is that of Dr William Thomson, who, in 1808, left it about 600 volumes, chiefly on medical subjects. In a testamentary bequest by the late General Reid, who was educated at this university, mention is made of the library, as an object to the improvement and extension of which his munificent legacy is, amongst other things, to be applied. The funds by which the library is maintained, and its progressive enlargement secured, are matriculation fees, fees on graduation in three faculties, a donation of L5 from each professor on his induction, an annual payment of L20 by the College of Surgeons, occasional donations of books, and a grant of L575 from government, in compensation of its abolished privilege. The ordinary management of the library is vested in nine curators, appointed annually by the Senatus Academicius, four of whom retire from office every year, and are immediately succeeded by an equal number of such professors next in seniority, as are willing to undertake the duty. Four of these curators are from the medical, one from the theological, and four from the general department, including classes neither medical nor theological. This library consists of somewhat more than 100,000 volumes, and about 400 MSS. The accommodation provided for it is of the most magnificent description, the library-hall being by far the most spacious and noble apartment in Scotland. As to the collection generally, it contains much that is valuable, and a good deal that is curious and rare; but, considered as a repository of varied information in science and literature, it is unequal and defective. Its most ample department is that of medicine, a purely professional one, and more largely replenished than any other with obsolete matter. Those of natural philosophy and natural history are tolerably supplied with the works belonging to them. But in classical literature, including under that head all that relates to the exposition and illustration of the ancient authors, there are perhaps few great libraries more defective. It is to be hoped, however, that every exertion will be made to give to the collection that character of generality, founded upon the possession of all that is most useful and interesting in every branch of knowledge, which constitutes the best recommendation of a great public library. This it is which has imparted to the Library of Göttingen its great and acknowledged excellence. The only catalogue yet printed is one of the books relating to medicine, arranged alphabetically according to the names of the authors. The library is, of course, primarily for the use of members of the university, and of the College of Surgeons. But literary gentlemen, or others, who have occasion to consult or to borrow books, on application to the curators, or to individual professors, willing to be responsible for them, are allowed every prac-

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1 Report of Commissioners on the Universities and Colleges of Scotland, App. p. 167, et seq. 2 Edin. Evid., p. 618, quoted in the Appendix to the Report of the Commissioners on the Univ. and Coll. of Scotland, p. 172. 3 Catalogus librorum ad res medicas spectantium in Bibliotheca Academia Edinburgensis, secundum auctorum nominis dispositus. Editio altera. Edinburgi, 1798, 8vo. In addition to the public, there is attached to the University a theological library, founded towards the close of the seventeenth century, and now containing about 5000 volumes. In connection with the New College, established by the Free Church, there is an excellent library chiefly of works on theology, amounting to nearly 25,000 vols. Among other special libraries in Edinburgh, there are those of the Royal College of Physicians, founded in 1682, having, according to the printed catalogue in 1849, 9000 volumes; the Royal Medical Society, instituted 1737, with upwards of 16,000 volumes; the Philosophical Institution; the Watt Institution and School of Arts; the Solicitors before Supreme Courts; Solicitors-at-Law; Edinburgh Subscription Library, 1794; Select Subscription Library, 1800; and Edinburgh Mechanics' Subscription Library, 1825.

The history of the Library of Glasgow College, though curious and interesting, is chiefly a register of the numerous successive donations by which it was gradually formed. Amongst the names of its early benefactors we find that of George Buchanan, who, it appears, presented to the college 20 volumes, consisting entirely of Greek works, chiefly classics, and made other benefactions, the extent of which cannot now be ascertained. This library is stated in the official return of 1849, to have contained at the close of the preceding year, 58,056 volumes of printed books, and 242 MSS. It receives £1,707 a-year from the Consolidated Fund for the purchase of books, and must now (1857) contain at least 75,000 volumes. The other funds for its support are derived from the interest of certain small sums bequeathed by individuals, from graduation fees, and from the contributions of students, including the interest accruing from the deposit money. Amongst the manuscripts in this library are several volumes by Wodrow, principally on biography. A catalogue of the printed books, by Professor Arthur, appeared in 1791. Two supplements have since been published in 1825 and 1836.

There was at an early date a library in each of the Colleges at St Andrews—one such library has been referred to already, as the earliest Scottish collection on record—but no mention is made of a University Library until about the commencement of the seventeenth century. At that period there occurs a notice of such a collection; and a catalogue of its contents, made at the time, is still extant, the books being chiefly presents from James VI. and the members of his family. With this public University Library, those of St Salvator's and St Mary's Colleges came, in process of time, to be incorporated; and, about the year 1780, that of St Leonard's College, the best of the collections, was conjoined with the rest. As now constituted, the library is supported by the interest of money made up out of the excess of the receipts above the expenditure of its funds; the surplus rent of some teinds and lands held in lease from the Exchequer; certain fees on graduations; together with the grant of £630 a-year from the Consolidated Fund. It contained in 1848, 51,285 volumes of printed books, and now contains about 61,500 volumes, and 63 MSS.; it is, upon the whole, an excellent collection. There is a printed alphabetical catalogue to the year 1826, and a progressive manuscript one since that time. There is also a classified catalogue in manuscript. All students attending the University have the use of the library, free of expense, both for consulting and for borrowing books. Other persons, whether resident in St Andrews or elsewhere, if engaged in literary or scientific investigations with a view to publication, may borrow books, under guarantee, on application to the Senate, and free access to the library for the purpose of consulting is granted to any respectable person.

There is reason to believe, that from the first institution of the University of Aberdeen there was a collection of books at King's College, but no particular record of its management prior to the year 1634, is now to be found. The collection contains about 37,000 printed volumes, and 74 MSS. Amongst the latter are one of the splendid copies of the Koran said to have belonged to Tipppo Sahib; a work on Hindu theology, written upon vellum, and rolled on a piece of ivory, like the volumina of the ancients; and a Slaster in Sanscrit, written on the leaves of trees. The grant assigned to Aberdeen, in lieu of the copy-tax, amounts to but £1,320 annually, that being the estimated average value of the books which it had actually received. The official reply to the inquiries as to public facilities runs thus:—"The library is accessible to all the Professors and Lecturers of this University and of Marischal College, as well as to all graduates and students of the former, on depositing the value of the books received." This state of things has long been unsatisfactory to Marischal College; the Supreme Civil Court of Scotland having long since decided that the books acquired by copy-tax were to be kept in King's College, "for the use of both colleges." But, as of late the old project for a reunion of the colleges has been revived, it is probable that this minor question, with others of greater moment, may be satisfactorily solved. The separate Library of Marischal College had its origin in a collection of books made at the time of the Reformation by the magistrates of Aberdeen, and partly procured from the suppressed monasteries of that city. The number of printed volumes in it is about 12,000, and of MSS., 100. The funds for augmenting this library arise from fees of graduation, and are of very small amount.

The Library of Trinity College, Dublin, owed its establishment to a singular incident. In the year 1601, the Trinity Spaniards were defeated by the English at the battle of Kinsale. Determined to commemorate their victory by some permanent monument, the soldiers collected amongst themselves the sum of £1,800, which they agreed to apply in the purchase of books for a public library, to be founded in the then infant institution of Trinity College. This sum was placed in the hands of the celebrated Ussher, who proceeded to London, and there, in conjunction with his friend Dr Challoner, purchased the books necessary for the purpose. It is a curious coincidence, that Ussher, whilst occupied in purchasing these books, met in London Sir Thomas Bodley, engaged in similar business, with a view to the

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1 Supplemental Return (1849), ut supra, p. 4. 2 Such as the works of Plutarch, Plato, Demosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Strabo, and Euclid. 3 Supplementary Return (1849), ut supra, p. 2. 4 Catalogus impressorum librorum in Bibliotheca Universitatis Glasguensis, secundum librariorum ordinem dispositus. Labores et studio Archibaldi Arthur, A.M., Glasgow, 1791, folio. A second volume consists of a press catalogue, printed by Andrew Foulis. 5 Supplemental Return, ut supra, p. 2. 6 Ibid., p. 3. 7 These books were retained in one of the churches, under the care of the magistrates, and were called the Town's Library, and Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica. On the 19th of May 1624, Mr Thomas Reid, Latin secretary to James VI., bequeathed his books to the college, and left 600l. sterling to the town, the interest of which was to be applied as a salary to a librarian. Reid's collection was afterwards united to the Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica, and to the books bequeathed by Dr Liddell, and other benefactors; and the whole, forming one collection, was deposited in the college library, which now constitutes the public library. (See Appendix to the Report of Commission on the Universities and Colleges of Scotland, p. 261.) 8 Parr, Life of Usher (1888), p. 10. The writer's words are too striking to be passed over: "That army," he says, "resolved to do some worthy act that might be a memorial of the gallantry of military men, and of that due respect they had for true religion and learning." The college had been established nearly ten years before, but no mention of a library occurs in its accounts until the audit of 1665. (Report of Dublin University Commission, July 1852.) augmentation of his famous library at Oxford, and established with him a friendly intercourse and co-operation. From this commencement, the Library of Trinity College was at different periods increased by many valuable acquisitions, including, after many obstacles and long delay, that of Ussher's own collection, consisting of nearly 10,000 volumes. It had been the primate's intention to bequeath what remained to him of his noble library to Trinity College, but the loss of his revenue compelled him to leave it as a provision for his daughter. Both Cardinal Mazarine and the King of Denmark made liberal offers for its purchase, but an order of the Council of State prevented its exportation. "At length," says Ussher's biographer, "it was bought by the soldiers and officers of the then army in Ireland, who, out of emulation to the former noble action of Queen Elizabeth's army, were incited . . . to the like performance; and they had it for much less than . . . had been offered for it before." In a few years, its growing magnitude requiring a corresponding increase of accommodation, the present library-hall, a magnificent apartment of stately dimensions, was erected in the year 1732. In 1726 Dr William Palliser, Archbishop of Cashel, bequeathed his library of 4109 volumes. Ten years later Dr Gilbert gave his own library of 12,749 volumes, and arranged them, in person, on the shelves. In 1787 the entire collection consisted of 36,047 volumes of printed books, and 1111 volumes of MSS. and prints. When the French invaded Holland in 1794, the collection of Pensionary Fagel, amounting to 17,537 volumes, was removed to England, where, in 1802, it was purchased by the College for the sum of L10,000, towards which sum L8,000 was granted for the purpose by the trustees of Erasmus Smith. Another important addition was made to the original collection by the acquisition of the select and valuable classical and Italian books which had belonged to Mr Quin; and a considerable increment of books has also resulted from the copy-tax, by which the college has profited since the year 1801. Altogether, the Library of Trinity College now forms one of very high value, and is under admirable management. In the department of printed books, the total number of vols., in September 1851, amounted to 107,650. When reckoned in August 1856, there were 126,095 printed vols., and 1600 MSS. The Ussher MSS. amounts to 693, the Stearne MSS. to 135, the Stearne and Alexander to 77, and those presented by other persons to upwards of 400 volumes. Ussher's MSS. may be classed into Bibles, and parts of Bibles, with commentaries; breviaries, missals, Roman rituals, the works of the Fathers, and oriental writers; systematic, scholastic, and polemic writers; catalogues, philosophical, medical, and historical; and, lastly, Irish histories and genealogies, civil and ecclesiastical. The subjects of the Stearne MSS. are somewhat similar to these, with the exception that some of them treat of forensic matters. In this department of the collection, there is preserved the Gospel of St Matthew, along with other fragments of Scripture, written in Greek capitals, and ascribed by Dr Barret to the sixth century. The total number of MSS. is about 1620. In 1848 a new reading-room was completed and opened for the use of readers.

As to catalogues, this library will soon be much better supplied than it has hitherto been. A very elaborate alphabetical catalogue (of which we have seen a portion) has been long at press, and is now advancing towards completion. Of the Fagel collection, the printed sale catalogue (by Paterson) has always been useful, both from its plan and its careful execution. There is another and alphabetical British catalogue of this part of the library in MS., as there is also of the collection of MSS. By the library statutes, access to the reading-room is restricted to graduates, and of them to such only as shall take the prescribed oath. But the enacting words, whilst they expressly exclude undergraduates, do not, in direct terms, exclude non-members of the University. The heads have accordingly given them, in practice, a liberal interpretation. No books are lent from this library; but a special lending collection has been provided for the undergraduates. It contains about 3000 well-selected volumes, and has worked advantageously.

Dublin has another library, strictly public in character, which has rendered eminent service to learning, though it is of small extent, and has narrow funds. Founded by Archbishop Marsh, about 1694, it was incorporated by act of parliament in 1707, and endowed by the founder's will in 1713. Lapse of time, and its results, which, in so many cases, have largely enhanced the value of endowments, has here seriously diminished what was formerly a fair maintenance fund. The library includes Bishop Stillingfleet's collection, another collection formed by its first librarian, and a series of nearly 3000 volumes, given by Bishop Stearne, together with some minor donations, nearly all of which accrued during the last century. The present number of volumes is about 18,000 printed, and 193 manuscript. Of late years Marsh's Library has been under excellent officers, and is very freely accessible, but it has long been starved for want of means to keep pace in any degree with the growth of literature. Whilst, on the other hand, the Library of the King's Inns, Dublin, which has always been conspicuous for its restrictive character, has the King's already received in money, from the Consolidated Fund, Inns, L8750; and, in money's worth, from authors and publishers, Dublin, a further sum of nearly L10,000, without any public equivalent whatever. The naïve remark of Mr Duhigg, the historian of the King's Inns, that "the genius of jobbing occasionally gives birth to a public-spirited establishment," could, by no ingenuity, have been more singularly misplaced.

The number of printed volumes in the King's Inns Library in January 1849 was 30,938, and that of MSS., 150. The Library of the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1731, contains about 24,000 printed volumes, is eminently rich in the works on natural history, and has some valuable manuscripts, including the important collections of Harris, the historian and Irish of Ireland, which were purchased by Parliament of his Academy, widow for L500, and committed to the Society's keeping. The Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1782, has a library of 10,500 volumes of printed books, and about 500 MSS., independently of the Betham collection on Irish archaeology, acquired in 1851 (and not yet completely arranged), partly by a public subscription, and partly from the funds of the academy.

Both this library and that of the Dublin Society have been largely aided by parliamentary grants. Both, therefore, are of right, and for some years past have been, in practice, accessible to the public, under proper regulations. But, within the last year or two, the disadvantages of thus separating these storehouses of learning, furnished at public cost, have become increasingly apparent; and powers have been judiciously taken, in framing the recent Act of Parliament for erecting an Irish National Gallery, to combine these collections with that of Archbishop Marsh, on the smaller obtaining the consent of their respective guardians, and in order with all due precautions for the strict observance, both of that prelate's trust and of the proper associative purposes of the other bodies concerned. The new incorporation is to be designated "The Joint Trustees of the National Gallery of Ireland and of Marsh's Library." By this union of so many scattered public collections a fine library of nearly 60,000 volumes—including a body of materials for Irish history of the greatest value—will be at once created. The duplicates may be made the basis of a good lending collection; and should the new institution be wisely worked under the rate-paying powers of the Irish Libraries Act, or under such modifications of those powers as may meet the special circumstances of the case, Dublin may soon possess a great public library worthy of the name.

With the library of the King's Inns, Parliament will have to deal hereafter.

Under the "Public Libraries Act" of 1850, or under the supplementary acts that have followed it, of which the Irish Libraries Act just referred to is one, free rate-supported libraries have already been established, or are now maintained, in the following cities and towns, namely,—Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, Boston, and Warrington (in Lancashire); Oxford; Cambridge; Westminster; Norwich; Winchester; Sheffield; Litchfield; Kidderminster (Worcestershire); Leamington (Warwickshire); Birkenhead (Cheshire); Ennis (Clare); and Dundalk (Louth). At Birmingham, Cheltenham, Exeter, Haslingden (Lancashire); Hull; in the metropolitan parishes of Islington and of St Mary-le-Bone; and in the city of London, propositions for the adoption of the act have been, for the present, negatived. By the corporations of Bristol, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and of Preston (Lancashire), preliminary steps with a view to the ultimate adoption of the act have been initiated. Similar steps have also been taken in Aberdeen, at the instance of the present Lord Provost (John Webster, Esq., Advocate); and, we believe, in some smaller towns and in parishes in various parts of the United Kingdom.

The city of Manchester was the first to establish a Public Library under the Act of 1850. Small collections of books, attached to museums of natural history, had previously been established (under Mr Ewart's "Museums Act" of 1845), by the town council of Warrington, in 1848; and by that of Salford in 1849 (at the recommendation of the late Mr Brotherton, M.P., whose attention had been called to the subject at the sittings of the "Select Committee on Public Libraries," which commenced its inquiries early in that year). But no power to levy rates, avowedly for the support of Libraries, existed in the United Kingdom until 1850. The movement in Manchester was originated in the course of that year by Sir John Potter, then its mayor, and a public subscription was raised, which ultimately amounted to £12,823. Out of this sum a building was purchased and adapted to its new purpose; and £4,156 was spent in books. The number of volumes so obtained was 18,028, and the number presented, by various donors, 32,922. A poll of burgesses on the question of permanently maintaining the library by rate, under the Act, was taken 20th August 1852. The ayes were 3,962, and the noes 40. The library was transferred to the Corporation, as an inalienable public institution, on the 2d September following, and was then opened as a consulting library to all comers (without any recommendation, or other preliminary); and as a lending library, to all persons producing a sufficient voucher of responsibility. It was the first library in the kingdom which offered these facilities; and during the first four years of its working, it has issued to readers and to borrowers, collectively, 584,792 volumes. During the same period, 11,255 volumes were added to the library, partly by purchase and partly by gift. Of the aggregate issue above mentioned, 322,103 volumes were lent to borrowers, and all the uncompensated loss which has fallen on the Corporation in consequence of this unprecedented freedom of circulation,—independently, of course, of fair wear and tear,—will be fully covered by a sum of £25s. The increased library rate of one penny in the pound will produce, in Manchester, £4,000 a-year, part of which sum will shortly be applied to the establishment of branch lending collections in other parts of that city. The total sum hitherto raised by rate amounts but to £7,485. The total contents of the library, in October 1856, were 32,573 volumes; the classification of which is as follows—I. Theology, 1062; II. Philosophy, 421; III. History, 11,371; IV. Politics, 6,830; V. Sciences and Arts, 2,885; VI. Literature and Polygraphy, 10,004. Thus, it will be seen, 18,000 volumes out of 32,000 are either historical or political. This preference has been deliberately given, for the reason, that the selection of two or three principal departments of literature, as the main characteristic of the library, will enable the city council, in course of time, to make the collection one of the highest class and value, as respects those departments; whilst, on the other hand, the formation of an encyclopedic library, of equal value in all departments, would have been an aim too wide to be thoroughly attained. The library is frequented by all classes of the community, from those of least, up to those of greatest education. Merchant and artisan, mill-worker and clergyman, may be seen reading at the same tables; and as this (in Great Britain) is one of the most novel, so will it, in its ultimate issues, prove to have been one of the most pregnant results of rate-supported libraries, maintained by the payments of all classes, for the permanent use, the mental recreation, and the spiritual elevation of them all.

Liverpool, though second in the start, bids fair to be, in Free Library respects, first at the goal. Its Free Library was established under a special Act, which provided alike for the library, for the noble museum of natural history, bequeathed to the town by the late Earl of Derby, and for its botanical gardens. A sum of £1,400 was subscribed (for the purchase of books); the further sum of £21,846 has been voted by the town council. This library, under regulations copied from those of Manchester, was publicly opened on the 18th October 1852, with a collection for use within the building, of 11,877 volumes; and, on the 18th October 1853, with two branch collections for the loan of books, in the northern and southern districts of the town, containing, together, about 2000 volumes. The reference collection has now increased to 21,020 volumes, and the two lending collections to 13,254 volumes, making an aggregate of 34,274 volumes. The total issues from the former have been 526,801, and from the latter, 364,347 volumes. Out of the issue to borrowers, but four books have been lost without replacement by the losers. As to the Reference Library, "the conduct of the readers," says the last Report, "and the care taken of the books, have been beyond all praise. Many of the artisans have expressed their gratitude and high appreciation of the privilege of consulting the valuable works in their various departments, more especially in ship-building, ... cabinet and iron-work, and in various branches of practical science."

This great success has necessitated the erection of a new and large building. The town council, early in 1856, ad-

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1 An Act for the Establishment of a National Gallery, and for the care of a Public Library . . . in Dublin, 17th and 18th Vict., c. 99. This act has been amended as to the governing body by the 18th and 19th Vict., c. 44 (Statutes of the Realm, 4to edition, vol. xxiii., pp. 211-215, and 584-585; 1855). 2 Liverpool Library and Museum Act, 1852. 3 Fourth Annual Report to the Town Council of Liverpool (Oct. 1855), p. 5. Libraries.

vertised for designs for such an edifice, and a collection of drawings or sketches from not fewer than 115 architects was sent in. A second competition by 16 selected architects was invited, and the designs received were exhibited in St George's Hall. But the assigned limit as to cost was greatly exceeded by those designers whose projects best pleased the eyes of the committee. Great difference of opinion existed in the town council, and a third series of plans was about to be invited, when Mr William Brown, M.P. for South Lancashire, offered to take the whole charge of erecting the building upon himself. The plan which he is understood to have approved, cannot, it is stated, be carried out at a less cost than £25,000. The first stone of the new structure is to be laid in April 1857.

Salford, which had continued to increase the small but useful reference collection attached to its excellent museum, opened its Free Lending Library in May 1854. The former contained, in November 1856, 12,603 volumes, and the latter 5952 volumes. The aggregate issues from both collections up to the date last named, amount to 476,825 volumes. The working of the library has been so satisfactory that a large expenditure has been incurred to increase the accommodation for readers, as well as that allotted to the museum. A total sum of £7942 has been raised by subscription, for books and building purposes; and a further amount, somewhat exceeding £6000, has been raised by rate, or voted by the town council. Even in the small town of Bolton, a sum of £3195 has been raised by subscription, and a further sum of £1500 by rate; a library of 15,000 volumes has been formed, partly for reference and partly for circulation; and the aggregate issues in three years have exceeded 285,000 volumes.

In the cities and towns of the S. and E. of England the working of the Library Acts has been too recent to afford results similar to those of which we have thus given an abstract for some of the towns of the N. But the experience of all, so far as it has extended, is highly satisfactory. There is, however, one point, more especially affecting the southern and eastern towns, which claims brief notice, inasmuch as it possesses practical and present interest. We refer to those few existing town libraries of ancient foundation, several of which might usefully be made the ground-work, and others the adjuncts, of free libraries supported by rate.

In every instance, we believe, save one, these old libraries have fallen into neglect. Ipswich has a small collection which dates from 1580. In Norwich a public library was founded in 1608, and was afterwards much augmented by several benefactions. In Bristol another was founded by Robert Redwood in 1615. In Manchester, Humphrey Chetham, an eminent clothier, founded a library in 1553, and gave it, by his last will, a considerable endowment. A century later, Dr Shepherd, the biographer of Poggio Bracciolini, founded a town library at Preston. There are other small town libraries which cannot here be enumerated. Parochial libraries—of more than a hundred of which we have before us a chronological list—must also be passed over, with the bare remark that a great many of the latter were intended more especially for the use of the clergy, as parsonic heir-looms, so to speak; and that it was with a view to the preservation of these, for succeeding incumbents, that the Act of the 7th Anne, c. 14 (An Act for the better preservation of Parochial Libraries in that part of Great Britain called England), was passed in 1709.

Both at Bristol and Norwich, the intentions of the founders have been utterly set aside by the unwarrantable trans-

1 Blomefield, Essay towards a Topographical History of Norfolk, vol iv., p. 343. 2 Tovey, The Bristol City Library,—its Founders and Benefactors, p. 4; and Barrett, History of Bristol, p. 507. 3 Statutes at large (Raitby's edition), vol iv., pp. 18, 19. 4 Essai Historique sur la Bibliothèque du Roi aujourd'hui Bibliothèque Impériale (nouvelle edition, 1856, 12mo), p. 12. But compare Van Praet's edition of the Inventaire des livres du Roy nostre Sieur, estans en son Chastel du Louvre, which was drawn up by Gilles Mallet in 1673. The original is still visible in the Imperial Library (Fonds de Colbert, No. 83).

(2.) FOREIGN LIBRARIES.

Having described the principal libraries of Great Britain and Ireland, we shall now proceed to those of foreign countries, and, in particular, endeavour to give some account of the principal collections in France, Spain, Italy, Germany, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Poland, Russia, Denmark, and Sweden. This account, however, must necessarily be brief and imperfect; for, owing to the magnitude of the subject, the space we can devote to the whole would scarcely be sufficient for an adequate description of the treasures contained in the Vatican and in the Imperial Library at Paris.

I. FRANCE.

The libraries of France may be divided into those of the capital, and those of the departments. The principal libraries of the capital are—the Imperial Library, the Mazarine Library, the Library of the Arsenal, the Library of St Geneviève, the Library of the Sorbonne, the City Library, and the Libraries of the Senate, the Legislative Body, the Council of State, the Institute, and the Louvre. The libraries of the departments are 338 in number, exclusively of those which are specially annexed to learned bodies, to establishments of public utility, to colleges, and other institutions.

The Imperial Library at Paris is justly considered as the finest in Europe. It was commenced under the reign of King John, who possessed only 20 volumes; but the number was so increased by his successor, Charles V., who constructed a library in one of the towers of the Louvre, that, at his death in 1380, they amounted (according to Le Prince) to 910 volumes, several of them superbly illuminated by John of Bruges, the best artist in miniatures of that time. This precious collection was nearly destroyed during the troubles in the reign of Charles VII.; but what remained was recovered and greatly improved by Charles VIII., who added to it the choice books—still to be identified by the curious... visitor—which he carried off to France, after the conquest of Naples. Francis I. united it in 1544 with that of Fontainebleau, which had been enriched by valuable Greek manuscripts brought from the East. Henri IV. was also a munificent benefactor. He appointed the celebrated historian De Thou to be keeper; bought the Royal Library back to Paris, after an absence of nearly a century (it had been removed to Blois before its transfer to Fontainebleau); and added to it the fine collection of MSS.—more than 800 in number, and chiefly Greek—which had been formed by Catherine de Medicis. From this period the Royal Library continued to receive constant accessions. In 1684 it possessed 50,547 volumes; at the death of Louis XIV., upwards of 70,000; in 1775 it amounted to 150,000; and by 1790 it had increased to about 200,000. Then came the enormous, and for a long time almost chaotic accessions which accrued from the revolutionary confiscations. At present it contains about 815,000 printed volumes, and 84,000 manuscripts.

In 1667, Louis XIV., having ordered all the medals and curiosities contained in the royal residences to be collected together, caused them to be deposited in this library. Learned antiquarians, sent into foreign countries, augmented this collection; rare and precious objects were successively acquired; and the library at present possesses the richest and most varied collection that exists in Europe. The cabinet of engravings, also founded by Louis XIV., is composed of paintings on vellum, drawings, and an immense collection of prints, from the discovery of engraving to the present time. It contains more than 1,500,000, arranged in about 12,000 volumes and portfolios. In these numbers is included a noble series of portraits, exceeding 60,000, arranged, as far as possible, in chronological order. A second and still larger collection of portraits, formed by the Deberes,—nearly 67,000 in number—has been recently purchased, and arranged in alphabetical order. Large selections of prints are constantly exhibited to all comers under glass.

The Imperial Library is at present divided into the following departments, viz.—1st, Printed Books; 2nd, Manuscripts, Charters, and Deeds; 3rd, Coins, Medals, Engraved Stones, and other antique monuments; 4th, Engravings; 5th, Maps, Charts, and Plans. These five departments form five distinct establishments, which, by their importance and the richness of their treasures, exceed everything of the kind that is, as yet, to be found in other countries. A decree of 1558, which fell, or partially fell, into desuetude during the troubles of the Frencle, but was renewed in 1689, imposed on publishers the obligation of furnishing to the Library of the King, copies of all works printed with copyright; and each copy was required to be bound. At present the law prescribes the deposit of copies of all books (as well as maps and engravings) printed; but the other condition is dispensed with.

The additions from the Vatican Library, selected by the French commissioners in 1797, were particularly valuable, amounting to 501 manuscripts. Of these, 20 were Hebrew; 40 Syriac; 19 Coptic; 11 Chinese; 133 Greek, amongst which was the celebrated Codex Vaticanus of the Septuagint; 176 Latin, including the famous Virgil, Terence, Horace, Caesar, Plautus, and other ancient classical manuscripts; besides many other manuscripts illustrative of the history of the ninth and tenth centuries. Numerous manuscripts in modern languages were also seized in virtue of the compulsory treaty of Tolentino, particularly the Commedia of Dante, transcribed by Boccaccio, the Arcadia of Sanzaro, Michael Angelo's Letters, and also those of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn; besides 136 early printed books, 13 Etruscan vases, and 737 ancient coins. To these were added the manuscripts and early printed books collected by the French in other parts of Europe, to which their victorious eagles had penetrated. But the events of 1814 and 1815 were followed by a large restitution of the literary treasures, as well as of the works of art, acquired by right, or rather by abuse, of conquest. Of the contents of this magnificent collection,—named successively Bibliothèque du Roi, Royale, Nationale, and Impériale,—it would far exceed our limits to give any details, or even to enumerate the choicest articles. Of books printed on vellum, it contains at once the finest and most extensive collection in the world. Dr Dibdin, who visited the library in 1821, has devoted a considerable portion of the second volume of his Bibliographical Tour to a description of some of the chief literary and artistic treasures accumulated in this library, accompanied with numerous illustrations selected from some of the most precious manuscripts. Excepting on Sundays and holidays, the Imperial Library is open daily, from ten until three o'clock. Every book is brought that can be found; and literary men of known respectability are permitted to take books to their own residences.

Hitherto there has been no complete catalogue of this vast collection. That of Labbe, printed in 1653, in 4to, treats of the Imperial Library. Anicet Melot's catalogue of the manuscripts in the Royal Library was printed at Paris, 1739–1744, in 4 volumes folio. The first volume contains the Oriental manuscripts; the second the Greek manuscripts; the third and fourth comprise those in the Latin language. Besides these, the collection has furnished the materials for a work, published in successive volumes, by the Academy of Inscriptions, under the title of Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque du Roi (or Nationale) et autres Bibliothèques. The 1st volume is dated 1787, the 17th, 1851, in 4to. This, however, is rather a collection of dissertations, and descriptions of particular manuscripts, than a descriptive catalogue. The French manuscripts are described with great accuracy by M. Paulin Paris, in his work, Les Manuscrits Français de la Bibliothèque du Roi, Paris, 1836–1848, 7 vols. 8vo.

Of the printed books in the then Royal Library, there appeared a catalogue compiled by the Abbé Salier, Boudot, Capperonniere, and others, in 6 vols. folio, Paris, 1739–1750. It contains the classes Theology, Belles-Lettres, and part of Jurisprudence. After the lapse of a century, the want of a general catalogue having been felt, the deficiency is about to be supplied, by direction of the present Emperor. The task has been undertaken with energy, and carried on with an amount of success worthy of the collections which have accumulated. The new catalogue commences with the class of French History. It is printed in large 4to, in double columns, the books chronologically arranged under the different reigns or periods of govern-

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1 These numbers are based on the official return made in 1850, by General De La Hute (then Minister of the Interior), to Lord Nor- manby, in consequence of an application from the Foreign Office (at the instance of Mr Ewart's Committee on Public Libraries). This return says, "760,000 printed volumes, and 500,000 tracts." The latter may be estimated as at least equal to 5,000 volumes. The yearly increase from confisca- tions alone, is further stated to be 12,000 volumes. The number of MSS. is reported as "8,707 volumes, and 300,000 charters," &c. M. Grin ("Archiviste de la Couronne"), in his excellent Dictionnaire de l'Administration Française (1854), say,

2 More than 800,000 printed books.

3 The number of books printed on vellum, contained in the Royal Library at Paris, amounts to 1467, exclusively of those restored in 1814 and 1815. The total number of books of this sort extant does not exceed 2700. Lord Spencer's collection, which is the richest in this country, contains only 108. (Van Praet, Catalogue des Livres imprimés sur Vellu de la Bibliothèque du Roi, Paris, 1822, in 6 vols. 8vo.) ment. The three volumes already published, 1855-56, according to an enumeration prefixed, include 45,729 articles. The fourth volume, which completes the class, is in the press, and will be followed by other classes or divisions. The manner in which the work is executed is worthy of imitation by the Trustees of the British Museum, and of all other great national libraries.

This library was founded by Cardinal Mazarine. The formation of it was intrusted to the learned Gabriel Naude, who, having first selected all that suited his purpose in the booksellers' shops in Paris, travelled into Holland, Italy, Germany, and England, where the letters of recommendation of which he was the bearer enabled him to collect many very rare and curious works. In 1648 this collection consisted of 40,000 volumes, and was already a public library by its owner's liberality; though that of the king did not become one until 1737. In 1660, Cardinal Mazarine, by his will, bequeathed it to the college which he founded, and which, until the epoch of the Revolution, bore the name of the founder. At present it contains about 132,000 printed volumes, and nearly 3000 manuscripts. It is remarkable for a great number of collections containing detached pieces and tracts, which date as far back as the fifteenth century, and exist nowhere else; nor has any other library so complete a body of the ancient books of law, theology, medicine, and the physical and mathematical sciences. It also possesses a most precious collection of the Lutheran or Protestant authors. The Mazarine Library is habitually frequented by from twenty to eighty readers, according to the season of the year. It is supported by an annual grant of about L1300, provided for in the budget.

This library, founded by the Marquis de Paulmy, formerly ambassador of France in Poland, was, in 1781, acquired by the Count d'Artois, who conjoined with it a portion of the Library of the Duke of La Vallière. It consists of more than 202,000 printed volumes, and about 6000 manuscripts. It possesses the most complete collection extant of romances, since their origin in modern literature; of theatrical pieces, or dramas, from the epoch of the moralities and mysteries; and of French poetry since the commencement of the sixteenth century. It is less rich in other branches, but it has all works of chief importance, and, in particular, contains historical collections which are not to be found elsewhere. The Library of the Arsenal has always attracted the attention of the learned from all parts of Europe. It is constantly frequented by from forty to fifty readers, who there apply themselves to scientific and literary researches. The annual grant for its support was, in 1850, 36,000 francs, or L1440.

The foundation of this library dates from the year 1624, when Cardinal de Richelieu, having reformed the community of Sainte-Geneviève, made it a present of 600 volumes of books. In 1637 the abbey is said to have had already 20,000 printed volumes, and 400 volumes of manuscripts. In 1710 Letellier, Archbishop of Rheims, bequeathed to it all his books. At the epoch of the Revolution, it possessed 80,000 printed volumes, and 2000 manuscripts; at present it contains nearly 180,000 volumes, and 3500 manuscripts. In it may be found the principal academical collections, and a complete set of Aldines. It is particularly rich in historical works; and its most remarkable manuscripts are Greek and Oriental. Its typographical collections of the fifteenth century are not more valuable for their number than for the high state of preservation in which they are found. This fine library is daily frequented by upwards of 300 persons, including many students in the different faculties. It is supported by an annual grant from the public treasury of 75,200 francs, or upwards of L3000, and has recently been placed in a new and handsome edifice, erected for its accommodation. The reading-room of this building is the most convenient and capacious one in Paris, as the library itself is the most frequented.

The City Library is supported by grants from the funds of the municipal council. The foundation dates but from the beginning of the present century; Paris having lost its original City Library, by one of the incidental results of the Revolution. The first books for the new collection were obtained, however, in great measure, from the revolutionary confiscations; and were afterwards augmented by the exertions of the Prefect of the Seine, and of some of the municipal authorities. In 1827 it had grown to 45,000 volumes, and now possesses at least 55,000. The Library of the Palace of the Luxembourg (formerly that of the Chamber of Peers), contains nearly 40,000 volumes, and has allotted to it a sum of 10,000 francs for the purchase of books and to defray the expense of binding. The University Library, which is placed in the buildings of the Sorbonne, consists of 40,000 printed volumes, and 1000 MSS. It is very useful to the students of the different faculties, who frequent it in the intervals between the lectures. It expends annually a sum of about L1100.

The nucleus of the present Library of the Institute was the old City Library (Bibliothèque de la Ville), founded by the eminent magistrate, M. Moreau, who died in 1759, bequeathing to the municipality his collection of 14,000 printed volumes, and 2000 MSS., on condition that it should be publicly accessible. To this gift a liberal addition was made by M. Bonamy, the first and eminently learned librarian. The Library of the Institute having been plundered during the first Revolution, that of the City was transferred to it, by way of compensation. At present this excellent and useful collection amounts to more than 80,000 volumes. It exhibits the best possible selection of the principal works in all the important branches of human knowledge; and it may be truly said that it is kept up to the actual state of science and learning. In the acquisitions which are made, the object is not to search for rare editions, but to obtain such as possess some peculiar merit. Academical collections of all kinds and of all countries, magazines and journals of science and literature in all languages, are to be found here in greater number than anywhere else. This collection is reserved for the members of the five academies of which the Institute is composed; but all strangers presented by them are admitted, and it is de facto public.

The provincial libraries of France, as they are chiefly Provincial, supported at the expense of the different cities, are naturally placed under the immediate direction of the mayors and municipal councils; but they are not the less on that account under the superintendence of the superior authority of the Minister of Public Instruction. Their number, as already stated, amounts to 338, exclusively of those attached to societies, colleges, and other institutions. Amongst the most considerable are those of Strasburg, which, at the date of the latest official returns, contained about 180,000 printed volumes, and 1589 MS. volumes; Lyons (120,000 printed, 1518 MSS.); Rouen (110,000 printed, 2355 The number of public libraries in Spain is greater than has commonly been supposed; nor have the science and literature of that country quite sunk to such a state of depression as some have been pleased to represent. Its principal library is the Biblioteca Real, at Madrid, which is now lodged in an edifice, once the mansion of the Alcanices family, on the Plaza del Oriente. It is open to all comers, as far at least as the printed books are concerned.

The reading-tables are placed in three spacious apartments, corresponding to as many sides of the edifice, which is built round a court, with a fine staircase in the centre; in the middle of these rooms are rows of tables provided with writing materials and chairs; and against the walls are the book-shelves, numbered and tastefully ornamented. The catalogues are kept in a small room apart, where there are two or three persons in attendance to answer the inquiries of the stranger, and to furnish him with the number and shelf where any particular work may be found. The service of the library is excellent. The Royal Library contains about 200,000 printed volumes, and from 2000 to 3000 manuscripts, amongst which are many valuable Greek, Latin, and Arabic manuscripts, and incited works, chiefly Spanish. The Monetario, or cabinet of medals, is arranged in an elegant apartment, and contains an unrivalled collection of Celtic, Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Gothic, Arabic, and modern coins and medals, in excellent preservation. "Le cabinet des médailles de Madrid," says M. Faure, "est sans doute le plus remarquable de l'Europe. Tandis que Paris, qui l'emporte si incontestablement sur la capitale des Espagnes par les monuments des arts et de l'antiquité, n'a que cent mille médailles dans sa collection, il y en a cent quatre-vingt-trois mille dans celle de Madrid: cent cinquante mille sont classées dans l'ordre le plus parfait; trente-trois mille seulement restent à classer. Ces preuves matérielles du passage des Celtes, des Tyriens ou Phéniciens, des Carthaginois, des Romains, des Vandales, des Sueves, des Alains, des Goths, des Maures sur cette malheureuse terre qu'ils se sont arrachée les uns aux autres, réconcile avec les Espagnols, dont on a d'ailleurs tant d'occasions d'accuser l'indifférence. On trouve dans cette collection précieuse de quoi applaudir au zèle de ceux qui l'ont formée et de ceux qui l'entretennent avec tant de soin." A more recent traveller, speaking of the Biblioteca Real, says, "It is one of many institutions which awaken the admiration of the stranger in Spain, as being at variance with the prevailing decay." Mr Ford, however, tells us that "good modern books are here, as in most other Spanish libraries, the thing needful."

The only catalogue that has been printed is volume first of the Greek manuscripts, by D. Juan Yriarte (Madrid, 1769, folio); and no second volume has ever appeared.

There is another extensive but chaotic library, "one of the many treasures buried in Spanish napkins," where, according to Mr Ford, "are left to the worms, some 100,000 volumes," including the "secret correspondence of Gondomar, during his embassy to England, with the identical letters received from the lords, ladies, and gentlemen, whom he bribed for Philip III., as Barillon did afterwards for Louis XIV. His letters, likewise, on lighter social subjects are extant. This buried mine of the Shakespearian period, which clamours for a Collier, lies unexplored in the private library of the Crown."

The convent of the Escorial, situate upon the southern declivity of the Guadarrama chain, about half way up the the Escomountain, owes its existence to a vow made by Philip II., during the crisis of the battle of Saint-Quentin in 1557. It derives its name from San Lorenzo del Escorial,1 whom it was dedicated, and has been often described. At present we have only to do with the literary treasures contained in this magnificent edifice. The library is 195 feet in length, 32 in breadth, and 36 in height. Its vaulted ceiling is ornamented with arabesques and colossal figures, by Pellegrino Tibaldi; the book-cases, of cedar, are beautifully carved, with painting in fresco, by Bartolomeo Carducci, emblematical of the several divisions of the works ranged upon the shelves. Of the contents of this library no trustworthy account is extant; it has been repeatedly said to contain 120,000 printed volumes (unquestionably a gross exaggeration; it is probable that at no time has it contained more than one-third of that number), and between 4000 and 5000 manuscripts, of which 567 are Greek, 67 Hebrew, and 1800 Arabic. The Arabic manuscripts were originally much more numerous, but a large proportion of them was consumed by the fire which, in 1671, destroyed a great part of the library, and all that remains is the number just stated. Besides these, which are extremely curious, there are other manuscripts of great rarity and value, particularly one, Codex Aureus, containing the Four Gospels, written on 160 leaves of vellum, in gold letters, and supposed to be of the tenth century; a treatise by St. Augustin, De Baptismo Pareclorum, said, by Spanish writers, to be in his own handwriting; the original works of St. Teresa; and a parchment roll containing an original Greek manuscript by St. Basil. The books are placed, with their backs to the wall, so that the edges of the leaves are turned outwards, and the titles of the works written thereon. This was the practice of Arias Montanus (who bequeathed his Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew MSS. to the Escorial, and his printed books to Seville); and the same absurd method has continued to be followed.2 There is no printed catalogue of the books; Casiri's very inaccurate catalogue includes only the Arabic manuscripts rescued from the conflagration of 1671, with a few others subsequently acquired. This catalogue, however, is in one respect valuable, inasmuch as each manuscript is not only enumerated, but its age and the author's name, when known, are also given, together with occasional extracts both in the original Arabic and in the Latin language.3

An excellent catalogue of the Greek MSS., by Miller, was printed at the expense of the French government, in 1848; for, to the honour of France, under all its changes of polity and administration, the promotion of learning is uniformly regarded as one of the public duties of a government, whatever its party complexion, and alike whether the political barometer may stand at "stormy," or at "set fair."

The number of provincial libraries in Spain is considerable; but (like too many of the libraries themselves) unprogressive. There is no official account of them of later date than 1835, when the more extensive and important were then stated to be those of Toledo (30,000 printed books), Salamanca (24,000, with 1500 MSS.), Santiago University at Corunna (17,307, with 41 MSS.), and Valladolid (13,250). At Malaga, Peruel, Murcia, Lugo, Cervero, Oviedo, Palma, and some other places, not to mention the library of the Asturian Institute, and that of the Junta of Commerce at Corunna, are collections of books varying from 3000 or 4000 to between 9000 and 10,000 volumes each.

Elsewhere than in Spain, the Columbian library at Seville Columbian would surely have grown into a very cynosure of book-lovers' library at one time, it was so choice a collection as to be worthy of Seville, the great name it bears; but (casa de Espana) the times and the blatta had it so long to themselves, that they quite ruined many of its treasures, although it still possesses about 18,000 volumes; and, amongst them, a precious MS. in which Columbus tried to satisfy the Inquisition that his discovery had been scripturally predicted; it has also some books that were his cabin companions, and bear his MS. notes.4

III. ITALY.

Amongst the libraries of Italy, that of the Vatican, at Vatican Rome, stands pre-eminent, not more for the grandeur and library-magnificence of its habitation, than for the inestimable treasures with which it is enriched. Pope Nicholas V. (1447), learned himself, and a distinguished patron of letters, is justly considered as the founder of the Vatican Library; for of the collections of his predecessors little remained when he ascended the papal throne, the books having been either lost or destroyed by the frequent removals from Rome to Avignon, and from Avignon to Rome. This pontiff added above 5000 manuscripts to the fragments of the original collection, placing all in the Vatican; and Calixtus III. is said to have enriched it with many volumes saved from the libraries of Constantinople, when that city fell into the hands of the Ottomans. The collection, however, suffered an almost total dispersion at the sacking of Rome, by the Duke of Bourbon, in the year 1527. Pope Sixtus V., a man of learning, and a zealous patron of the arts, rebuilt the library in 1588, and considerably augmented the collection. From this period it continued to increase in steady progression, receiving additions, almost every year, sometimes even of whole libraries, owing not only to the favour of the pontiffs and various princes, but also to the well-directed zeal of its librarians, many of whom have been men of eminent talents as well as of high rank and extensive influence. Under Gregory XV., an important addition was made by Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, who, yielding to urgent entreaties and cunning devices, presented to that pontiff the old Library of Heidelberg, belonging to the Elector Palatine, which had been part of the plunder seized by Tilly at the capture of

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1 Escorial is formed from the Spanish word escoria, signifying dross. It is commonly applied to all places where there are old or exhausted mines.

2 In a fortress belonging to the Emperor of Morocco, there were found, it is said, 4000 Arabic manuscripts, which were carried to Paris for sale; but not being prized in that capital, they were transported to Madrid, where about 3000, including the most valuable, were selected for the Library of the Escorial by order of Philip II., but we do not vouch for the story.

3 It is not a little singular, that in the return of the "Public Libraries and Archives of Spain," made to Lord Palmerston by Mr. Villiers, and printed in the Appendix to the Report on the British Museum (p. 511, et seqq.), no notice whatever is taken of the Library of the Escorial; whilst the regulations of a provincial library (that of the Junta of Commerce at Corunna) are inserted at full length.

4 The Library of the Escorial has always been difficult of access. Probably no library, containing such treasures, ever rendered so small service to literature; and none, perhaps, has suffered more severe losses, not alone by calamity, like fire, but from sheer plunder. When Lou Santos wrote his Descripcion breve del Monasterio del Escorial (1657), it certainly contained 18,000 volumes. It received considerable accessions, but most of them were antecedent to the destructive fire of 1761. Very soon after that event, Beaumarchais visited the Library, and his keen observation detected an agency that was to prove more fatally obstructive of the growth of a great library than fire could be. "The works of all our 'modern philosophers,' he says, are prohibited, and not only all that they have written, but all that they may hereafter write." (Letter to the Duke of La Vailliere, Madrid, 24th Dec. 1764, published in the Revue des Deux Mondes.) About 1800 it was removed to Madrid, and when restored by Ferdinand VII., nearly 10,000 volumes, according to Mr. Ford, lost their way. Mr. Ingilis saw it in 1830, and says that it did not then contain more than 24,000 volumes. (Spain in 1830, vol. I., p. 347.)

5 See Appendix to the Report on the British Museum, pp. 514, 515, et seqq.

6 Ford, ubi supra (p. 176). Heidelberg in 1622. Among other important additions that have a claim to notice are,—the greater part of the Library of Urbino, founded by Duke Federigo; a portion of the collection of the Benedictine monastery of Bobbio, composed chiefly of palimpsests; and the books and manuscripts of Christina, Queen of Sweden, comprising the treasures taken at Prague, Wurtzburg, and Bremen, by her father, Gustavus Adolphus. After her death at Rome, they came, by succession, to the family of Ottoboni. Pope Alexander VIII., as head of that family, in 1690, placed 1900 of the MSS. in one of the galleries of the Vatican, and gave it the appellation of Bibliotheca Alexandrina, in honour of the Queen, who had received the additional name of Alexandria on abjuring the Lutheran religion. All the MSS. in the Vatican, anterior to the ninth century, and those with the choicest illuminations, to the number of about 500, were selected and conveyed to Paris in the year 1797, but the greater part were restored in 1815. Of the Palatine MSS., about 900 volumes, more than nine-tenths of them German, but among which were some early Greek MSS., were at length returned (in 1816) to the University of Heidelberg, where they now remain.

The magnificent library of the Vatican consists of three divisions or compartments, besides the vestibule; the anteroom, the double gallery, and the great saloon or hall. The vestibule contains Chinese works relating to geography and chronology, together with two columns bearing ancient inscriptions. The anteroom is appropriated to the two keepers of the library, and the secretaries, or interpreters, usually seven in number, who speak the principal languages of Europe, and who attend for the convenience of learned foreigners. In this apartment are also accommodated those engaged in translating from the Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, Greek, and Latin languages; and it is open daily for the use of students, Sundays, Thursdays, and very numerous holidays excepted. Passing from the anteroom, the visitor enters a double gallery of 220 feet in length, on either side of which are arranged the Greek and Latin MSS. of the ancient Papal collection, which strangers at first conceive to be the whole library; but at its extremity there opens up, in almost interminable perspective, another gallery of about 1000 English feet in length. As the visitor enters this gallery, or "great hall of the Vatican," he has on his right hand the Palatine and Urbino collections of MSS., and, beyond them, the general library of printed books; whilst, on his left, extend in succession the Oriental MSS., the MSS. of Christina, the Ottoboni MSS., those bequeathed by the Marquis Capponi, and (last of all) the choice collection of printed books on the fine arts, nearly 5000 in number, formed by Count Cicognara, and purchased by Leo XII. for L4000. These galleries and apartments, all vaulted and painted with varied effect by painters of different eras and talents, constitute the receptacle of this noble library. The books are nearly all kept in close cases; so that in the Vatican the stranger seeks in vain for that imposing display of volumes which he may have seen and admired in other libraries. Their number has never been officially and precisely recorded; and such is the discrepancy of the various accounts, that the printed books, by some reckoned not to exceed 30,000 or 50,000 volumes, by others are stated at ten times these numbers. This monstrous discrepancy has been occasioned partly by the want of a catalogue, and partly also by the books being kept in close cases. Valery, whose statements in other similar matters we have found to be trustworthy, and who appears to have had some facilities of access and examination, estimated them, in 1840, at 80,000 volumes. We are not now inclined to reckon them as exceeding 100,000 volumes; as the collection is not increased, like many other great libraries, by extensive and systematic purchases. Of the manuscripts, the same author fixes the number at 24,000, namely, 5000 Greek, 16,000 Latin and Italian (these last only in small number), and 3000 in various Eastern languages. The official return of 1850 says 25,000 MSS.

But the importance of a library is not to be estimated by the mere number of volumes. The great value of the Vatican Library consists in its manuscripts. Those usually shown to visitors impress the mind with no ordinary ideas of their inestimable value and importance, and include some of the highest antiquity, such as the Virgil of the fourth or fifth century, written in uncial letters, and illuminated with most curious miniatures; a Terence equally ancient; another of the ninth century, illuminated with ancient masks; the celebrated Greek Bible of the sixth century (Codex Vaticanus), written in capital letters, according to the Septuagint version, and from which all the subsequent copies have been taken; and the Gospels of St Luke and St John written in the tenth century, and bound in ivory. There is also the palimpsest, containing the treatise of Cicero De Republica, discovered by Cardinal Angelo Mai, conjectured to be of the third century; and perhaps, in the form of books, this, and the Virgil, are the oldest manuscripts in existence. Amongst the rare manuscripts in this splendid collection may also be mentioned, several Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and Armenian Bibles; a very large Hebrew Bible formerly in the library of the

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1 Serapion (1845), vol. vi., pp. 157-8. The best account of the transfer and subsequent fortunes of the Palatine collection—not the least curious episode in the remarkable history of the Vatican Library—may be found in Dr Anton Ruland's elaborate essay, entitled, Zur Geschichte der alten nach Rom entführten Bibliothek zu Heidelberg, which occupied several numbers of the Serapion in 1856 (vol. xvii., pp. 180-191; and 183-235). The reader should also consult, besides the well-known work of Wilken (into whose hands the partial restitution of 1816 was made), Thiner's Schenkung der Heidelberger Bibliothek . . . und ihre Verwendung nach Rom; mit original Handschriften, published in 1844; best, in reading this work of the worthy cardinal priest, he will do well to have beside him the learned critical articles which appeared in the Serapion in the following year (vol. vi., pp. 1-11; 113-127; 129-159), from the pens of Dr Grasset (of Munich), and of Dr Lehr (of Heidelberg). Dr F. H. Hoffmann has recently built an interesting paper (inserted in an early Palatine catalogue), towards the elucidation of a subject which has always had special attractions for bibliographers. In the same Journal for 1850, vol. xi., pp. 161-173; 177-183; 193-208.) Allatius wrote in Italian a tract on the conveyance of the Palatine Library to Rome, under his direction, which tract was translated into Latin by Quade, and published at Gryphiuswald, 1708, 4to. (Locatii Allatii, Instructione de Bibliotheca Palatina Romanam transportandis.) The writer takes pride in the fact that not a leaf of the library was lost on the road.

2 Rome in the Nineteenth Century, vol. ii., p. 383, Edinburgh, 1822, 8vo.

3 Of the Oriental MSS. there is a valuable catalogue by J. S. Asserani, Bibliotheca Orientale Clementina-Vaticana, Roma, 1719-23, 3 vols. folio. It is continued by Angelo Mai, in the fifth and subsequent volumes of his Novus Collectio Scriptorum Veterum. In Montfaucon's Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum Manuscritorum nova, Paris, 1739, 2 vols. folio, is given a catalogue of Queen Christina's manuscripts.

4 Sir George Head, writing of repeated visits made to the Vatican in 1840 and 1841, says roundly, "The reputed contents of the whole establishment amount to 30,000 printed books, and 23,580 MSS. (Rome, a Tour of many days, vol. iii., p. 231.) Mr Curzon, on the other hand, a writer versed in such subjects, and also writing of visits in 1840, says, "about 100,000 printed books, and about 30,000 MSS." (Notes on Italian Libraries, privately printed in Miscellanea of the Philobiblon Society, 1855, pp. 34, 35.) The official return obtained by our Foreign Office in 1851, runs thus:—"The present number of printed volumes is about 100,000; of MSS., 25,000. The number of tracts or pamphlets is reported to be incalculable."

5 They think it to be of great antiquity, but . . . . it is of A.D. 1294." (Montfaucon, Diaries Italiques, c. xx.) This visit of Montfaucon was in 1698. The MSS. were then, he was told, "nearly 12,000 in number." Dukes of Urbino, for which—though it is so ponderous as to require two men to carry it—the Venetian Jews are said to have offered its weight in gold; a Greek manuscript containing the Acts of the Apostles, written in gold letters, and presented to Innocent VIII. by the Queen of Cyprus; a Missal written in 1118; another adorned with miniatures by Giulio Clovio, the scholar of Giulio Romano, and the finest miniature painter of his time; a large Breviary, ornamented with beautiful miniatures and presented to the library by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary; the *Annals of Baronius*, in 12 volumes, written with his own hand; several volumes of Ecclesiastical History, by the learned Onofrio Panvinio; a Martyrology, curious on account of its antiquity and its miniatures; a manuscript of Pliny, with fine miniatures of animals; a beautiful Dante adorned with exquisite paintings, begun by the Florentine school, and finished by Giulio Clovio; another Dante, the most precious that exists of the *Divina Commedia*, in the handwriting of Boccaccio, and sent by him to Petrarch, thus connecting the three great names of Italian Literature; also an autograph manuscript of the *Rinaldo* of Petrarch, with his corrections; and another autograph of Tasso, including a sketch of his *Gerusalemme Liberata*, written when nineteen years of age. To some English visitors, the most interesting volumes are the dedication copy, printed at London by Pynson, in 1521, on vellum, of Henry VIII.'s treatise against Luther, *Assertio Septem Sacramentorum aduersus Mart. Lutherum*, with this distich in the king's autograph on the last page:

``` Anglorum rex Henricus, Leo Maxime, mittit Hoc opus, et siet testis et amicitiae! ```

(a work which obtained for that monarch his title of *Fidei Defensor*); and his Love Letters to Anne Boleyn, seventeen in number, nine in French, and eight in English, which have also found a place in this library. It is rich in early printed editions, and amongst those on vellum may be specified the Epistles of St Jerome, printed at Rome in 1468; Aulus Gellius, 1469; the Greek Bible of Aldus, 1518; one of four copies of the celebrated Polyglot Bible of Cardinal Ximenes, 1514-1517. This library possesses a very fine cabinet of medals, which was carried off by the French, but restored, after the events of 1814 and 1815. There is also attached to it a room filled with a fine collection of prints, to which admission can only be obtained by a particular order; and in another are deposited the secret archives of the Vatican, to which, of course, there is no admission at all. A cardinal is always nominal librarian. Of the difficult accessibility of this great storehouse, at almost all periods of its history, it were easy to adduce a long chain of testimony. Some years since, Cardinal Consalvi somewhat relaxed the prevailing restrictions, but the liberality scarcely survived its author. "The Papal government," writes Von Raumer, in 1839, "has returned to the old seclusion and exclusion." "Of all the tombs in the world, the Vatican Library is the most impressive," says Mr Samuel Laing in 1842; "Book-cases well stocked; no readers; no [accessible] catalogue." "The privilege of consulting books," says Sir George Head, a year or two later, "is merely nominal, in consequence of the imperfect state of the catalogue; and, in point of fact, the multitudinous volumes on the shelves may be compared to a mine . . . whence only a few particular objects, considered as the staple curiosities of the region, . . . are extracted." Even the return to the inquiries of the Foreign Office, in 1851, after describing the authorized regulations as to access, adds, "There are few days in the year in which it is open to the public." In fine, there is ample evidence that this library has yet to be explored, and that an abundant harvest awaits those future inquirers who to the requisite skill may join inflexible perseverance and happy fortune.

The other libraries at Rome, of sufficient importance to deserve notice, are the Barberini collection, containing rarities between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes of printed books, and Rome about 7000 manuscripts. This collection was formerly open to the public, but has ceased to be so, "on account of extensive robberies which took place some years ago." The Casanatense Library, bequeathed by Cardinal Casanate to the Dominican convent in the Piazza della Minerva, in 1700, together "with suitable funds to render it one of the first in Italy and Europe." It occupies magnificent apartments. According to the official return of Monsignore Barardi (1851), "the number of volumes exceeds 200,000," (not counting pamphlets, miscellaneous works, and plays, which exceed the number of 3000.) The accessibility of the library is liberal. The Angelica Library, founded by Angelo Rocca, and the first collection opened to the public in Rome (1604), containing 84,819 printed books, 2945 MSS., and 60,960 tracts (opuscoli). The number of persons frequenting it—no ticket of admission being requisite—is stated to be from 30 to 40 daily. It includes the collections of Pignoria, Holstenius, and Passione. The Alexandrine, or "Sapienza" Library, founded by Alexander VII., also the founder of the library in the Chigi palace, (now, we believe, closed like the Barberini, save by special favour). It appears to contain about 80,000 printed volumes, and 3000 MSS. The reigning Pope has given permission, granted to no other library in Rome, for the keeping this library open to the public in the evening. The Corsini Library, founded by Clement XII., occupies 8 rooms in the Corsini palace, and is stated to contain about 60,000 printed volumes, and 3000 MSS., with 60,000 engravings. Its manuscript collection is poor in classics, but abounds in documents illustrative of the history, both political and literary, of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Franciscan, or Arcaditiana Library, containing, according to Sir George Head (1841), 18,000 volumes; but according to the Foreign Office Returns (1851), though "despoiled of the greater part of its most valuable works after the French invasion, it has still from 40,000 to 50,000 volumes." The Lancistiana Library, founded in 1721, and placed in the Hospital of the Holy Ghost, with "from 30,000 to 40,000 volumes." The Library of the Roman College (Jesuits), said to contain 70,000 volumes; and, the Vallicelliana Library (sometimes termed Library of the Oratory); chiefly noticeable for its manuscripts. They include many ancient classics of interest, and are singularly rich in materials for French history, especially in respect to

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1. Dennistoun, *Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino*, vol. i., p. 422. 2. F. von Raumer, *Italy*, vol. ii., pp. 119, 120. 3. Head, *Rome, a Tour of many days*, vol. iii., pp. 222-231. 4. Appendix to *Report from Select Committee on Public Libraries*, 1851, p. 41. 5. Mr Petre to Mr Scarlett, 24 June 1851 (*Foreign Office Returns*, 1851, p. 40). 6. 4000 Roman crowns (£833), according to M. Beuchot (art. "Casanate," in the *Biographie Universelle*), is the revenue of this foundation, part of which is applied to theological tuition. 7. This statement is not at all startling, but the statement is clear and precise. There is, at all events, no doubt that, as respects printed books, the Casanatense is the largest library in Rome. 8. Head, *supra*, vol. i., p. 317. 9. Archives des Missions Scientifiques, tom. i., p. 376 (1850). 10. Foreign Office Returns, *supra*, p. 43. 11. Laing, *Notes of a Traveller* (1842), p. 423. 12. Ibid., p. 43. 13. Ibid., p. 43. 14. Ibid., p. 43. 15. Ibid., p. 43. 16. Ibid., p. 43. the relations which have subsisted between the Court of France and the Papal See. Thus, if these statements be trustworthy, the nine chief libraries of Rome contain more than 41,000 volumes of MSS., and 700,000 of printed books.

The Ambrosian Library at Milan owes its existence to the munificence of Cardinal Federigo Borromeo, nephew of Charles Borromeo, and his successor in the see of Milan, (1609). This prelate began to collect books, when a student at Rome; and enlarging his plan as he advanced in age and dignities, he, when raised to the archbishopric of Milan erected an edifice, placed in it his collection, and opened it to the public under the title of Bibliotheca Ambrosiana. Some of its choicest treasures carry back the visitor's imagination to the remote antiquity of the seventh century, when the monastery of Bobbio was founded by Scotch and Irish monks in the heart of the Apennines. When, in 1690, Montfaucon visited the Ambrosiana, it had accumulated 40,000 volumes, conveyed, he says, "from Thessaly, Chio, Corfu, the country of Otranto, and Calabria." Two or three years later our own Addison paid a similar visit, and his first reflection is,—to show the Italian genius, they have spent more money on pictures than on books. Books are, indeed, the least part of the furniture that one ordinarily goes to see in an Italian library." So variously does the same object impress different beholders, and so true is it that the eye sees what it brings.

This library contained, in 1836, according to the statement of its librarian, Signor Amati, nearly 100,000 volumes of printed books, and 46,333 volumes of MSS., comprising about 18,000 separate works or articles. No numerical return for the Ambrosiana appears in the Foreign Office Correspondence of 1850-52. It is, however, very probable that a similar (and unintentional) mistake was made in reckoning the number of volumes of printed works in this library, as that which is known to have been made in its neighbour, the Brera, and that the former does not really possess, even in 1847, much more than 80,000 printed volumes, and 5,500 MSS.; and there is annexed to it a gallery of pictures, statues, antiques, and medals, comprising many articles of great rarity and value. In the department of MSS., is a solitary but enormous volume of the physico-mathematical works of Leonardo da Vinci, with his designs representing machines, with figures and notes, collected by Pompeo Leoni; it was presented by a citizen named Galeazzo Arconati, who generously refused a vast sum for the precious treasure, and, to secure the possession of it to his country, consigned it to the Ambrosian Library as to an inviolable sanctuary. The sanctuary, however, was violated by the French in 1791, who seized the cherished relic of Leonardo's genius, and sent it to Paris; but what an abuse of victory enabled them to carry off, the fortune of war at length compelled them to restore. The same department also includes the famous Virgil, with annotations by Petrarch, in his own handwriting, with his impassioned note, in eight lines, regarding Laura; ten letters of Lucretia Borgia, addressed to Cardinal Bembo; the Missal of Cardinal Borromeo, richly illuminated; and, amongst various early Greek manuscripts, a

Josephus, translated by Rufinus, on papyrus, written on both sides of each leaf. Manuscript books upon this material are of the greatest rarity, and this volume, according to Montfaucon, was 1200 years old, or of the fifth century. The MSS. in this library were chiefly collected from the suppressed monasteries; and, in particular, those which came from Bobbio are of peculiar value. Most of the Ambrosian palimpsests belonged to this collection, including fragments of Cicero's Orations, and the Letters of Marcus Aurelius and of Fronto. There is also a Psalter of the seventh century, with the Commentary of St Jerome, filled with Gaelic glosses in the ancient Irish character. Cardinal Angelo Mai, afterwards librarian of the Vatican, formerly held the same office in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and there commenced those researches which have entitled this distinguished scholar to the lasting gratitude of the learned.

The Brera Library at Milan was counted in 1845, and found to contain 104,298 volumes. In 1847 it contained 108,971 volumes; and in the preceding eleven years the average annual rate of increase was 2180 volumes; so that its present numbers will probably be about 125,000 volumes of printed books, and nearly 1000 volumes of MSS. The other libraries of chief note in the Lombardo-Venetian territory are those belonging to the Universities of Pavia and Padua. These libraries contained, at the end of 1846: the first, 70,564, the other 79,226 volumes; and are open ten months in the year, four hours in winter and six in summer, every day excepting Wednesdays, Sundays, and holidays.

Bologna, celebrated for its scientific and literary institutions, and its academy for the encouragement and promotion of art, boasts likewise a great public library. This extensive collection is especially rich in the literature of the natural sciences; and in Oriental MSS. Of Arabic alone there are 550, including a superb Dioscorides, and a curious atlas. It consists of above 105,000 printed volumes, and about 6000 MSS.; is contained in the Manfredi Palace; and is open to the public six days in the week, during nearly eleven months in the year (giorni festivi, of course, excepted). Among the MSS. the most precious is a Lactantius, in square quarto, of the sixth century, written in uncial letters; the Four Gospels, in Armenian, with charming miniatures, of the twelfth century; a Greek MS. of modern date—a sort of medical commonplace book—which is believed to contain some unedited fragments of ancient authors; and 200 volumes of manuscript collections of the celebrated naturalist Aldrovandus. Mazzofanti was long librarian here; and a visitor who profited by his polite readiness to exhibit the rarities of the collection, has noted that on one occasion he produced a Mexican MS. which had puzzled all the pundits of Bologna, even himself included. The other universities of the Roman states are also possessed of considerable collections of books. That of Perugia, founded as early as 1320, has a library of 30,000 volumes; that of Ferrara, founded at a much later period (1646), has a library containing no less than 80,000 printed volumes, and 900 MSS.; and the three universities of Macerata, Urbino, and Camerino, have each libraries, though upon a smaller scale. The first named

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1. Archives, ut supra, p. 374. 2. Montfaucon, Dictionnaire Italien, c. ii. 3. Addison, Remarks on several parts of Europe, p. 32. 4. Panizzi, Information on Foreign Public Libraries of Printed Books, printed in Appendix to Report of Select Committee on British Museums, 1836, pp. 544, 545. 5. Ibid., in Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on Public Libraries, 1850, p. 53, Q. 724. 6. Eustace, Classical Tour, vol. iv., p. 27, et seqq. 7. No special account of this collection, that we are aware of, has appeared in recent times. Oppicelli's Monasterii Biblioth. Ambros. was printed at Milan in 1618, 8vo; and Boscha de Orig. et Scitu Bibl. Ambros. was published in the ninth vol. of Gravina's Thesaurus Historiarum Italicae. Vander Putten's Oratio de usu fructuoso liberorum Biblioth. Ambros. appeared at Leyden in 1623, 8vo. 8. Foreign Office Returns, 1850, ut supra, p. 111. 9. Ibid., 1852, p. 24. 10. Valery, Voyages Historiques, Litteraires, et Artistiques en Italie, book xviii., c. 6. 11. Archives, ut supra, p. 394. 12. Ibid., book vii., c. 12. library, otherwise Mozziana, contains 12,000 printed volumes, and 68 MSS. The second, interesting, as containing some poor relics of the once noble library of the Urbino Dukes, is beginning to be cared for, say recent travellers, with somewhat more of energy than hitherto. The last of them appears to be the smallest and least valuable of all the papal libraries. The most interesting books in the Library of Ferrara, are the autograph manuscripts of the Orlando Furioso, in some places so interlined with changes and alterations by the author, as to be scarcely legible; and of the Gerusalemme Liberata. It also boasts of a remarkable series of the early editions of Ariosto, now of the greatest rarity. The Town Library of Ravenna contained, according to Valery, at the date of his last visit, more than 40,000 printed volumes, and 700 MSS. Amongst the former are comprised about 700 editions (according to the same authority), of the fifteenth century, some of them of the greatest curiosity. The once celebrated papyri of Ravenna have nearly all disappeared.

The public libraries at Florence are the Mediceo-Laurentiana, or Laurentian; the collection bequeathed to the public by Magliabechi, by whose name it is distinguished; the Marcianiana; the Riccardiana, which was purchased, in 1815, of the Riccardi family; and the Library of the Belle Arti, containing the books which were taken out of the suppressed convents.

The Mediceo-Laurentian Library, which is contained in the convent annexed to the church of San Lorenzo, was commenced by Cosmo de' Medici, the father of a line of princes whose name and age, as Roscoe has said, are almost synonymous with the restoration of learning. "His credit," says Gibbon, "was enabled into fame; his riches were dedicated to the service of mankind; he corresponded at once with Cairo and London; and a cargo of Indian spices and Greek books were often imported by the same vessel." As the natural disposition of this princely merchant led him to take a very active part in collecting the remains of classical antiquity, so his wealth and extensive commercial intercourse enabled him to gratify his taste to the fullest extent. He enjoined his friends and correspondents, as well as the missionaries who travelled into remote countries, to search for and procure ancient manuscripts in every language and upon every subject. He availed himself of the services of the most learned men, his contemporaries; and the situation of the Eastern empire, then falling into ruins, afforded him an opportunity of obtaining many valuable works in Hebrew, Greek, Chaldaic, Arabic, and other languages. After the death of Cosmo, his son pursued the same object with steady perseverance, and added considerably to the treasures which had been accumulated by his father. But although the ancestors of Lorenzo de' Medici had laid the foundation of the Laurentian Library, the honour of raising the superstructure belongs to Lorenzo himself, whose assiduity and liberality in enlarging his collection of books, manuscripts, and antiquities, were unbounded. To this object his time and his fortune, exceeding that of princes, were equally devoted. Shortly after the death of Lorenzo, however, this matchless collection was dispersed by the Florentines themselves.

In the disturbances which attended the expulsion of Pietro, and the approach of the French under Charles VIII. (1494), miserable plunderers openly carried off, or secretly purloined, whatever they could lay their hands on that was rare, curious, or valuable. Part of the library, however, was preserved by the interposition of the magistrates, but only to encounter new perils. The Florentine treasury becoming exhausted, the rulers of the day (amongst other expedients) sold the books to the Dominicans of St Mark. At this point the history of the Laurentiana becomes linked with the fortunes of the still older library of that monastic community, a collection of which Cosmo may be said to have been the founder, conjointly with Niccolo Niccoli. The 800 volumes (or at least the survivors of them) which Niccoli had bequeathed to his fellow-citizens, and which Cosmo had redeemed from a lien that had well nigh annulled the legacy, and had committed to the custody of the Dominicans, were now united with what remained of the domestic library of Cosmo himself, and of the more splendid acquisitions of Lorenzo. But, within two years, the misdirected zeal of the impulsive Savonarola,—for a while virtual King of Florence,—scattered with lavish hand some of the choicest books as presents, and dragged others with contumely to a vast bonfire in the public square. In this wild auto-da-fe, Boccaccio, Petrarch, and Pulci, in all the pomp of their rich illuminations and sumptuous bindings, mingled their ashes; with this result, amongst others,—that the frenzied hatred of Dominican monks in the fifteenth century connects itself with the scarcely less frenzied love of English peers in the nineteenth, as cause with effect. Had no Savonarola burnt Decameron in the Florence piazza in 1497, assuredly no Duke of Marlborough would have given L 2260 for a Decameron in 1812. After Savonarola's death, the Dominicans, falling into embarrassment in their turn, sold their library (1508) to Pope Leo X., who caused it to be removed to Rome. It was reconveyed to Florence by his successor Clement VII., who, by a bull dated the 15th of December 1532, made provision for its future security. In 1571 the Grand Duke Cosmo I. made the library public. This library, the noblest monument which the Medici have left of the glory of their line, contains 6952 MSS., of which a very large proportion—despite so many losses, and such strange vicissitudes—combine rarity and value. They have been described in a catalogue of thirteen folio volumes, compiled by the learned Bandini, formerly librarian, at the suggestion of the Emperor Francis I., who presented him with a sum of money towards the expenses, and made him promises of further assistance, which, however, were rendered unavailable by the death of that sovereign.

The most celebrated manuscripts in the Laurentian Library are,—the Virgil of the fourth or fifth century, the long missing leaves of which Mai had the good fortune to discover in the Vatican; the famous Pandects of the seventh century, in two volumes, brought to Florence in 1406; a Tacitus, translated in the ninth century from one dated in the year 395; the Decameron, supposed to have been written in 1384 by Amarettto Mannelli; the Epistola Familiares of Cicero, copied by Petrarch; a Tasso, with copious notes, in the hand of Politian; and many Dante MSS.

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1 There are also a few Arabic MSS. Archives, ut supra, (1850), p. 395. 2 Valery, Voyages Historiques, Litteraires, et Artistiques, en Italie, book xii., c. 3. 3 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. xii., p. 136. 4 Bandini, Lettera sopra i principi e progressi della Biblioteca Laurentiana (Flo. 1773), cited by Roscoe, Lorenzo de' Medici, vol. ii., p. 387. 5 Provenza, Jerom Saraceno (1653). 6 Roscoe, Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, vol. i., pp. 37, 38; and vol. ii., pp. 69, 254, 284, et seqq. 7 Catalogus Codicum Manuscriptorum... Bibliotheca Laurentiana, Florentiae, 1764—78, fol. 8 Roscoe, Life of Leo X., vol. iv., p. 181, 8vo ed. See also Bibliotheca Leopoldina-Laurentiana; vide Catalogus Manuscriptorum qui juxta Petri Leopoldi in Laurentianam translati sunt, &c. Florentiae, 1791—1793, fol. of the highest interest, although but copies (Dante's autographs have perished)—amongst them the celebrated letter discovered by Melius, and published first by Dionisi, and afterwards by Foscolo.

Of printed volumes, the Laurentian Library possesses but 1316; having always been pre-eminently, and, until a recent date, exclusively, a library of MSS. The famous collection of first editions of Greek and Latin classics, formed by Count Angelo d'Elci, has worthily created an exception to the rule. It amounts to 1207 volumes; and besides these there are 109 other volumes, which have at various times been presented by, and accepted from, their respective authors.

Magliabechi, from being a servant to a dealer in vegetables, raised himself to the honourable office of librarian to the Grand Duke of Tuscany at Florence, and became one of the most eminent literary characters of his time. The force of natural talent overcame all the disadvantages of the humble condition in which he had been born, and placed him in a position to make his name known and respected. But he endeavoured to deserve still better of his countrymen, by presenting them, some time before his death in 1714, with his large and valuable collection of books, together with what remained of his fortune, as a fund for its support. This constituted the foundation of the Magliabechian Library, which, by the subsequent donations of several benefactors, and the bounty of some of the grand dukes, was so much increased both in number and value, that it may now vie with some of the most considerable collections in Europe. The books printed in the fifteenth century have been described by the librarians, Fossi and Follini, who dedicated the catalogue to Ferdinand III. Another and larger catalogue was completed in 1856, by the late learned and laborious bibliographer, Giuseppe Molin (who died in December of that year), to whom the Magliabechiana is also indebted for an improved arrangement; but there is no printed catalogue of the library. It is particularly rich in the early productions of the Italian press, which are described by Follini alphabetically, with much accuracy of detail; and to these descriptions are added brief notices of the lives of the different authors.

The Magliabechian Library is under the same roof with the Uffizi Gallery. It contains about 140,000 volumes of printed books, and 10,000 manuscripts. Among its richest treasures are—the Mentz Bible of 1462, on vellum; the first edition of Homer, printed at Florence, 1488, also on vellum, with miniatures, and presented to Pietro de Medici; a copy, on vellum, of the Dante of 1481, embellished with miniatures within and nielle without, presented by Landino to the senate of Florence; a magnificent copy of the Anthologia of Lascaris, 1494, also a present to Pietro de Medici; with other vellum copies of singular beauty of the Florentine history of Leonardo Aretino (Accioli's translation, Ven. 1476); and of the Argonautica of Apollonius (Flor. 1496). These are volumes which would give importance to any library.

The Marucellian contains 33,435 volumes of printed books, and 1375 volumes of MSS.; the Riccardi collection about 20,000 volumes of printed books, and 3600 MSS., many of them of the highest value. The collection of the Belle Arti contained, when the official returns of 1835 were made, 11,000 volumes. There is no mention of it in those of 1850. The disbursements on account of these various libraries are made by their respective librarians, under the control of the Minister of the Interior; the sums ordinarily expended, however, are but trifling.

The Biblioteca Palatina, or private library of the Grand Duke in the Pitti Palace, dates but from 1815; the old library of the Pitti having been distributed by Duke Leopold amongst the various public collections of the city; the Poggiali collection, and a part of that of Count Revičzy having been its groundwork. Literary researches meet with no obstruction, but as it is not public property, there is no account of its extent in the recent official returns. Valery states that, when he visited it, the number of printed volumes exceeded 80,000, and that of MSS. was nearly 1500. It is, unquestionably, a splendid collection, and in all probability keeps better pace with the progress of publication abroad than does any other library in Florence. Its strength, too, in Italian literature is proverbial. Amongst the Cinelia of the Palatine Library are the MSS. of Machiavelli, rich in correspondence and in state papers (although a portion of them has found its way to the British Museum); and those of Galileo, including a noble series of letters (now in course of publication), and of works published by his assistants, and annotated by himself. This collection—which includes the papers of Torricelli, of Viviani, and of other eminent philosophers—amounts to more than 300 volumes. The libraries of the University of Pisa and of the city of Sienna are valuable, the former possessing about 62,500 volumes, and the latter about 35,000 volumes of printed books, and 3417 MSS., to which an annual addition of books to the value of 100 scudi is respectively made. In almost all the provincial towns of Tuscany, there are also to be found public libraries, more or less extensive, which are all placed under the control of the communal magistrates.

There are four public libraries (or libraries so-called), at Neapolitan Naples, viz., the Royal Library, the Brancacciana Library, the Library of the University, and the Library of the Oratorian Priests of St Philip Neri. The Royal Library (Biblioteca Borbonica) contains about 200,000 printed volumes and 4000 MSS.; the University possesses 25,000 volumes; the convent of St Philip Neri has but 18,000 printed volumes, and 60 MSS.; the Brancacciana contains 70,000 volumes of printed books, and about 1000 volumes of MSS., relating chiefly to Neapolitan history. This library was founded by the bequest of Carlo Brancaccio in 1688. The public have free admission to read in these libraries, but no books are allowed to be taken away. They are all professedly open every day, for periods varying from six hours to two hours daily, excepting on holidays, when they are closed. But how easily liberality on paper may be turned into its opposite in practice will be seen by the testimony of an English visitor towards the close of 1856:—"Nominally open from twelve to two o'clock," he says,

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1 Catalogus Codic. Soc. xv. impressorum Bibliothecae Magliabechiana, Flor. 1793–95, fol. 2 "I volumi stampati si possono giudicare circa 140,000, compresi i duplicati che per ordine superiore sono stati già verificati e separati (Official Returns to Foreign Office, 1850, p. 365)." According to Molin, these duplicates amount to 11,000; and many of them occur again and again in other Florentine libraries. This superfluity of books in one direction, combined as it is with paucity of books—foreign, especially—in another, constitutes one of his arguments for combining the six libraries of the city into three main collections: (1.) Medicinal; (2.) Legal; (3.) General—containing all the MSS., and all the printed books relating neither to medicine nor to law. With the bulk of the duplicates he proposes to enrich the provincial collections. ("Progetto di Riordinamento per le Pubbliche Librerie di Firenze, Fir., 1848, Svo, p. 3.) The plan has suggestive worth in it, beyond the limits of Tuscany. Some very partial effect has been already given to it, we believe, but the Tuscan returns of 1850 contain no allusion to the subject. The main libraries of Florence continue as yet to be distinct collections. 3 Appendix to Report from Select Committee on British Museums, 1835, p. 459. 4 Valery, Voyages, &c., as supra, liv. x., ch. 18. 5 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 372. 6 Ibid., p. 374. 7 Appendix to the Report of the British Museum, ubi supra. 8 Foreign Office Returns of 1851, pp. 31–33. the Borbonica is twice-a-week closed at one, under pressure of cleansing, and on fête days innumerable. Having entered, the difficulty is to find the books, for there is scarcely any arrangement—and why should there be when so many are prohibited? Not only are Filangieri, Bentham, the Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève, for instance, refused, but the Kosmos. At all events, an express permission must be obtained from Rome to read it.

Valery has mentioned a peculiarity in the arrangements here which is probably unique: "One room is set apart for the blind, who pay persons to read to them. The picturesque image of Dante must be often realized there, 'Lo mento a guisa d'orbo su levava.'"

The expenses of the Royal Library are included in the same grant with those of the Brancacciana. It is entitled to two copies of all books printed in the kingdom of Naples; and 4000 ducats (£687) are annually appropriated to the purchase and binding of books. The expenses of the Library of St Philip Neri, or of the "Girolomini," are defrayed out of the funds of the convent to which it belongs. The Brancacciana and University Libraries are, each of them, entitled to one copy of every book printed in the city of Naples. This collection is rich in ancient books. Its special show volume is a finely illuminated copy of the Tragedies of Seneca. The Royal Library was originally formed of the old Farnesian Library, brought from Rome to Naples by Charles III.; and of those of the Jesuits, and various suppressed convents. The collection of early printed books is considerable, and has been described in a catalogue by the Chevalier De Lietteris, Naples, 1828–41, 4 vols. folio. Here is a copy of the Catholicon of 1460, and the Bible of 1472, both upon vellum; the Petrarch of 1470; the Dante of Mantua; the first edition of the celebrated medieval lexicographer Bartholomaeus of Sasso Ferrato, 1471, the first book printed at Naples, and other specimens of the early Neapolitan press. But the most choice book is one of the three or four copies, printed on vellum, of the first edition of Homer, 1488. The volume of the Iliad is, unfortunately, defective. Several leaves, on account, no doubt, of their illuminations, having been ruthlessly torn out of the volume.

The Odyssey has fortunately escaped, the first page being illuminated in the best style of Italian art, with the arms of the proprietor; and there is also inserted one of the most charming portraits in existence, the full size of the book, of one of the Farnese family, if not by the hand of Raphael, at least by his master, Pietro Perugino. Among the MSS., besides the celebrated Hours of Giulio Clovio, there are many of great beauty and interest; virtually, however, they are sealed books. Even eminent scholars, bearing the commission of the French Ministry of Public Instruction, have waited a fortnight in waiting for facilities which were, after all, refused. "The palace of the Studi bears for its device, Jacent nisi patet; and for years all the MSS., and part of the Museum, were locked up." Such is the testimony of M.M. D'Aremberg and Renan, in their report to the minister of 25th July 1850. There are no public libraries in any of the provincial towns of the mainland, excepting Brindisi, which has a small collection bequeathed by Monsignor de Leo; but in every diocese there is a library belonging to the See, to which, upon application, admission may at all times, it is said, be readily obtained. In Sicily—compared with which Naples has always been a laggard—the provision of public libraries is somewhat more ample, and their management more enlightened. The Palermo collection, called indifferently the University, or the "Communal" Library, contains nearly 30,000 volumes of printed books. The Jesuits of Palermo have another library, reported to contain about 40,000 volumes. The Library of Messina is stated to contain about 20,000, and that of Catania, nearly 40,000 volumes of printed books. Collectively, these four libraries contain upwards of 1200 MSS. There are also libraries of less importance at Girgenti, Syracuse, Termini, Nicosia, Caltagirone, and Trapani. The monastery of Monte Cassino retains its library (of about 18,000 volumes, according to Valery), but with diminished lustre. The collection, however, still includes some fine specimens of early typography. Amongst the MSS., amounting to about 800 volumes, the most ancient is a Latin version of Origen's Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, dated in the year 569; a Virgil of the fourteenth century, copied from one of the tenth, in the Lombard character; a Dante of the thirteenth century; the Offices of the Virgin, with charming miniatures, executed in 1469 by Bartolomeo Fabio di Sandalo; and an extensive series of original letters of Mabillon, Montfaucon, Muratori, and other learned men of the last century, from which M. Valery has published an interesting selection.

In the archives of the monastery there is preserved a very remarkable series of more than 40,000 deeds and records of various kinds, including many original charters, papal bulls, and other like documents, from the eighth century. It is rich in materials for the history of Apulia, Calabria, and Naples. The archives occupy three apartments; and, if it be borne in mind where they have been preserved, and what they have survived, may well be termed a wonderful collection.

The Italian libraries which yet remain to be mentioned are numerous, and some of them considerable, particularly those of Venice and Turin. The Library of St Mark at Venice forms the west side of the Pizzetta, or Palazzo Reale. This library was commenced in the fourteenth century, the original collection having been begun by Petrarch, who gave some books to the Republic in 1362. About a century later, Cardinal Bessarion presented to the Republic the curious collection of MSS. which he had formed in Constantinople, in Egypt, and in Greece; and further additions were subsequently made to it by other cardinals. But, strange as it may seem, especially when we read in Bessarion's letter to the Doge, which accompanied the gift (30th April, 1468), the words "enerable Library of St Mark," there is not a scintilla of evidence to show either (1.) that the writer had in his memory the gift which Petrarch had so ardently wished should prove the groundwork of a Venetian library; or, (2.) that the new donation put it into any one's mind to ascertain the fate of the old one. Bessarion's collection became the true foundation of the present Marciana; and it appears that the books of Petrarch remained entombed until 1635, when researches into his biography gave Tommasino a clue which ultimately set the then procurators of St Mark to ransack a neglected and dust-choked little room, in near proximity to the famous bronze horses. Here the MSS. were found, some petrified into fossils, and others ready to crumble in the hands of the discoverers. The Library of

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1 Letter from Naples, published in the London Athenæum, 1837, p. 117. 2 Valery, ut supra, liv. xiii., c. 6. 3 Codicum Sacri xlv. impressorum qui in Regia Bibliotheca Venetiae adserendur Catalogus. The first volume of a general catalogue of the printed books appeared in 1832, but has had no successor. 4 Archives des Missions Scientifiques, vol. i., p. 383. 5 App. to Report, pp. 490, 491. 6 Foreign Office Returns, 1851, p. 30. 7 Correspondance inédite de Mabillon et de Montfaucon avec l'Italie, 3 tom., Paris, 1847. 8 Cirron, Notices of Italian Libraries (Philobiblon Miscellanea, ut supra). St Mark is now deposited in two apartments, one of which is appropriated to MSS., whilst the other contains the printed books. The number of volumes of printed books was officially stated at 65,000 in 1822; at 85,602 in 1835; and at 103,359 in 1848. That of MSS. at about 5000, in 1822; and, by Mr Curzon, as amounting in 1840 to nearly 10,000, more than 1000 of which are upon vellum. Amongst these MSS., it need scarcely be said, but a very small number of the Petrarch donation is preserved. They include a Homer, translated by Leoncino Pilato, and copied in the handwriting of Boccaccio; several important Greek MSS.; an Evangelium, according to Morelli, 1000 years old; the Laws of Lombardy, the most valuable copy known; and the original manuscript of Father Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, corrected with his own hand. Of printed books, several of great value, on vellum, were carried by the Austrians to Vienna; but there still remain some choice specimens of the Aldine press; and a copy on vellum of the first edition of Homer, unrivalled for beauty of condition. It was among the spoils restored by the French in 1815, and Van Praet has expressed his deep regret at seeing the Royal Library at Paris deprived of this and other similar works. Though small when compared with many other libraries of the Continent, this collection includes an unusual proportion of rare and valuable books. In the Armenian convent, in the island of San Lazaro, close to Venice, there is a small but interesting collection of books and of Oriental MSS. One of these, the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, is a square quarto of the eighth century; another is a complete Armenian Bible of the twelfth century. The library attached to the University of Turin contained, in 1846, according to the University historian, 110,000 volumes; and, in September 1849, according to an official return, nearly 121,000 volumes of printed books, and a rich collection of MSS., amounting to nearly 3000. It is open to the public in general every day except festivals, during ten months of the year. Attached to the University of Genoa, is a library, consisting, in 1849, of about 39,200 printed volumes, and 800 MSS. Genoa has three other public libraries, containing in the aggregate about 60,000 volumes. The University Library of Padua contained, in 1847, upwards of 75,000 volumes of printed books, and 1672 MSS. Some other libraries in that city contain MSS. of interest; as do also the Chapter Libraries of Verona, Novara, and Vercelli. From a described manuscript discovered by Niebuhr, the Roman historian, in the collection of the Chapter of Verona, was deciphered and published no inconsiderable portion of the Institutions of Gaius, which served as a model to Justinian, or rather to Tribonian, in framing that elementary exposition of principles which is prefixed to the Digest. The writing is in uncial letters, perhaps of the fourth century, and the superscribed MS. itself—containing the Homilies of Jerome—can scarcely be older than the seventh. The same collection contains a palimpsest Virgil of the third or fourth century, overwritten with the Gregorian Comment on Job, in a Longobardic hand of the eighth. Mr Curzon looks on this as anterior to the Medicean Virgil. The Library at Mantua contains upwards of 40,000 volumes of printed books, and about 400 MSS. Some of its books are curious, and it is very freely accessible.

IV. GERMANY

The libraries of Germany, taking that name in its widest acceptation, are, some of them, of the first order, and many of them extensive and important; but we confine our notices exclusively to the principal collections, which we shall describe mainly in the order, not of place or of time, but of their relative magnitude and value.

The Imperial Library at Vienna was long esteemed inferior only to that of the Vatican and to the Royal Library at Paris for the rarity and value of its contents. It was founded, as early as the year 1440, by the Emperor Frederick III., who spared no expense to enrich it with printed books, as well as manuscripts in every language. By the munificence of succeeding emperors, numerous important and valuable accessions were made to the library, amongst which may be mentioned the famous collection of John Joseph Fugger; the collections of Tycho Brahe, of Busbequius, of Cuspinian, and of Hohendorn; the large and interesting Library of Prince Eugene, and a considerable portion of the Library of Corvinus. In 1575 it was declared publicly accessible for the promotion of learning. The Imperial Library occupies eight spacious apartments, and a ninth is appropriated to a very valuable collection of medals and other curiosities. The Grand Library is a large central room, the floor of red and white marble, diamond-wise. The vaulted oval dome, 193 feet in height by 57 wide, supported by columns of scagliola, with its painted ceilings, and marble statues, exceeds in splendour any similar room in Europe. In Dibdin's Bibliographical Tour there is an admirable representation of it. The books in this great room, being for the most part from the fine library of Prince Eugene, are in rich old morocco bindings, with arms on the sides. The entire collection, according to the latest authority, now consists of more than 365,000 volumes of printed books, and about 20,000 volumes of MSS. The books are disposed according to their sizes, and include... almost a complete series of Incunabula, exhibiting the origin and progress of the typographic art. The number of works printed in the fifteenth century is estimated at 15,000, of which perhaps 3000 are duplicates. Amongst these, the first place for rarity and value belongs to those printed upon vellum, including the Psalter of 1457; the Rationale of Durandus, 1459; the Constitutiones of Pope Clement V., 1460; the Latin Bible of 1462; S. Hieronymi Epistolae, 1468; Caesar, Apuleius, and Aulus Gellius, each of them in 1469; the Pliny of the same year, and also that of 1472, and many others, all in the finest condition. The Apuleius and the Aulus Gellius were once the property of Cardinal Bessarion, and are comparatively but recent acquisitions of the imperial collection. The Florence Dante of 1481, with the commentary of Landino, and the plates of Baldini, from designs by Botticelli, is likewise in this library. This is the finest copy extant, excepting that in Lord Spencer's collection, and each of them possesses twenty copperplates.

The Cinelia, or most remarkable rarities, are twenty-four in number. Amongst them are a tablet of bronze, containing the original Senatus-consultum, or decree of the Roman senate for the suppression of the Bacchanalians, passed in the year 186 B.C.; the imperfect Tabula Peutingeriana, a travelling map of the ancient world, compiled in the eighth century, on parchment; and several palimpsests procured from the monastery of Bobbio. About 3000 of the MSS. are on vellum. Some deserve to be mentioned, on account of their singular rarity; as, for example, (1) A Mexican manuscript—a specimen of that curious coloured figure-writing which Lord Kingsborough's great work has made familiar to students. It is, as travellers are usually told, on human skin, or, much more probably, on deer-skin; (2) The unique manuscript of the Fifth Decade of Livy, assigned to the sixth century, and reported to have been brought from Scotland by St. Sulpitius, the apostle of the Frisons; (3) A Psalter (Codex Aureus), being written in letters of gold, which belonged to Charlemagne; (4) A manuscript of St. Mark's and St. Luke's Gospels, written in gold and silver characters; (5) A manuscript of Dioscorides, with coloured drawings of plants, the characters marked with minute accuracy, written in the year 505, by order of the Princess Julia Amicia, only daughter of the Emperor Olybrius. This precious manuscript was brought from Constantinople in 1550 by the celebrated Busbequius, ambassador from Charles V. to the Porte, by whom about 300 other Greek manuscripts were collected in the Turkish capital, including a manuscript of Pliny's Historia Naturalis, of contemporary date; and, (6) An autograph manuscript of the Gerusalemme Liberata of Tasso. Besides these, there are in this collection fragments of Genesis, in uncial Greek of the fourth century, the letters of gold and silver, on purple vellum, richly ornamented with miniature paintings; a fragment on papyrus, containing the decrees of the third council of Constantinople, held in the year 680; the Codex clathratus, or fragments of the most ancient German translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, written in the early part of the eighth century; a German Bible, in six volumes folio, richly illuminated, written for the Emperor Wenceslaus, who died in 1419; a French manuscript of the fourteenth century, written in large letters, according to the ancient orthography, profusely illuminated, and containing the history of Tristan, the celebrated Knight of the Round Table; together with many other rare, curious, and interesting works. The Greek MSS. in the Imperial Library have been described by Lambech, Kolb, and Nessel, whose labours were confined to this class; and in the important and accurate work of Denis may be found an ample account of many of the Latin, with a few notices of Oriental MSS., the ages of the different MSS. being stated where these could be ascertained. Besides the cabinet of medals, there is also attached to the library a superb collection of engravings, reckoned to consist of 300,000, arranged and bound in 590 large folio volumes, 726 volumes of various sizes, and 322 portfolios. The collection of music contains 6000 works, theoretical and practical, in about 9000 volumes; and that of autographs amounts to nearly 10,000 pieces, classed under the heads of monarchs and princes, ministers and statesmen, poets, philosophers and men of learning or science, generals and renowned warriors, artists, and others. The sum allowed for the purchase of new books, independently of extraordinary grants, is about £1,100 annually. The Imperial Library is open to the public every day, except on Sundays, holidays, and the vacations. Here, however, as in most of the greater Continental libraries—it is very reasonably expected that those who frequent it shall be students, not idlers, or seekers for mere amusement, and to

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1. Dibdin's Bibliographical Tour, vol. iii., pp. 291, 486, 518. See also his Library Companion, pp. 22, 581, 752. 2. This is the same decree which is cited by Livy (lib. xxix., c. 18); it was found in Calabria, on the estate of Prince Cigala. (Voyage de deux Francs, tom. v., p. 18.) 3. For a long time this Itinerary was believed to be of the fourth century, and was identified with that Theodosian map alluded to in the well-known epigram of Sedulius—Hoc opus epigram, quo mandi summa tenetur, &c.—but the opinion is altogether untenable; although it is highly probable that its author (whomsoever he may have been) compiled it from ancient authorities, some of them perhaps older than the Itinerary of Antoninus. The Peutinger map has otherwise a curious history. Conrad Celtis discovered it at Spire, whilst searching for books and MSS. on behalf of the Emperor Maximilian I., to be placed in the Imperial Library. He seems to have looked on this remarkable document as out of the limits of his commission, and to have parted with it, either by gift or by sale, to Peutinger, who proposed to publish it, but died too soon. It then disappeared. Velser, having vainly sought for it, published Peutinger's unfinished transcript. Seven years afterwards (1528), it was found in an old chest. Morelius then edited it, and it was subsequently republished by Berling (1618), by Arnold (1682), and by Horn (1686). Then it disappeared again, and was not recovered until 1714. At length, after the lapse of 200 years, it found a secure place in that Imperial Library to which it should have gone at first; and thence, in 1753, it was superbly edited by Christ, von Scheyb. To complete these "Adventures of a MS." it may be added, that a fragment of the missing portion of this most curious work has been recently discovered in the binding of a volume in the Public Library of Turin. 4. Of this manuscript Dioscorides, Busbequius himself has given a very interesting account. See Busbequii Epistolae, lib. iv., p. 391. 5. These fragments were found in some old bindings of books. 6. P. Lambechii Commentariorum de Bibliotheca Caesarea Vindobonensi Libri VII. (1665-79, fol.). The eight books occupy eighty volumes. A fragment of the ninth volume is in Schelhorn's Annales (tom x., pp. 97-115). It would have taken seventeen more to have worked out the vast plan of the author. The rarity of the original edition is said to be owing to the avarice of Streitmayr, Lambech's heir, who, under annoyance at the slowness of the sale, made a bargain with the War Department at Vienna, when paper was somewhat scarce, for the conversion of the remaining stock into cartridges. (Struvi, Bibliotheca Historica Litteraria, p. 594.) Kollar published a new edition in the years 1768-82. 7. P. Lambechii Commentariorum Commentariorum Lambechii, &c. (1690, fol.) 8. A. F. Kollar, ed. Lambechii Commentarii de Bibliotheca Caesarea Vindobonensi Supp. (1690, fol.) 9. Codices MSS. Theologici Bibl. Com. de Bibliotheca Vindobonensi Supp. (1795-1800, fol.) 10. Petzholdt, Handbuch Deutscher Bibliotheken (1853), p. 384. 11. Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 103. 12. Foreign Office Returns, ut supra, p. 96. Libraries.

In Vienna, the University Library ranks next to the Imperial Library. It contained in 1848, according to an official report, 120,609 volumes, independently of the special collection attached to the observatory which occupied the same edifice. The present University Library dates but from 1777; the former collection—founded in 1435—having been long since incorporated with the Imperial Library. The University received the collections which had belonged to the convents suppressed by Joseph II.; and since 1806 it has had a right to a copy of every work printed in Lower Austria. Amongst what are called the private libraries, the most important is that of the Military Archives, established in 1801, upon a plan devised by the Archduke Charles. It contains 22,500 volumes, chiefly on military science and geography; 20 large folio volumes of bulletins, gazettes, and journals, with an index; 73 atlases, with more than 3000 charts, maps, and plans of various kinds; and a small but curious collection of manuscript military memoirs, amongst which are those of Montecucculi, who commanded the imperialists opposed to Turenne, and of Prince Eugene. The Libraries of the Imperial Academy of Oriental Literature, of the Museum of Natural History, of the Philharmonic Society, and of the Imperial Archives, are also of great value. In the last are preserved some documents taken from the archives of Venice, and Marino Sanuto's original History of that republic, in 56 volumes, which was unknown when M. Daru published his celebrated work. The total number of libraries, public and private, in Vienna, is said to be fifty-three; and most, even of the latter, are accessible to students furnished with proper introductions.

The Royal Library at Munich, founded about 1660, by Albert V., Duke of Bavaria, is the most extensive collection in Germany, containing probably between 400,000 and 500,000 volumes of printed books,—exclusive of a large number of duplicates, which were recently on sale,—and 22,000 volumes of MSS. From a discourse on the origin and increase of the Library at Munich, delivered in 1784, by the Canon Steigenberger, then librarian (and translated into Latin by Vitali), it appears that the Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, Greek, and Latin MSS. contained in this library even then formed a precious treasure; and, since that period, vast additions have been made to all departments of the collection. The Royal Library, which formerly occupied a college which had belonged to the Jesuits, is now removed to a magnificent new building, in the style of a mediæval Italian palace. Among its MSS. we may specify a Greek New Testament, in uncial letters, of the eighth century; a copy of the Latin Gospels, of the same age; a New Testament written in gold and silver letters, on purple vellum, of the ninth century; an Evangelarium and Missal, given by the Emperor Henry II. to the cathedral of Bamberg about the year 1020, most richly decorated with miniatures of the Byzantine school, the binding ornamented with carved ivory; a magnificent copy of the Seven Penitential Psalms, set to music for the chapel of the founder, by Orlando di Lasso, and richly illuminated. Its Oriental, and especially its Hebrew MSS., are both numerous and choice. The ancient MSS., relative to the art of music amount to a great number, and are exceedingly curious. A catalogue of the Greek MSS. in this library, compiled by Ignatius Hardt, was printed at Munich in 1804. Of printed books of the fifteenth century, the library is stated to possess (besides 50 block-books, some of them from the Haarlem press), 3500 without date, and 6000 with dates prior to the year 1500. Munich has also its University Library,—formerly at Ingolstadt, and removed to Munich in 1826,—which contained, in 1853, about 220,000 volumes of printed books, and 2000 MSS.

The King of Saxony's Public Library at Dresden was founded in 1555, and now contains 305,000 volumes of printed books, besides 182,000 dissertations, and 2800 volumes of MSS. The valuable library that formerly belonged to Count Bunau forms part of this noble collection, which is most complete in history generally, and in Greek and Latin classic authors. Amongst the printed books are some of the rarest specimens of early typography, including 600 of the Aldine editions, and many on vellum; besides a copy of the first edition of the Orlando Furioso, printed by Mazocco, "col' assistenza dell'autore," in 1516, and other rarities. In the department of MSS. are,—another Mexican manuscript, said to be written on human skin, and containing, according to Thévenot, a calendar, with some fragments of the History of the Incas; Liber de re militari, on vellum, with superb paintings, in fine preservation, presented to an elector of Saxony by Matthias Corvinus; the original manuscript of the Reveries of Marshal Saxe, bearing at the end that he had composed this work in thirteen nights during a fever, and completed it in December 1733. Here also is a manuscript of Wycliffe's Testament, of the early part of the fifteenth century, let-

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1 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 110. 2 There seems to be ample warrant for this statement, notwithstanding the assertion, elsewhere repeated, that these Venetian archives have been "secured in perpetuity to the Municipality of Venice" (Quarterly Review, March 1855, vol. xcvii., p. 356). The very valuable article here referred to contains particulars of much interest respecting the extent, or, as recent, state of these archives. 3 According to the enumeration of the learned and laborious author of the Handbuch Deutscher Bibliotheken (1823), Balbi, in his day, enumerated thirty-two Viennese libraries, without reckoning those of small importance. (Extrait Statistique sur les Bibliothèques de Vienne, pp. 110, 111.) 4 The latest official return reads thus—"800,000 volumes, including (dormant) 100,000 Dissertations and Pamphlets, 20,000 MSS. Yearly increase of books, 3000 volumes." Common as is extreme diversity of statement with respect to the extent of great libraries, there is no instance quite so extreme as this of Munich. The number of volumes has within a very few years been stated, in works of authority, as high as a little exceeding 400,000; sometimes as nearly 800,000. The main cause lies neither in the bad faith nor in the carelessness of writers, but in the childish vanity which prompts official persons, not merely in conversation, but when drawing up official reports, to throw themselves into expressions of studied vagueness and obscurity, so that they may appear to be imparting information which, in truth, they are stating about a subject. At least as much pains seems to be taken at Munich to mislead inquirers, as is commonly taken in Austrian Libraries (for example), to give answers which shall be minutely accurate. It has thus come to pass that the least trustworthy statements about the Royal Library of Munich are precisely the official statements. Yet, in most respects, the collection is so noble, that it need not shun comparisons strictly truthful and exact. 5 Murray's Handbook for Southern Germany, 7th edition (1855), p. 79. 6 Gessner, Die Comödie der Münchener Bibliothek (Scopelus, vol. v., p. 86; abridged from the official catalogue). 7 Murray's Present State of Music in Germany, vol. i., p. 129. 8 It is entitled Catalogus Codicum Manuscriptorum Bibliothecae Regiae Bavaricae (München, 1804-12, 5 vols. 4to). 9 Of the 500 fine old books, Dr Massmann has given an admirable account,—a model in its kind,—entitled Die Xylographia der ... Staatsbibliothek zu München, &c., and printed in the second volume of the Scopelus, pp. 273-318. 10 Handbuch Deutscher Bibliotheken, p. 274. 11 Ibid., p. 101; Compare Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 347; and also the statements as to the average yearly rate of increase. tered "Engl. Test. of a Lollar," and having the "Lessons and Pistles after the use of Salisbury;" a fine copy of the Koran, taken from a Turk by a Saxon officer at the last siege of Vienna, and said to have formerly belonged to Bajazet II.; a Greek manuscript of the Epistles of St Paul, of the eleventh century; and a very fine collection of portraits of the most celebrated persons of the seventeenth century, by Rabel, a French artist, the outlines only having been engraved. Ebert's bibliographical MSS. were acquired after his death, and form a special collection, called Eberti Apparatus Literarius. There is a manuscript alphabetical catalogue, in 53 volumes folio; and a clasped catalogue in about 120 volumes. The library occupies twenty-six light and elegant apartments in the Japanese palace, and the books are separated into classes. The expenses of the Royal Library are defrayed by the State. The sum of 3000 dollars, equal to L450, is allowed yearly for the purchase of books, &c. There are several other public libraries in Saxony, of which the most important are the University and Town Libraries of Leipzig. The first-named collection (which dates from 1543) contains more than 120,000 printed volumes, and 2500 volumes of MSS. The printed Incunabula exceed 2000 volumes. The Town Library was founded by Hulderich Gross, in 1677, and although, up to 1838, it had received no accessions of striking magnitude, it had come to be a very useful collection of about 40,000 printed and 1500 MS. volumes. In 1838 it received a noble gift, in the bequest by C. H. L. Poelitz, of an excellent political library of 25,000 volumes, with a fund for its future maintenance. This collection is kept distinct from the other portions of the Library. In the aggregate, the Town Library now numbers at least 90,000 printed volumes, and 2000 MSS. These libraries are freely open to the public, except on Sundays and holidays.

The library attached to the University of Göttingen contains about 360,000 printed volumes, and 3000 volumes of manuscripts. But its extent is its least recommendation; for it is not only the most complete amongst the university libraries, but there are very few collections of any kind in Germany which rival it in real utility. This library is mainly indebted for the pre-eminence it has obtained to the labours and exertions of the illustrious Heyne. In the year in which he came to Göttingen as second librarian, the entire control of the library was committed to him, and he became chief. From this moment commenced at once its extension and its improvement. When Heyne went thither, the library already contained from 50,000 to 60,000 volumes, which, compared with those of most universities, was a considerable collection. At his decease it had, according to the most moderate computation, increased, exclusively of extraordinary acquisitions, to upwards of 200,000 volumes. The system of catalogues which he established is elaborate but clear. There are, in fact, four catalogues connected with each other, and all of them are MSS. Every addition to the library is first entered in the Manual of the year, in which are concisely written the title and date of the book, and the day of its reception. Then the book is entered with its full title in the Accession Catalogue, which is also commenced with every year, and forms at its close four volumes; the first containing entries of books on theology; the second, of books on jurisprudence; the third, of those on history; and the fourth, books in the other classes. These two catalogues are intended more particularly for the use of the librarians; the remaining two are for readers. The third of the series is a complete Alphabetical Catalogue, in which every book is entered under the author's name, when given, or, when not given but known, with a reference thereto under the chief word of the title. Every book of which the author's name is not known, is entered under such chief word of title; and, on one side, are also entered the date and form, with reference to the entries of the same book in the Manual and the Accession Catalogue; on the other is entered that heading in the clasped catalogue to which the book belongs. Lastly, the book is entered in the Clasped or Scientific Catalogue, according to its subject, and is then placed in its appropriate division of the library. Thus, the Alphabetical Catalogue answers the question, whether or not the known book of a known author, or the anonymous book of which the title is accurately remembered, is in the library, and, if there, where it is to be found; and the Scientific or Clasped Catalogue shows what books are contained in the library upon any given subject. Such is a brief account of the mechanism of this very useful library.

The Royal Library at Berlin contains nearly 500,000 volumes of printed books, and about 10,000 volumes of MSS. This collection includes works upon almost all the sciences, and in nearly all languages, but it is perhaps most complete in the sciences. Amongst the MSS. are several Egyptian deeds, written on papyrus, in the demotic or ephoral character, but whether with or without Greek registries, we have not ascertained. Professor Kosegarten, in his Commentary on the Ancient Literature of the Egyptians, has published facsimiles of a considerable portion of one of these, and of the exordium of twelve others, with interlinear translations in Latin, according to Dr Young's method of interpretation. Its Oriental section is very rich, and comprises the entire series of Sanscrit MSS. which had been formed by Sir R. Chambers, chief-justice of Bengal. The MS. department also includes several MSS. of Veyssiere de Lacroze, the celebrated author of the Lexicon Aegyptiacum-Latinum, once librarian here, and, amongst them, his reply to Bergier, in which he mentions the additions made to the Royal Library, the librarians, the number of books at the time when he wrote, and the curious articles contained in the collection. The Alphabetical Catalogue of this most extensive library is very complete; and six persons have been regularly employed in preparing a revised, or rather a new, clasped catalogue. The former extended, in 1851, to upwards of 650 MS. volumes; the latter exceeded 250. Two volumes of a new printed catalogue of the MSS. have been published. The sum ordinarily allotted to acquisitions is about L1800 a-year; but this amount is sometimes considerably increased by special grants,—as, for example, on occasion of the purchase of the Meusebach collection,—and at other times, when the latter have been of unusual cost, somewhat diminished. There is perhaps no library in Germany which is now more efficiently conducted. Among early printed books there are several block-books;—the Rationale of Durandus, 1462, on vellum; the Aldine Petrarch, 1501; also,

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1 Voyages au Nord de l'Europe, vol. I., p. 71, et seqq. 2 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 345. 3 Petzoldt, Handbuch, ut supra, p. 234. 4 Ibid., p. 229. 5 Ibid., p. 230. 6 Appendix to Report on the British Museum, p. 405. 7 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 262. 8 Foreign Office Returns, ut supra, p. 304; Comp. Petzoldt, Handbuch (1853), p. 36. 9 De Princis Aegyptiorum Librariis Commentatio I. (Vimariae, 1828, 4to). 10 Pertz, in Serapem (1852), vol. xiii., p. 20. 11 Pertz, Die Königliche Bibliothek in Berlin im Jahr 1851–53 (Berlin 1854, 8vo), p. 1. on vellum, Luther's Bible. The collection of historical portraits amounted in 1851 to nearly 30,000.¹

The Public Library at Stuttgart contains about 245,000 printed volumes, and 3230 MSS.² The collection was formed—first at Ludwigsburg in 1765, and removed to Stuttgart ten years afterwards—by the purchase of private libraries, the union of some State libraries, and those of suppressed monasteries. It is divided into three departments, each of which is under the superintendence of one of the librarians, who are charged with the purchase and binding of books, the keeping of catalogues, and other duties. The general government of the library is vested in directors, who endeavour, as far as their means allow, to procure everything that is of real worth. All booksellers in the kingdom are required to furnish a copy of every work published by them. To certain persons, and under certain regulations, books are allowed to be lent out from the library. The ordinary annual expense of the establishment amounts to about 9000 florins (L.750), of which about 6000 (L.500) are expended in the purchase of books; and it is defrayed out of the public treasury. The collection of Bibles is said to be the largest in the world, amounting to 8544 volumes, in sixty different languages. Such anxiety is felt to make this Biblical series as complete as possible that, a few years ago, a set of the Acta Sanctorum of the Benedictines was given in exchange for a copy of the famous Psalter of 1457. The University Library at Tubingen contains about 200,000 printed volumes; 50,000 dissertations, and 2000 MSS.³

The present Ducal Library of Wolfenbüttel dates from 1604, and is little inferior to that of Stuttgart; it contains at least 190,000 printed volumes, with more than 4000 manuscripts.⁴ Its choice treasures, both of MSS. and of early printed books, are numerous, and have been well described by Dr Schönemann.⁵ Here, too, the collection of Bibles is large and precious. Besides the libraries connected with various public institutions, such as the Senckenberg Museum, and the Staendel institution for the fine arts, there is a public library at Frankfort, called the Town Library, in a handsome modern building facing the river. In the vestibule are various Roman antiquities found in the neighbourhood. This collection contains nearly 80,000 volumes of printed books, and 1000 volumes of MSS., of which 20 are Abyssinian, 12 Turkish and Persian, 6 Hebrew, 2 Indian and Burmese, and the rest in Latin, German, and other languages. No catalogue of this library has been published since 1725; but there are good MS. catalogues. The annual expense, which amounts to about 5200 florins (L.434), is contributed by the public treasury.⁶ The Library of Naumburg was founded in the sixteenth century by Julius Pflug, bishop of that place, who is celebrated in ecclesiastical history as a zealous opponent of the Reformation, and as one of the three divines deputed by Charles V. to draw up the plan of the Interim in 1518. In the seventeenth century this library received a further augmentation by the purchase of the collection of books formed by Thomas Reinesius. The printed books and MSS., though few in number, are of considerable value. Amongst the latter are—the Scholia of Olympiodorus on several of Plato's Dialogues, written in the sixteenth century; a fragment of Orpheus's Argonautics, of the fifteenth; the Olympic Odes of Pindar, of the sixteenth, apparently transcribed from an ancient manuscript, and including critical notes by Richard Croke; the Cassandra of Lycophron, with the Commentary of Tzetzes, dated 1438; and several tracts of Jamblichus on the Pythagorean philosophy, belonging to the fifteenth century.⁷ At Nuremberg the public library—founded by Conrad Kulhofer in 1443—was, in 1538, deposited in the Dominican Monastery, where it still remains. It possesses more than 50,000 volumes of printed books, 900 of which are Incunabula. The MS. collection amounts to about 800 volumes, and includes many interesting illuminated manuscripts, with autograph works of Luther, Hans Sachs, the famous German poet, and Albert Durer. One of the volumes is a Latin Breviary of the middle of the fourteenth century, richly illuminated, presented, according to the French inscription, by Charles, King of France, to Madamo the Queen of England. This says Von Murr, was either Isabella, wife of Richard II. (1396), or Catharine, wife of Henry V., King of England. They were both daughters of Charles VI., King of France. An account of the MSS. and early printed books is given in the work of Von Murr, entitled Memorabilia Bibliothecarum Publicorum Nurnbergerium et Universitatis Altiorum, Nuremb. 1786–91, 3 vols. 8vo. Nuremberg also possesses three several church libraries, all of which were founded prior to 1625, and one of which—the Fenitzer-Dillherr Library—possesses at least 10,000 volumes. In 1852 the foundation of a new library, with reference especially to Germanic history, was laid by the liberality of the Baron Von Aufsess, and is, we believe, making progress.⁸

The Public Libraries of Hamburg are numerous and important. Those of chief note are the City Library and the Commercial Library. The former was founded in 1629, and now contains about 200,000 volumes of printed books, exclusive of a series of Dissertations, the number of which is nearly 20,000. The MSS. are about 5000.⁹ The Commercial Library dates from 1735, contains more than 40,000 printed volumes, and is unquestionably the best special collection of its kind in Europe. It has no MSS. of much importance, save on the history of Hamburg itself. On this subject there is a very valuable collection of books and documents, partly printed and partly MS. There is also an extensive collection of maps and charts.¹⁰ The catalogue of the Commercial Library is according to subjects, and is printed up to the end of 1853.¹¹ The catalogues of the City Library remain unprinted. Its manuscript Alphabetical Catalogue fills 40 volumes in folio. Among the MSS. is an early Homeri Odyssea in Greek, on charta bombycina; a Latin Æsop, with curious drawings; the Gospels in Greek from Uffenbach's Library; and an interesting series of autograph letters of the German Reformers. Many valuable printed works might also have been specified, had the limits of this article permitted.

In Heidelberg, the present University Library dates from 1703, and now contains about 150,000 printed volumes; Foreign Libraries

50,000 Dissertations, and more than 3000 MSS. Of the latter the most precious are those which had formed part of the ancient Bibliotheca Palatina, and which were restored under the circumstances we have narrated in our account of the Vatican Library. Among these are the famous Greek manuscripts of Xenophon, Thucydides, and the Anthologiae of the tenth and eleventh centuries; Ottfried's metrical version of the Gospels, of the ninth century; and a volume of old German poems and romances. At Bonn, Breslau, Erlangen, Giessen, Halle, Königsberg, Marburg, and Treves, there are also valuable libraries.

V. HOLLAND.

There are many libraries in Holland; indeed almost every city has one; but the principal collections are the University Libraries of Leyden and Utrecht, and the Royal Library at The Hague. The University Library of Leyden was founded by William I., Prince of Orange, and is justly celebrated throughout Europe for the many valuable specimens of Greek and Oriental literature with which it abounds. To it Joseph Scaliger bequeathed his fine collection of Hebrew books; and it was further enriched by the learned Golius, on his return from the East, with many Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Chaldaic manuscripts. In addition to these, it received the collections of Holmanus; and those—still more important—of Isaac Vossius and Ruhken; the former, which had to be removed to Leyden from Windsor, contained a great number of valuable manuscripts, supposed to have once belonged to Christina, Queen of Sweden; and the latter, an almost entire series of classical authors, with a collection of manuscripts, amongst which are to be found copies of several that were subsequently consumed by fire in the Abbey of St Germain-des-Prés.

A catalogue of this library was printed in 1716, with a supplement in 1749, both in folio. In 1852 was published Catalogus Librorum Manuscriptorum qui inde ab anno 1711, Bibliothecae Lugduno-Batava accesserunt, &c. It describes 1015 articles. Many fine manuscripts might be noticed; in particular, a Virgil, an Italian transcript of the fifteenth century, illuminated with some large designs on coloured vellum; a volume of Monstrelet's Chronicles, in French, of the same age, with illuminations; the Psalter, illuminated, which, according to a French note, was made use of by St Louis in his childhood. It is apparently of the twelfth century (although, in the printed catalogue, assigned to the fourteenth), and written in England, for the English have that name in the calendar. There are various important Greek manuscripts; and among the printed books, the Justinianae Institutiones, 1468, and the Apuleius of 1468, upon vellum. There is also a copy of the Bible in Dutch, printed at the expense of Peter the First, at Amsterdam, 1721, 5 vols. folio, in capital letters. Half of each page is left blank, and some copies have the Russian text in parallel columns. Most of the copies are said to have been lost at sea. The library at Leyden is computed to contain upwards of 70,000 printed volumes, and 3000 volumes of MSS., many of which, as we have seen, are equally curious and valuable. Of the public library at Amsterdam, the official statement is simply this, "The number of printed books is 3150 [31,500?] and of MSS., 88; a printed Foreign catalogue appeared in 1796." Peignot daily remarked of this collection, many years ago, that it would be more useful if the books were arranged in better order and methods.

Of the University Library of Utrecht the precise date of foundation is not recorded. But there is an entry in the proceedings of the town-council which directs the bringing together of the books of certain monasteries and colleges, in order to the foundation of a Town Library, in 1581, fifty-five years before the establishment of the present University. On the conversion, in 1636, of the pre-existing "Atheneum" into a University, the Town Library was transferred to it. Catalogues were printed in 1670, in 1718, and in 1834–35. The last named is alphabetical, and in 2 vols. folio. The number of printed volumes has been estimated at 80,000, and of MSS. at upwards of 860, of which latter there is a written catalogue, well digested. These numbers, however, are but conjectural. The only direct statement we can trace is of 1835, at which date the number of printed works—not volumes—was 27,000; and that of MSS., 864. The MSS. are not of much general interest, being chiefly scholastic divinity, or ecclesiastical records connected with that district of Holland; but there is an ancient Greek Gospel of the ninth century, known as the Codex Borclianus, and a Latin Psalter of a still earlier period, with curious drawings. Among the printed books there is a splendid volume on vellum, Missale Trajectense complectis multis missis rotis nunquam aeternae impressis, printed at Paris by Wolfgang Hoppi, 1615, and from its having escaped the researches of Van Praet) probably unique. But the chief library in Holland is the Royal Library of the Hague. In its present shape and character this collection is little more than half a century old. But it includes what remained of the fine Library of the Stadholders, the collection which had belonged to the States-General, and also some smaller libraries of corporate bodies. These were brought together in the Mauritshuis, after the flight of William V., and became the foundation of the Royal Library, which now possesses more than 100,000 volumes of printed books. Amongst these are comprised, (1.) nearly 1400 volumes from the early presses, about 500 of them Dutch; (2.) An Elzevirian collection, amounting to 690 volumes; (3.) Another special collection of the productions of the Aldine, Juntine, Stephanine, and Plantinian presses; and, (4.) A very curious collection of pamphlets on Dutch affairs, called Bibliotheca Duncaiana, after its former possessor. The MSS. amount to 2000. Amongst them is a fine Evangelistary of the tenth century, which had formerly belonged to the ancient Abbey of Egmont, and a long series of liturgical and other devotional MSS. superbly illuminated. The historical MSS. are very numerous, and contain rich materials for the history of France, as well as for that of the Low Countries.

VI. BELGIUM.

At Brussels there are two principal libraries; both of which belong to the government. The first of these is designated the Royal Library of Brussels, and was founded on that which formerly appertained to the house of Burgundy.

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1 Petzoldt, ut supra, p. 197. 2 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 300. 3 The quasi-official returns of 1835 referred to in the "Abstract" appended to Mr Disbrowe's letter to Lord Palmerston of 6th Nov. 1849 (Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 300), says—"Nearly 70,000 volumes, and 3000 MSS." 4 See also the art. LEYDEN. 5 Peignot, Dict. de Bibliologie, torn. I., p. 99. 6 Buchelius, Descriptio urbis Trajecti (1605), p. 81, as quoted by Grune, Zur Geschichte der Holländischen Bibliotheken (Sarapum, Ed. v., p. 322). 7 Het getal boekwerken is aldaar 27,000. 8 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 300. 9 Jubinal, Lettres à M. le Comte de Salandy, sur . . . la Bibliothèque Royale de La Haye (1846), pp. 6-39. Santander has traced the history of this library through its varied fortunes, it having been successively exposed to the perils of fire, of interment, and of spoliation by French commissioners. Though it had been restored, in some degree, to its ancient splendour by the care of Count de Cobenzl, and of Prince Stadlerberg, minister-plenipotentiary of the Empress Queen, its prosperity was of short duration. For, when the French armies overran the Netherlands, and occupied Brussels; in 1797, Laurent, the representative of the people, caused seven waggon-loads of books and manuscripts to be taken from the Burgundian Library; and some time afterwards, Wailly, Leblond, and others, deputed to commit a second spoliation, selected about 200 manuscripts for the National Library at Paris. In 1797 a place was provided for the reception of the surviving books belonging to the Burgundian Library; and in 1798 the collection was enriched with all that was most valuable from the great dépôt of the Cordeliers, which was then broken up. But the fine library brought together by C. J. E. Van Hulthem, who died in 1832, has been the most important element in the composition of the present royal collection. It had been formed with great judgment, and was especially rich in Belgian history; nor is it undeserving of record that not a few of the volumes of this library had (in a very unusual manner) helped to make Belgian history, in some of its not least glorious pages; many a substantial and venerable folio of Van Hulthem's having done duty by way of breastwork for the Belgic volunteers during their obstinate conflict with the Dutch troops in September 1830. This collection amounted to 29,350 distinct printed works, in about 63,000 volumes, and to 1016 MSS. It was purchased by the government in 1837 for L11,176, exclusive of incidental expenses. There is a printed catalogue of it, well compiled by Voisin, in 6 volumes 8vo. Two years afterwards the conjoined collections, including that of the city, which had been public from 1794 (as that of Burgundy had been from 1772), were opened as the national collection of Belgium. Since that period the Brussels Library has, by systematic acquisitions, become still more extensive, and at present it contains nearly 203,000 volumes of printed books, and about 19,700 MSS., each distinct work or article being counted. "Nothing," says a recent reader there, "can exceed the comfort of the reading-room."

The Archives Générales du Royaume form the second of the principal collections of Brussels. They unite the characters of a Library of MSS. and of a State Paper Office; the documents they contain extend from the twelfth to the nineteenth centuries; and in 1838 numbered 130,394, classified in fifty-seven divisions. The collection is of high historical importance, and has been well arranged by M. Gachard. The provincial libraries of Belgium are those of Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Liège, Louvain, Mons, Namur, Tournay, and Ypres, three of which (those of Ghent, Liège, and Louvain) are under the direction of the universities established at these places, whilst the others are under the superintendence of the local authorities. Of these provincial libraries, that of Ghent is the largest. It possesses of printed volumes about 64,500 (of which 480 are incunabula), and of MS. volumes 630. Liège has also nearly 64,000 printed volumes, and 430 MSS.; Louvain has about 62,000 printed volumes, and 302 MSS.; Tournay, about 27,700 printed, and 208 MSS.; Antwerp, about 22,000 printed, and 29 MSS.; Namur, about 17,700 printed, and 80 MSS.; Mons, about 16,400 printed, and 348 MSS.; and Bruges, about 12,000 printed, and 350 MSS.

VII. HUNGARY.

Many fragments of that noble library, so rich in valuable manuscripts, which had been formed at Buda by the celebrated Corvinus, have been mentioned in our accounts of the several existing libraries that possess them. When this collection was dispersed, on the capture of Buda by the Turks, under Solymán, in 1526, Cardinal Bozzan in vain offered the conqueror 2000 crowns to restore this part of the spoil. If no collection subsequently formed, up to the end of the last century, could lay claim to the title of a Hungarian national library, yet since 1804, by the liberality of Count Széchényi, Pesth has become possessed of an assemblage of books, admirably chosen, fast increasing, and well deserving to be styled the library of Hungary. The books are entered alphabetically in the catalogue and supplements, and classed in the indices according to subjects. The National Library already contains about 185,000 volumes of printed books; upwards of 10,000 MSS., about 10,000 prints, and 5000 maps. Of the printed volumes some 36,000 are Hungarian books; about 20,000 others are works in foreign languages, but relate to Hungary, as does also the bulk of the MSS. Few libraries, it will be seen, can possess a better title to be termed "National."

Pesth has two other libraries, both of them important. That of the University owes its foundation to the celebrated Primate of Hungary, Peter Pázmány. From Tyrnau (the first seat of the University), it was transferred to Buda in 1777, and thence, seven years afterwards, removed to the other side of the river. In 1833 it possessed nearly 72,000 volumes of printed books, and 1510 MSS. The third library of Pesth is sometimes called the Teleki Library, and sometimes the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In the Diet of 1826, Count Joseph Teleki, for himself and his brothers, presented to his fellow-countrymen the fine library of 30,000 volumes, which they had jointly inherited from their father. He also presented the sum of 5000 florins by way of beginning a maintenance fund. The example was followed with the old Hungarian spirit, and amongst the earliest imitators the illustrious name of Batthyány twice occurs; Count Casimir as the donor of 2650 volumes, and that of Count Gustavus as the donor of a library containing very nearly 30,000 volumes. A collection, especially rich in Hungarian history, was purchased in 1849 (5000 volumes); and, in 1852, Count Joseph Teleki increased the acquisition fund by a handsome contribution from the profits of his well-known historical work. In the following year the library possessed 70,660 volumes.

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1 Memoire Historique sur la Bibliothèque Publique de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, 1809, 8vo. See also Peignot, Catalogue d'une partie des livres composant la Bibliothèque des Ducs de Bourgogne, au XV. Siècle, Dijon, 1841, 8vo. 2 Scheler, Gründung der Königlichen, Belgischen Staatsbibliothek zu Brüssel, 1842 (Serapion, Bd. iii., p. 23). 3 Bibliotheca Hulthemiensis, 5 tom., Brux, 1838. 4 Foreign Office Returns of 1830, pp. 160, 161; Comp. De Reiffenberg, Annaeires de la Bibl. Roy. de Bruxelles; and Alvin, Rapport Général sur la Situation de la Bibl. Roy. de Bruxelles, 1854 (Serapion, 1855, Bd. xvi., Supp. pp. 25-78). 5 Gachard, Rapport sur les Archives Générales du Royaume, p. 57. 6 The best account of the survivors of this famous collection yet published is to be found in Vogel's Verzeichniss Corvinischer Handschriften in öffentlichen Bibliotheken, 1849 (Serapion, Bd. x., pp. 273-285). The inquirer will do well to glance also at the article "Corvinus" (by M. Glery) in the Biographie Universelle. 7 J. F. Kugler, Typographiae Magnae-Praesidentis, Pesth, 1801, in 8vo. M. de Miller, librarian to Count Széchényi, having discovered several works printed at Groswardin in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, published an account of them at Pesth in 1804. 8 Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, pp. 293, 294; 439-440. 9 And not, as Mr. Kohl has said (Austria, Engl. Trans., p. 244), to the Emperor Joseph II. This library sustained some injury—but none irreparable—in the great inundation of 1838. 10 Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, p. 438. VIII. BOHEMIA.

In the city of Prague there is a library in connection with the National Museum, founded in 1818, consisting of more than 20,000 volumes of printed books, and 1200 volumes of MSS. It is remarkable on account of the number of early works illustrative of Bohemian history and literature, from the first book printed in Bohemia (1462); and is open to all comers. Among other rarities, there is exhibited an original letter, signed "Johannes Hus, Magistre in Artibus, Sacre Theologie Baccalaureus." The University of Prague has a fine library, which, in its Carolinian germ, dates like the University itself, from the middle of the fourteenth century, and contains some relics of a library still older, that of the Celestine Monastery of Oybin, in Upper Lusatia. In 1621 both University and library were handed over to the Jesuits, and the latter, in subsequent years, was largely augmented by them. It became well known as the Clementine Library. Joseph II restored the University to its independence, and vested in it the enlarged collection, which was further increased, first, by the books of dissolved monasteries, and subsequently by purchases. The University Library is well organized. When Mr Kohl visited it in 1841, he was shown a catalogue so arranged that the sum total of volumes could be added up daily. It was then 99,888. In 1848, it was 105,735. The present number of volumes is probably at least 110,000. There are many curiosities, and amongst them a superbly illuminated Hussite Hymn Book, the joint-stock production of the chief families and most eminent guilds of Prague. Prague has many other remarkable libraries, which we cannot find room even to enumerate. One, however, may claim a word. The Premonstratensian Monastery of Strahow has a library of great value, displayed in an apartment which, for splendour and elegance, has, it is said, scarcely its equal either in the Austrian States or in Germany. The number of printed volumes exceeds 50,000 (2000 incunabula), and that of MSS. is about 1000.

IX. SWITZERLAND.

In Switzerland there are several libraries eminently worthy of notice. We begin with that of Geneva. The celebrated Bonivard, prior of St Victor, having promised to bequeath his books for the foundation of a public library in Geneva, the council of that city resolved to act upon this promise, and in 1564 purchased the books which had belonged to Calvin, and in 1565 those of Peter Martyr. The progress of the library is detailed in the preface to an excellent Catalogue de la Bibliothèque Publique de Genève, by L. Vaucher, 1834, 2 vols. 8vo, when the library contained 31,000 volumes. Among Bonivard's books are several rare editions of the fifteenth century, such as Cicero's Offices, both editions, 1465 and 1466, on vellum (the first of them presented by Lord Stanhope); the Livre des Saintes Anges, the first book printed at Geneva, in 1478; the Speculum Vitae Humanae, printed in the Canton of Lucerne in 1472 or 1473; the Mirouer du Monde, Geneva, 1517, the only known copy printed on vellum. Among the manuscripts are several richly illuminated. Here also is that most interesting little volume, La Noble Legyon, dated in the year 1100, and including two other treatises and seven religious poems, in the language of the Vandois; Foreign and, above all, the manuscripts of Calvin, and his correspondence, in many volumes, as described by Senebier in his Catalogue raisonné des Manuscrits conservés dans la Bibliothèque de la Ville et République de Genève, 1779, 8vo. The present number of volumes is about 47,000 printed, and 200 MSS. In 1852 Tutor Weizel made his valuable private collection of German literature publicly accessible. It is said to amount to 8000 volumes, and may probably become hereafter an important addition to the Town Library.

Zurich possesses two public libraries,—the Town Library and that of the Cantonal Schools,—the former with about 62,000 volumes of printed books, and 3500 MSS.; the latter with 27,000 printed volumes, and very few MSS. The Town Library was founded, jointly, by four young citizens in 1629, on their return from a European tour, which had made them acquainted with many such institutions. Amongst its MSS. the most remarkable volumes are the original letters of Lady Jane Grey and the English reformers to Bullinger, which have been printed for the Parker Society. In Berne the public library, which dates from 1548, contains 49,500 printed volumes, and 2303 MSS. Of the latter there is a catalogue by J. R. Sinner, in three vols. 8vo.

In Basel the University Library possesses several early Greek manuscripts, such as a copy of the Gospels of the ninth, and the Epistles of the tenth century; the Acts of the Council of Basel (142), in several volumes; original unedited letters of Erasmus; also a copy of his Moriae Encomium, with spirited sketches on the margins by Hans Holbein (some of them apparently retouched and injured), which have been several times engraved; various drawings by the old German masters, including several by the Holbeins, and a portrait of Edward VI. when a boy, marked "H. H." The total contents of the University Library amounted in 1853 to 75,000 printed, and nearly 4000 MS. volumes. The library is more especially strong in the physical and mathematical sciences, in theology, and in the polite literature of Germany. According to the recent rate of increase, the number of printed books in this library must at present amount to at least 78,000 volumes.

The canton of Aargau acquired by purchase, in 1804, the valuable collection of General Zurlauben of Zug. The books of secularized monasteries served to augment the Cantonal Library thus begun, and it has also been occasionally increased by purchases. In 1846 it contained about 60,000 printed volumes, and 1200 MSS. The Cantonal Library at Lausanne contains about 45,000 vols. of printed books, and, perhaps, 300 MSS. But for a long period, Lausanne possessed a literary treasure which had more powerful charms for British eyes than anything they could see in the public library. Few great writers mention their books so frequently or so fondly as does Gibbon; and it is scarcely credible that he would have left his beloved authors behind him with such slender precautions for their safety, had he departed from Lausanne under circumstances of less excitement and alarm than those of May 1793. Nor is it less extraordinary that, after its preservation for many years in an uninhabited house, his library became the property of another English author, who, to use his own characteristic words, "bought it to have something to read when he passed..." through Lausanne," shut himself in it from morning till night during forty days, and then "dashed among the mountains," never to set eyes upon it again (although he survived his purchase a quarter of a century), leaving it still in a house which was usually untenanted. At length, forty years after Gibbon had fled from Lausanne in hot haste, this precious collection was sold by auction: part went to America, part to the Cantonal Library. Other portions were scattered far and wide, carrying with them, however, traces of two names, suggestive of very different ideas: the one, a monument of what genius can accomplish when aided by self-denying labour; the other a monition, that vast wealth, unusual powers of mind, and refined tastes, may all centre in one man, and yet leave him at the end of a long life, a prodigal and worthless egotist.

X. POLAND

Of Poland it may be said, in a bibliographical as well as political sense, *Stat magna nominis umbra*. The literary treasures of that ancient kingdom have gone to enrich its principal spoilers; and it is at St Petersburg rather than at Warsaw that we must seek for evidence of what it originally possessed. What is called the Royal Library at Warsaw is said not much to exceed 20,000 volumes, most of which are modern; but it contains a manuscript, in 3 folio volumes, with nearly 200 fine drawings, descriptive of the antiquities excavated at Velleia, between the years 1760 and 1765. The University of Warsaw, founded by the Emperor Alexander in 1816, had accumulated a library of about 150,000 volumes; but after the events of 1830 and 1831, every book or pamphlet in it conceived to be hostile to the Russian government was removed, and many scientific works have likewise, it is believed, been abstracted and sent off to St Petersburg. As late, however, as 1849, we find mention of this library as being "said to contain 150,000 [printed] volumes, and a great number of scarce and curious MSS." If this be not merely a repetition of preceding statements, it may suggest the idea that the two Warsaw collections have perhaps been united. But it is a significant circumstance, that, although the Russian official returns of 1850 enumerate thirty-eight libraries in addition to those of St Petersburg (some of them containing less than 500 volumes), there is no mention of any library at Warsaw. The University of Cracow, founded by Casimir the Great in 1343, has a library said to contain about 10,000 MSS., amongst which is a Latin Encyclopaedia, in a large folio volume, written by Paul of Prague in 1459, and nearly 50,000 volumes of printed books. But the most extensive and valuable collection that has ever existed in Poland was that which Count Joseph Zaluski and his brother had formed, and which, in 1747, was devoted to the public. The Zaluski Library, afterwards called the Library of the Republic, consisted of 300,000 volumes, including upwards of 50,000 duplicates, which were subsequently disposed of; and by the sale of these, together with the losses sustained by various depredations, the collection was supposed, in 1791, not greatly to exceed 200,000 volumes. At length, in 1795, this library was unceremoniously seized by Suvarov, hastily packed up, and despatched to St Petersburg, to aggrandise the capital of the conqueror with the literary spoils of Poland.

XL RUSSIA.

To this act of spoliation the Imperial Library of St Peters-The Imperial Library as far back as the year 1714; we shall still find the sapling of like origin with the graft. The books of 1714 were seized during the invasion of Courland, just as the books of 1795 were snatched in the swoop on Poland. Nor does the courtly academician think fit to affect the smallest prudery about the matter. "It was thus," he says, "that Paulus Emilius, the conqueror of Persus, carried to Rome that monarch's books—the first that were seen in the capital of the world. Thus Sylla, after subjugating Athens, gathered from Athenian books a library alike extensive and choice. Peter the Great followed in the footsteps of these great men." Could Bacmeister have foreseen the achievements of 1795, his vocabulary would scarcely have supplied words sufficiently eulogistic. Later writers, however, have sometimes thought it desirable to fortify Russian practice by modern examples. But the parallel lumps. The French, when they conquered Italy and Belgium, stripped the libraries of those countries, indeed, of some of their choicest rarities. But the Russians, when they triumphed over the independence of Poland, carried off, in bulk, the largest collection of books which that country could boast of. The library thus seized had been built up with refined tastes and liberal sympathy. The library into which it was transformed has often been augmented with lavish expenditure; but the dominant spirit that has animated its management has been narrow, jealous, and servile. The one was free to all comers; the other has been open to everybody—who was in no respect obnoxious to the Russian police. In the space of forty-three years Count Joseph Zaluski had acquired, at his own expense, above 200,000 volumes. His brother, Andrew Zaluski, Bishop of Cracow, enriched this numerous collection, as well with the books bequeathed to him by the last descendant of John III., King of Poland, as with those which he collected from the libraries of his uncles, Andrew Olszowski, Primate of the kingdom of Poland, Prince Andrew Chrysostom, Bishop of Warmia, and Louis Bartholomew, Bishop of Plock; and after having joined to these the collection in his own cabinet, he transferred the whole, in 1742, to a house which... had previously belonged to the family of Danilovitch, and had probably come to him by inheritance. In 1747 he rendered it public, and settled an annual income or endowment for its support and increase. In the very year in which it was thus made accessible, we find it described as being already "a splendid, unequalled, and, in regard especially to its stores of Polish history, an inestimable library."

After the death of this prelate, Count Joseph Zaluski still further augmented it by the addition of a great number of volumes, and, by his will, made in 1761, bequeathed it, along with the house in which it was deposited, to the college of Jesuits at Warsaw, in trust for the public. After the suppression of that order in 1773, it was placed under the care of the Commission of Education, and at last seized and carried off to St Petersburg in 1795, as already narrated. This transportation being made by land, and along roads which the late season of the year rendered almost impracticable, many boxes of books suffered from the inclemency of the weather, others were broken or damaged, and the works which they contained spoiled, misplaced, or separated, and the sets broken. The collection was conveyed to the imperial cabinet in two convoys, and after the inventory had been completed on the 23rd of February 1796, it was found that the collection still amounted to 262,640 volumes, and 24,573 prints. This library comprised in general all the best works, up to the middle of the seventeenth century, in the sciences, the arts, and the belles-lettres. The theological, and, after it, the historical and literary branches, were the most considerable. The theological department alone comprehended above 80,000 volumes. It was also rich in topography, especially in the histories of towns; and the literary branch included a precious collection of classical books and works on bibliography; but the departments of philosophy, mathematics, physics, travels, and antiquities were very incomplete. Such was the foundation of the Imperial Library at St Petersburg. But for the spoils of Poland, that collection, instead of now ranking in the first class, would scarcely, perhaps, have been entitled to a place in the third.

This library, augmented by various other collections, and by purchases both extensive and systematic, amounted, in 1849, to 451,532 printed volumes, and 20,689 volumes of MSS. Of late years, the official reports have been annually published in the St Petersburger Zeitung, and reprinted in the Serapeum. We gather from them that in some years (as in 1855, for instance, notwithstanding the war), the accessions, from all sources together, have reached 15,000 volumes. Probably, for the entire period from 1849 to 1857, they will have averaged 8000 volumes a-year. On this basis the present total would be 519,500 volumes and about 21,000 MSS. Its management is detailed at length in the Appendix to the Report of the Select Committee on the British Museum (p. 449, et seqq.). Supplementary information of later date will be found amongst

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1 Janoski, Nachricht von denen in der Hochgräflichen Zalusckischen Bibliothek sich befindenden raren Polnischen Büchern (Dresden, 1747, 8vo), p. 5.

2 "The celebrated Library of Zaluski at Warsaw," says Denis, in his Introduction to the Knowledge of Books, "was opened to the public in 1747. It must contain at present near 300,000 volumes. Benedict XIV., in 1752, issued a bull of excommunication against those who should dare to commit depredations on this library; but, notwithstanding, many books were carried off, particularly during the late troubles. In 1747, the laborious librarian, Janoski, gave notices of the rare books printed in Polish; and, in 1752, he published a catalogue of the manuscripts in this library. After the death of its founder, the Bishop of Kiev, the king and the commonwealth took possession of this treasure, in spite of the attempts made by the heirs to retain it." (Denis, Einleitung in die Bucherhandlung, Wien, 1777, th. I., p. 184.)

3 See Précis Historique sur la Fondation, l'Acquisition, et l'Arrangement de la Bibliothèque Impériale, Appendix to Report, p. 457, et seqq.

4 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 338.

5 Amongst these sources we find one, the official mention of which runs thus—"Besides the taxed or censorship copies (Censor-Exemplare), the library received gratis from the officers of customs, in pursuance of an enactment of 1854, about 2000 volumes which had been confiscated for various reasons (die aus verschiedensten Gründen confisctirt worden waren"). Jahresbericht der Kaiserl. Öffentlichen Bibliothek zu St Petersburg, für 1855, § iv. A.

6 Ibid., p. 338.

7 Bacmeister, Essai, ut supra, p. 61.

8 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 339.

9 Ibid., p. 338.

10 Rapport adressé à M. de Salaberry, Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, par M. Léonard-Leduc, chargé d'une mission littéraire en Finlande et en Russie, &c., Oct. 1847. (Archives des Missions Scientifiques, 1850, tom. i., p. 39.)

11 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 175. was destroyed by fire in 1730; and soon afterwards restored. It now contains nearly 154,000 printed, and 4000 MS. volumes. Classen's Library contains about 30,000 printed volumes, but possesses no MSS. These libraries, consisting of upwards of 600,000 volumes, printed and MS., are accessible to all respectable householders, and likewise to strangers introduced by such; and the books are, besides, under certain restrictions, allowed to circulate. The King's Library is general, and about equally complete in all the branches of human knowledge. The University Library is also to a certain extent general, but the main body of the collection has been made chiefly with reference to academical education. Classen's Library consists principally of books of geography, travels, natural history, and agriculture. The administration of these libraries seems to be both economical and efficient, and to be conducted solely with a view to public utility, which, in this case, means public instruction. Of the principal catalogues of those Danish libraries we give a list below.

XIII. SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

The public libraries in Sweden are, (1.) the Royal Library, situated in the northern wing of the king's palace at Stockholm; (2.) the library called Benzeliesterna-Engeström founded by private individuals, but to which admission is readily granted on recommendation. These are in the capital. The Royal Library, which was founded by Gustavus Vasa about 1540, and enlarged by the liberality of succeeding sovereigns, contains about 96,000 volumes of printed books, with nearly 4000 MSS., besides 16,500 charters and deeds, and is open to the public every day excepting Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays; books are lent out on respectable recommendation. The Library of Benzeliesterna-Engeström contains about 14,500 volumes of printed books, and 1200 volumes of MSS., rich in materials for Swedish history. Besides these, there are libraries attached to the different academies, which are also accessible. The number of provincial libraries in Sweden, including those of the Universities of Upsal and Lund, is nineteen. That of Upsal, which was founded by Gustavus Adolphus, is the largest in Sweden, and contains more than 135,000 printed volumes, with nearly 7000 MSS. A catalogue of the collection, by Professor Aurivillius, was printed in the year 1814, in 2 vols. 4to. The Library of Lund was founded at the same time as that university (1671) by Charles X., and possesses upwards of 70,000 printed volumes, and 2000 MSS. These libraries are supported and increased by an annual grant from the state, and by a fee paid by each student on entering the universities. In those provincial towns where large public schools, called Gymnasia, are established, there are also small libraries. These collections, which have been founded by private individuals, are kept up much in the same way as those belonging to the universities.

At Christiania, in Norway, the Library of the University contains about 115,000 printed volumes, and 600 MSS. It was founded, in 1811, upon a donation by the King of Denmark of many thousand volumes of duplicates selected from the Royal Library at Copenhagen, when the extensive and valuable collection of Count Suhm was acquired.

There are six other libraries of some importance in Norway,—two of which are in the capital,—besides a very large number of school and village libraries. Of the former the most extensive is that of Trondheim, counting 26,000 printed volumes, and 800 MSS. The two smaller Christiania libraries have each of them about 12,000 printed volumes. That called Deichman's Library, possesses also 320 MSS.

But the MSS. at Upsal, and those at Stockholm, are almost the only MSS. in the kingdom of Sweden and Norway which possess interest of a high order for strangers, as well as for natives. The Upsal collection includes the famous Codex Argenteus, containing the Gothic Gospels of Ulflas. It was amongst the spoils seized by the Swedes at the storming of Prague, in 1648; and after passing successively through the hands of Queen Christina, of Isaac Vossius, and of the Count de la Gardie, was presented by the latter to the University of Upsal. It is, and in modern days has always been, imperfect; but ten leaves of it are said to have been recovered at the end of 1856. It has been recently and ably edited by Dr Massman. Amongst the surviving treasures of Stockholm (the Royal Library suffered severely by fire in 1697), is a golden book which has had even stranger vicissitudes than the silver book of Upsal. The Latin Evangelistary, which is called Codex Aureus, bears an inscription in Anglo-Saxon, recording its rescue "from a heathen war-troup, with our pure treasure," by "Alfred, and Werburgh, his wife." Long after this incident it found its way to Madrid, where, in 1690, it was purchased by Sparvenfeldt, and carried into Sweden. Another biblical MS. (Codex Giganteus) contains nearly all the Old Testament, much of the Apocrypha, all the New Testament, except the Pauline Epistles and the Apocalypse; the greater part of Josephus; and a strange treatise on magic, adorned with a gilded portrait of the arch-enemy. Here is also a most curious English medical MS., apparently of the fourteenth century, somewhat after the fashion of the Regimen Sanitatis of the famous School of Salerno. Appended to this part of the Codex, which is metrical, are various prescriptions and clinical memoranda, which have sometimes led to its description as a physician's case-book. There are other choice MSS., which cannot here find mention. Of the Upsal Library, there is a printed catalogue up to 1814, since continued in MS. Of the MSS. given by Sparvenfeldt, a catalogue was printed in 1706. Of the Oriental MSS., the first part of a catalogue, by Toruherg, was printed in 1849.

XIV. TURKEY.

Oriental libraries are, usually, but small collections, the contents of which are little known to Europeans. Their of the East general character, however, will be most satisfactorily indicated by the description of some of them.

At Constantinople there are, within the walls of the

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Footnotes:

1. App. to the Report on the British Museum, p. 483. 2. Codices Orientales Bibliothecae Regiae Hauniae, &c. Hafn., 1846, 4to; Description des Manuscrits Francais du Moyen Age de la Bibl. Roy. de Copenhague, par Abrahamse, Copen., 1844, 8vo; Catalogus Bibliothecae Thottianae [by Ebert and Eccard] Hauniae, 1789-95, 12 vols., 8vo. Part of the splendid collection of Thott (who had amassed 121,945 printed volumes—6039 of which were printed anterior to 1550—see p. 418). MSS. was added to the Royal Library by bequest, and part by subsequent purchase. The catalogue is so good, that Brunet has said of it, if it be one of the choicest, it is certainly one of the most useful books, which a bibliographer could put into his working collection. Of the Oriental MSS. of the University Library, a portion is described in Westergaard's catalogue, entitled, Codices Indici Bibliothecae Universitatis Hauniae. 3. Foreign Office Returns of 1851, p. 45. 4. Ibid., p. 47. 5. Ibid., p. 48. 6. Ibid., p. 47. 7. Notes sur les Bibliothèques Publiques en Suède, Appendix to Report, ut supra, p. 497, et seqq. 8. Foreign Office Returns of 1851, p. 44. 9. Ibid., p. 49. 10. Comp. Travels of Dr E. D. Clarke, vol. vi., pp. 279-283; Elliott, Letters from the North of Europe; Von Schubert, Reise durch Schweden, &c. (1817-20); Stephens, Extracts from an old English Medical Manuscript at Stockholm (Archæologia, 1844, vol. xxx., pp. 349-429). 11. Catalogus Librorum impressorum Bibliothecae Regiae Academiae Upsaliensis, 1814, fol. 12. Catalogus Codicis Librorum Manuscriptorum Rariorum, &c., 1706. This catalogue was drawn up by Celsius and Benzellus. 13. Codices Arabici, Pericoli, Turcici, Bibliothecae Regiae Acad. Upsaliensis, Upsal, 1849. Seraglio, two libraries, which were founded respectively by Ahmed III. and Mustapha III., and enriched with books acquired by themselves or their successors. These libraries do not appear to contain more than 6000 volumes, and are seldom increased by purchase, but occasionally by donations made to the sultan by his grandees, or by confiscations of the effects of public officers, amongst which books are sometimes to be found. Much uncertainty has prevailed, and many erroneous reports have been circulated, respecting the contents of these libraries. The Abbé Servin, who arrived at Constantinople in December 1728, failed to obtain admission into the Sultan's Library; and, deterred by the assurances he had received, that Amurat IV. had caused all the Greek MSS. to be burned, he deemed any further research or inquiry to be hopeless; whilst succeeding travellers, relying on statements of a different kind, have—as we had occasion to notice in a preceding part of this article—confidently asserted that in these libraries were still preserved the ancient collections of the Greek emperors. More fortunate than his predecessors, however, Toderini, after three years' unremitting attempts during his residence at Constantinople, found means to procure transcripts of the catalogues of the libraries in the Seraglio, through the instrumentality of a page who clandestinely copied a few lines every day. From the inquiries of the learned Abbate, it appears that the merits of these collections had been greatly exaggerated. The libraries of the Seraglio are much inferior to some of those which are open to the public. Commentaries, explanations, marginal notes, and other writings on the Koran, form the subjects of the largest portion; to which succeed treatises on jurisprudence (also accompanied with notes and commentaries), on philosophy, logic, astronomy, arithmetic, medicine, and ethics. The historical works are few in number, and chiefly relate to the Ottoman empire. There are some MSS. in the Greek, Latin, and other European languages; but no traces whatever have been discovered of the lost decades of Livy, of the writings of Homer or Tacitus, or of those parts which are deficient in the works of other ancient authors.

Besides those of the Seraglio, Constantinople possesses thirty-nine public libraries, all varying in extent, but more or less noticeable for the number and value of their manuscripts, which are neatly bound in red, green, or black morocco. The Mohammedans have a peculiar method of indorsing, placing, and preserving their books. Each volume, besides being bound in morocco, is preserved from dust in a case of the same material; and on it, as well as on the edges of the leaves, the title is written in legible characters. The books are placed one upon another in presses ornamented with trellis-work, and are disposed along the wall, or in the four corners of the library. To facilitate literary researches, each library is furnished with a catalogue, containing the title, and giving a short account of the subject of each volume. Theology, including the Koran and Commentaries thereon, jurisprudence, medicine, ethics, and history, are the sciences chiefly cultivated by the Osmanlées. The books are usually written with the greatest care, on the finest vellum; the text of each page is inclosed in a highly-ornamented and gilt frame work; the beginning of each chapter or section is splendidly illuminated; and the prices of the manuscripts vary in proportion to the beauty of the characters. Under the reign of the late Sultan Mahmoud, the introduction of European discipline, and, to a certain extent, of European customs and manners, has paved the way for still more important innovations. Recent events must also greatly facilitate the introduction of European knowledge and civilization, and the ultimate subversion of those fanatical prejudices, which, when fostered by ignorance and matted by superstition, have ever presented the most formidable obstacle to the improvement of nations.

The Library of the Convent of Mount Sinai was found by Mr. Burckhardt to contain a great number of Arabic manuscripts, and some Greek books; but the former proved to be of little literary value; and of the latter, Burckhardt carried away two beautiful Aldine editions, a Homer and an Anthology. The priests refused to show him their Arabic memorandum-books previous to the fifteenth century; but from those which he was permitted to inspect, he copied some very interesting documents concerning the former state of the country.

(3.) AMERICAN AND COLONIAL LIBRARIES.

I. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Scarcely any country in the world has made, within a period of ten years, such rapid strides in the provision and improvement of libraries, freely accessible, as have the United States, since the year 1847. Libraries, indeed, had been among the objects of early solicitude to the colonists; but the work that lay nearest their hand was too stern and too urgent to admit of much more being done in this direction than was plainly and immediately educational. Collegiate libraries were cared for from the first. School libraries grew up quietly as incidents of school organization. Men met together to form proprietary libraries of various kinds, as soon as the comparative completion in the older parts of the country of the rough pioneer work gave them a little breathing time, just before the outbreak of the revolutionary war. When that fierce strife came, libraries were not infrequently turned into barracks, or into military hospitals; nor can it be at all a matter of surprise that occasionally books found their way into knapsacks (usually of British manufacture), and suffered an eventual metamorphosis into grog. In more peaceful times the old libraries were sought for and refurbished up. Accessions were made, and a systematic literary intercourse with Europe was established. Private libraries, too, were formed, with improving taste, and with a liberality according well with the great wealth of many of their owners. Two classes of libraries, however,—each of them the most important of all within its own sphere,—have sprung up only in recent

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1 White, *Three Years in Constantinople*, 2d edit., 1846 (vol. II., pp. 182–196). Mr. White affirms distinctly that the librarian's own statement of the larger of these two Seraglio Libraries, made to himself in June 1842, was, that it contained but 4440 volumes. It had contained within his memory 6100, but the late sultan had removed some of them to another collection. D'Ollson has stated that these Seraglio Libraries contained in his day 16,000 volumes. Recent writers have put them at 20,000. The returns sent by Lord Redcliffe to Lord Palmerston, in 1850, do not contain the precise number of volumes in any Turkish library, but say generally that the largest of them do not contain more than about 4000 volumes." (*Foreign Office Returns* of 1851, p. 50.)

2 D'Ollson, *Tableau général de l'Empire Ottoman*, tom. II., pp. 467–494.

3 It is a fact of singular interest that Dr. E. R. Clarke has visited and examined whatever of the libraries of the Seraglio, although he has given a detailed, and, upon the whole, pictorial description of its interior.

4 *Catalogo della Libreria dello Seraglio*, trasportato da Costantinopoli a Venezia, dall' Abbate Giambattista Toderini, nel anno 1786, in 8vo. See also *Della Letteratura Turcica*, tom. II., pp. 53–81.

5 Toderini, *Letteratura Turcica*, tom. II., pp. 51, 53, et seqq.

6 *Foreign Office Returns*, 1851, idem supra.; Comp. D'Ollson, tom. II., pp. 488, 489; Toderini, tom. II., p. 32, et seqq.

7 *Foreign Office Returns*, 1851, p. 51.

8 Burckhardt, *Journals in the Peninsula of Sinai*, May, 1817.

9 MacMullen, *The Past, Present, and Future of the New York Society Library* (1856), p. 5. American days. Of the first class, the Astor Library at New York may be considered a type; and of the second, the Free Public Library of the city of Boston. Our retrospect of the growth and progress of American libraries, from the foundation of that of Harvard College in 1638, to the establishment of the Boston Free Library in 1852, must be compressed into very narrow limits; but will be best arranged in the order indicated by their actual succession.

We begin, therefore, with university or collegiate libraries.

Almost the entire progress made by Harvard Library Libraries of between 1638 and 1764, was cancelled by the disastrous United fire which occurred in the college buildings early in the last named year. By that accident, about 5000 books were destroyed, and some pleasant links which visibly connected the memories of many British worthies with the growing American university were sundered. Among the burned books were many that had been given by Kenelm Digby, by John Maynard, by Lightfoot, by Gale, and by Bishop Berkeley. Vigorous efforts were soon made to form a new library. The legislative bodies of other States, as well as that of Massachusetts, contributed. Friends in England, amongst whom Thomas Hollis was pre-eminent, gave zealous help. But the war interposed serious obstacles; and even in 1790, the collection did not muster more than 12,000 volumes. They were well chosen; and have now grown into a library, which (including its ancillary or special collections, such as those of Divinity and of Law) numbers at least 83,000 volumes, and is steadily increasing. There is a good printed catalogue, and the library is freely accessible for literary purposes. The Library of Brown University, in Rhode Island, ranks next. Its first beginnings date from 1768. It now contains about 30,000 volumes; exclusive of the students' libraries, which number nearly 12,000 more. Yale College Library is somewhat older than the college itself; it being recorded, that at the second of the preliminary meetings, in 1700, each of the ten founders brought with him some books, and placing them on the table, said—"I give these books for the founding of a college in this colony." But the real cornerstone of the library was laid by Bishop Berkeley thirty years later. He sent over the finest collection of books that had then been seen in America; and it is owing to his influence that Yale College can show in her Donation-Book the names of Burnet, Kenney, Bentley, Halley, Newton, and Steele. This collection has grown to somewhat more than 27,000 volumes; besides three subsidiary students' libraries, containing, in the aggregate, 33,000 volumes more. The Library of the University of Virginia dates but from 1825, and was selected and originally arranged by Jefferson. It now numbers upwards of 21,000 volumes. There are more than 100 other college libraries, most of which are yet in the cradle, but give good promise of growth. The aggregate number of volumes in all the libraries of this class is estimated to exceed 650,000; exclusively of the students' libraries, which amount, nominally, to nearly 300,000 volumes in addition; but collections of this kind must obviously require large deduction for wear and tear.

The most valuable of the proprietary libraries is also the oldest of them; "and was," says Benjamin Franklin, "my first project of a public nature. I drew up the proposals, and procured subscribers." This was in 1731. "We afterwards," he continues, "obtained a charter [1742], the company being increased to one hundred; this was the mother of all the North American subscription libraries. It is become a great thing itself, and goes on increasing. These libraries have improved the general conversation of the Americans; have made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen from other countries, and perhaps have contributed, in some degree, to the stand so generally made throughout the colonies in defence of their privileges." James Logan, the friend and counsellor of William Penn, had formed a valuable collection of books, and had given them to trustees in Philadelphia for public use. Another collection formed in England by his brother served to augment the former; and, in 1792, an act of the Pennsylvania legislature conjoined the Loganian collection with the library founded by Franklin. It now, therefore, under the title of "Library of the Philadelphia Library Company," combines the characters of a public and of a subscription library; as a reference collection, it is freely accessible; as a lending collection, subscribers only may borrow books. The United Libraries contained in April 1856, 64,195 volumes. There is a very good classified and printed catalogue, up to 1835 (2 vols. 8vo), which has won the merited commendation of Brunet. ("We consider," he says, "this catalogue a good model for our own public libraries.") And we have before us some proof-sheets of a third volume, on the same plan, which contains all the added books up to April 1856. Next in rank comes the Library of the Boston Athenæum, a very choice assemblage of books, and better stocked with foreign scientific literature than are most American libraries, amounting in 1857 to more than 60,000 volumes; and enjoying the eminent distinction of possessing a portion of the library of Washington. The third place belongs to the Mercantile Library of New York, commenced in 1821, and which, under the vigorous management of Mr S. Hastings Grant, had grown, on the 1st August 1856, to 47,082 volumes: of this collection too, there is an excellent catalogue, or index, on the alphabetical plan. The Mercantile Libraries of Boston, Cincinnati, and St Louis are of subsequent date, and contained, respectively, in 1856, 18,000, 16,423, and 12,840 volumes. The library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester contains the curious collections of its founder, Dr Isaiah Thomas, the historian of American printing, and also those of the Mather family. It now amounts to nearly 21,000 volumes. The New York Society Library was founded about 1700, by the Rev. John Sharp, the English chaplain of Lord Bellamont, then governor of the colony, and was augmented by a small collection bequeathed by an English rector thirty years afterwards. It now contains upwards of 40,000 volumes of printed books, and a few MSS.

The earliest of the State libraries is that of New Hampshire, founded at Concord about 1770. It now contains little more than 7000 volumes. Ohio has a State library, founded in 1817, with between 15,000 and 16,000 volumes. That of New York, at Albany, is the largest and best selected of all the State libraries. It dates but from 1818, and was long an inconsiderable collection. The energetic administration of the late Dr T. Romeyn Beck... American raised it rapidly to an important position; and it now contains 43,634 volumes of printed books, and some valuable MSS., chiefly relating to American history; amongst them many early colonial charters and other public documents; the papers of Sir William Johnson and of Governor Clinton, and a curious series of letters relating to the affair of Major André. The remaining State libraries, twenty-six in number, range from 3000 up to 17,000 volumes, and contain, in the aggregate, nearly 200,000 volumes. These are of course, in the main, not only political, but Americopolitical in character; and are especially intended for the furtherance of public business.

The first Library of Congress was destroyed by the British army in 1815. The second library was founded on the basis of that of President Jefferson, and was partially destroyed by fire in 1851. At the time of this calamity it contained more than 50,000 volumes, but of these about 20,000 were saved,—including much of the Jefferson collection, which was strong in American history,—and became the nucleus of a third library. At the beginning of 1854, 20,000 volumes had been already acquired, chiefly by purchases, to meet which appropriations have been made by Congress, amounting to about £17,000. Early attention was wisely given to the acquisition of—(1) The long sets of important periodicals; (2) The great antiquarian and scientific works of the Champollions, Rosellinis, Kingsboroughs, and Humboldts; (3) Valuable and rare works on American history. At present the collection, which is not yet definitively arranged, must number between 60,000 and 70,000 volumes.

America cannot be said to have possessed any great library, formed with especial view to the wants of the higher classes of students, until the bequest of John Jacob Astor (of "four hundred thousand dollars, out of my residuary estate, to the establishment of a public library in the City of New York") laid a very substantial foundation for such an one, in the year 1839. The testator died nine years afterwards, and his trustees were incorporated in 1849.

Their first proceeding was to select a librarian,—indeed, one had already been virtually selected by Mr Astor's own foresight,—and to send him to Europe (with large powers and wide discretion) for the purchase of books. Dr Cogswell acquitted himself of his task in the manner in which it had been foreseen he would perform it. He is now at the head of a well-chosen library, gathered from the best markets of England, France, Italy, and Germany, already numbering between 95,000 and 98,000 volumes; and lodged in a handsome and fire-proof building—Florentine in style—which is capable of holding, perhaps, three times the number. A sum of 180,000 dollars (£37,500) was originally invested as a maintenance fund, and has since been increased. Liberal donations in aid of the library have also been received from Mr W. B. Astor, son of the founder.

The library is open to all comers as a library of reference, and is open to nobody as a lending library, so that students are certified that all books which the library possesses will be found within its walls.

The Smithsonian Institution at Washington possesses a library of about 15,000 volumes, the majority of which have accrued either by gift or by exchange for its publications. Founded, as will be remembered, by the contingent bequest of James Smithson, an Englishman ("In case of the death of my said nephew without . . . children, . . . I then bequeath the whole of my property . . . to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge amongst men"), it was incorporated in 1846, and its name and publications have already become familiar throughout Europe. When the contingency occurred, the money was put to interest, so that, at the date of the charter, the fund amounted to nearly £160,000. Great diversity of opinion prevailed as to the character of the appropriation which would best carry out the testator's purpose, and most redounded to the honour of the United States. Eventually it was determined that the plan should include—(1.) publications, especially such as should add to science; and, also, (2.) a library and museum. But hitherto the first part of the plan has been an Aaron's rod to the second part.

The first of those Free City Libraries, which bid fair to Free City be worked out in the United States with true American libraries energy and thoroughness, was that of Boston, organized in 1852 by the city government (by an ordinance of the 14th Oct.), but substantially founded on 5th August 1850, by Mr John P. Bigelow, Mayor of Boston, who then diverted a subscription of 1000 dollars, intended to be expended on some mark of the respect of his fellow citizens for himself, towards "the establishment of a Free Library;" and who had already received a present of French books, through the agency of M. A. Vattemare; and presents of American books from Edward Everett, and from Robert Winthrop, a descendant of the founder of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

To this beginning Mr Joshua Bates brought a first contribution of 50,000 dollars (£10,416), and a second contribution of an extensive series of books, purchased in Europe expressly for the library. Mr Jonathan Phillips gave 10,000 dollars (£2083) to be invested as a book fund; Mr Abbott Lawrence, an active promoter of the enterprise, bequeathed a like sum at his lamented decease. This remarkable liberality was worthily met by the city authorities. The library was opened for public use in 1853, and now contains about 25,000 volumes. On its committee appear the names of Everett, Ticknor, and Story, in whose report it is described as "intended to furnish . . . the opportunity of completing that education of which the foundations have been laid in the public schools."

The small town of New Bedford quickly followed the example of Boston. Its library is now in the fourth year of its existence, and has nearly 10,000 volumes. In the Fourth Annual Report, the trustees thus express themselves—"A Free Public Library is the crowning glory of the system of public education, which has been, from our earliest history, the pride of Massachusetts. . . . No act of the municipal authorities has ever met so universally and deeply the approbation of the people."

The most noticeable libraries of the British colonies in British America are those at Quebec and Montreal. Both are still Colonial small, but are progressive; and the legislature of Lower Canada has recently taken steps for their improvement and extension. In Upper Canada there is nothing which deserves to be called a public library. Even the collection which belongs to the legislature of that province is utterly neglected. "For nearly twelve years," says Mr Mackenzie, "in several sessions of the provincial legislature, I made In the Brazils the most important collection is that in the "National Public Library" of Rio de Janeiro, said to amount to 70,000 printed volumes, and 851 MSS. When John VI. carried to Brazil the Royal Library of the Ajuda, it included 4000 MSS., but these went back to Portugal on the declaration of independence. Mexico has three libraries in its capital (1. Cathedral; 2. University; 3. Gregorian), with about 12,500, 10,000, 7000 printed volumes; and 500, 600, 200 MSS. respectively; and also a public library at Puebla, founded by Bishop Palafox, with about 25,000 printed volumes.

III. INDIA.

Of the libraries in India, whether composed of European or of native works, the want of information sufficiently to be relied on prevents us from attempting to give many details. The following account of the largest library at Goa, that of the Augustinian monks, extracted from the Diary of Sir James Mackintosh, is now of bygone years, but is curious enough to be worth quoting. It was certainly by no means a flattering description. "The books," he says, "are about 10,000; chiefly Latin and Portuguese, with a few Spanish, a very few Italian and Greek, no French, and of course no English, and none of any other language. There are not above twenty printed after the close of the seventeenth century. There are a few bad editions of classics, but not a complete edition even of Cicero himself: a great many schoolmen, casuists, and canonists, with some jurists: very little history, scarcely any of modern times, except a little Portuguese; about ten volumes of Portuguese and Spanish poetry; no morals, but as the handmaid or rather slave of superstition; no politics, no political economy,...no astronomy, no chemistry, no zoology, no botany, no mineralogy, and no book even on mathematics, but Euclid. I did not know before that the world had produced 10,000 such useless and pernicious books, or that it had been possible to have formed a large library, with so curious an exclusion of whatever is instructive or elegant." At the different presidencies, and in some other parts of British India, collections, more or less extensive and valuable, are in course of formation; but they have not been particularly described. Of the native libraries of India we know as little. That of Tippoo Sahib, which fell into the hands of the British when his capital was taken, consisted of nearly 2000 volumes, many of them highly ornamented.

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Oriental Library of the late Tippoo Sultan of Mysore, by Charles Stewart, was printed at the University press, Cambridge, 1809, &c. With the exception of some select manuscripts presented by the East India Company to public libraries in Great Britain, these Mysore MSS. were deposited by the Marquess Wellesley in the College of Fort William, then newly established. There has recently appeared an elaborate Catalogue of the Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani Manuscripts of the Libraries of the King of Oudh, by Dr Sprenger, printed at Calcutta, 1854, 8vo. In the preface to this work, after having described the value of the collection, and the neglect into which it had fallen, Dr Sprenger remarks that, unless the travelling Orientalist who may hereafter visit the collection, should chance to be a zoologist as well, it will be prudent for him to poke with a stick into the boxes in which the books are kept, before putting his hand into them. He illustrates the other departments of library economy, as practised at Lucknow, by observing that the "King's people" have long been accustomed to count the volumes periodically, but without any regard to their contents or character. So that the numbers do not diminish, the superintendents take no note of any changes in the books. "I have heard," he adds, "that a late librarian sold in one week 1100 rupees worth of books to provide funds for the marriage of his daughter."

At Calcutta there is a good public library,—freely accessible for consulting purposes,—which contained in 1848, upwards of 20,000 volumes, and now contains probably 25,000.

The subjoined statistical table gives a comparative view of the numerical contents of the several libraries which have been referred to in the course of this article, those of private persons only excepted, and suggests a remark or two, with which our historical survey may fitly close. Had such a table been appended to the article "Libraries" in the last edition of this work, the comparative place in it of Great Britain would have been far less creditable than it now is. In point of magnitude, our national library would have figured as tenth instead of second in the scale. In point of accessibility, almost every considerable library in this empire would have shown disadvantageously when compared with many libraries in France, with some in Italy, with nearly all in Germany. In respect to the number of libraries, of importance enough to subsist on systematic study and research, our position would have been in direct contrast to the wealth, the extent, the quiet, the freedom, and the literary glory of Britain. If, indeed, our table had been so stretched as to include private collections, the list would have worn a different aspect, but (with a small number of honourable exceptions) its additional entries would no more have presented means of gratification to the mental appetites of the scholar, than the extension of his sumptuous bill of fare would have charmed the palate of the immortal Governor of Barataria, whilst he was under the wand of Dr Rezio de Aguerro. As it now stands, in 1857, the number, extent, and accessibility of British libraries show a large measure of progress, but a measure which should rather be stimulating than satisfactory.

The main desiderata in this respect, as the matter shapes itself to us, seem to be,—(1.) Such a revision of the regulations of existing libraries, and, above all, of those of libraries which in some form or other derive national aid,—either directly from the public purse, or indirectly by contributions levied on authors and publishers,—as shall ensure the largest amount of public service consistent with safety and good order. (2.) The preparation and printing of thorough catalogues of the principal libraries of the country, on as uniform a plan as may be found practicable; and the making of such catalogues accessible to all students. (3.) The removal of all fiscal obstructions to the production of English books, and to the importation of foreign books, whatever the apparent magnitude, the supposed incidence, or the plausible pretexts of such obstructions. (4.) Such measures, with respect to the circulation and diffusion of all books, maps, state-papers, and public documents of every kind, which are printed at the national expense, as shall both ensure their presence in all libraries where they are likely to be of public utility, and transform what has too often been a matter of petty intrigues and miserable jealousies into a potent means for the encouragement of science and litera-

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1 Mackenzie, Sketches of Canada, p. 383; Comp. Preston, Three Years' Residence in Canada, vol. ii., p. 246. 2 Life of the Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh, vol. ii., p. 85. London, 1836, 8vo, 2d edition. 3 Sprenger, Cat. of the ... MSS. of the King of Oudh, pref., p. 5 (Calcutta, 1854, 8vo). 4 Circular of the Curators of the Calcutta Public Library, sent to Europe in 1849; Comp. Report, &c., p. 1847-8 (Calcutta, 1848, 8vo), p. 5. ### Statistical View of the Principal Libraries Enumerated in this Article

| Name of Library and Date of Foundation | Conditions of Public Accessibility | No. or Estimated No. of Vols. | |---------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|-------------------------------| | Aberdeen | By favour | 37,000 | | Marischal College | Free | 12,000 | | Free Public, 1853 | Open to all comers | 15,000 | | Trinity College | By special perm. | 63,000 | | St John's College | Do. | 25,000 | | Queen's College | Do. | 14,000 | | Gonville & Caius Coll. | Do. | 17,000 | | Emmanuel College | Do. | 10,000 | | Peterhouse | Do. | 6,200 | | King's College, 1577 | Do. | | | Canterbury Cathedral | Occasional | 5,000 | | Carliole | Do. | 3,174 | | Trinity Inn, 1787 | By free ticket | 126,000 | | Royal Society, 1731 | Inaccessible | 30,938 | | Irish Academy, 1782 | Do. | 15,000 | | Advocates', 1680 | Do. | 172,000 | | University, 1580 | Do. | 40,000 | | Edinburgh | Medical Society, 1767 | 15,000 | | Physicians, 1682 | Do. | 9,000 | | Cathedral | By special perm. | 4,000 | | Do. (freely) | Do. | 5,000 | | British Museum, 1759 | Do. | 242,000 | | Soane's, 1791 | Free access | 13,000 | | Hunterian Museum, 1781 | Do. | 12,500 | | Cathedral | Open to clergy | 4,500 | | Free Public, 1852 | Open to all comers | 34,274 | | British Museum, 1759 | Do. | 56,000 | | London Institute, 1805 | For members | 60,000 | | London Subscription, 1841 | Do. | 65,000 | | Royal Society, 1667 | By special perm. | 41,000 | | Essex College | By free ticket | 41,000 | | Lincoln's Inn, 1628 | Do. | 20,000 | | Royal Institute, 1801 | For members | 27,000 | | Lambeth Palace, 1610 | By special perm. | 25,000 | | Middle Temple, 1641 | Do. | 21,000 | | Dr D. Williams, 1716 | Open to all comers | 21,000 | | Inner Temple, 1707 | By special perm. | 16,000 | | St Paul's Cath., 1713 | Inaccessible | 8,000 | | Archb. Tenison's, 1684 | To inhabitants of Westminster by right, to be used by courtesy only | 3,000 | | Westminster Abbey, 1620 | Fnd. for public use, but inaccessible | 11,000 |

*The Libraries thus marked (*) are supported (wholly or partially) by parliamentary grant, or by copy-tax.

† The Libraries thus marked (†) are supported by rate. | Name of Library and Date of Foundation | Conditions of Public Accessibility | No. or Estimated No. of Vols. | Name of Library and Date of Foundation | Conditions of Public Accessibility | No. or Estimated No. of Vols. | |----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------|----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------| | Louvre, Paris, 1801 | By permission | 50,000 | Veschi, Italy, 1793 | Chapter, or Agostini | 12,000 | | Luxembourg Town | Free access | 40,000 | Veronese | | 10,000 | | Rhineland | Do. | 53,000 | Vicenza | | 38,000 | | Rheims | Do. | 40,000 | Chamberlain | | 200 | | Rouen | Do. | 30,000 | England, Scotland, Ireland | | | | Soissons | Do. | 110,000 | Bertollian, 1755 | | | | Strasbourg | Do. | 180,000 | Aarau | | | | Toulouse | Do. | 50,000 | Augsburg | | | | Troyes | Do. | 100,000 | Bamberg | | | | Versailles | Do. | 50,254 | Basel | | | | Spain and Portugal | | | University, 1697 | Open to educated persons | 60,000 | | Coimbra | University, 1597 | 52,000 | Berlin | | 1,200 | | Coimbra | Santiago University | 17,207 | Do. | | | | Evora | Royal, 1575 | 40,000 | Do. | | | | Evora | Town, 1595 | 25,000 | Do. | | | | Lisboa | National, 1796 | 85,000 | Do. | | | | Madrid | Academy of Sciences, 1778 | 50,000 | Do. | | | | Madrid | National, 1712 (f.) | 200,000 | Do. | | | | Oporto | Royal Public, 1835 | 48,000 | Do. | | | | Salamanca | University, 1215 (f.) | 24,000 | Do. | | | | Seville | Colom, 1560 | 15,000 | Do. | | | | Toledo | Town or Cathedral (f.) | 30,000 | Do. | | | | Valladolid | Do. | 13,250 | Do. | | | | Bologna | University, 1691 | 105,000 | Erfurt | | | | Catania | Magnani | 83,000 | Erlangen | | | | Ferrara | Town | 40,000 | Do. | | | | Florence | Laurianelli, 1441 | 12,000 | Do. | | | | Florence | Magliabechian, 1714 | 140,000 | Do. | | | | Florence | Palatine | By permission freely | Do. | | | | Florence | Marucellian, 1753 | 33,635 | Do. | | | | Florence | Riccardian, 1816 | 20,000 | Do. | | | | Genoa | Library of Missions of St. Mark | 39,000 | Do. | | | | Genoa | Franzonian, 1773 | 60,000 | Do. | | | | Macerata | Comun or Montan, 1787 | Open to the public | Do. | | | | Mantua | Public | 12,000 | Do. | | | | Massina | Town | 40,000 | Do. | | | | Milan | Ambrodiel, 1604 | 80,000 | Do. | | | | Monte | Beera, 1763 | 125,000 | Do. | | | | Casale | Benedictine Monastery | 18,000 | Do. | | | | Naples | Royal Bourbon, 1780 | 200,000 | Do. | | | | Novara | University, 1688 | 70,000 | Do. | | | | Padua | University, 1629 | 79,000 | Do. | | | | Palermo | Univ. or Communal | 80,000 | Do. | | | | Pavia | Jesuits | 40,000 | Do. | | | | Perugia | Town | 70,564 | Do. | | | | Pisa | University | 62,000 | Do. | | | | Ravenna | Camaldolese, 1619 | 40,000 | Do. | | | | Rimini | Vatican, 1450 | 100,000 | Do. | | | | Rome | Barberial | At present inaccessibility | Do. | | | | Rome | Angelica, 1604 | 35,000 | Do. | | | | Rome | Alexandrine or Saraceniana, 1600 | 84,819 | Do. | | | | Rome | Coriolan, 1720 | 35,000 | Do. | | | | Rome | Aracolitana | 60,000 | Do. | | | | Rome | Roman College | 70,000 | Do. | | | | Rome | Chigi | Do. | Do. | | | | Rome | Vallicelliana or Oratorian | Do. | Do. | | | | Siena | Comunal | 35,000 | Do. | | | | Turin | University, 1436 | 121,000 | Do. | | | | Venice | St Mark's (1302), 1468 | 103,859 | Do. | | | | Vol. XIII. | | | | | | ### Libraries

#### Statistical View of the Principal Libraries, &c.—Continued.

| Name of Library and Date of Foundation | Conditions of Public Accessibility | No., or Estimated No. of Vols. | |----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|-------------------------------| | Ghent, University, 1794 | Free access | 64,500 | | Leiden, University, 1582 | Do. | 70,000 | | Leiden, University, 1738 | Do. | 54,000 | | Leuven, University, 1636 | Do. | 62,000 | | Mech, Town, 1797 | Do. | 16,400 | | Namur, Town, 1797 | Do. | 17,200 | | The Hague, Royal, 1795 (7) | By permission | 10,000 | | Tournai, Town, 1638 | Free access | 27,700 | | Utrecht, University, 1636(?) | Do. | 80,000 | | Copenhagen, University, 1811 | Open to public | 115,000 | | Copenhagen, Detichman's, 1820 | Do. | 12,000 | | Copenhagen, Royal, 1550 | Free access | 468,000 | | Copenhagen, University, 1731 | Do. | 151,000 | | Lund, Clausen's, 1800 | Do. | 70,000 | | Lund, Royal, 1540 | Do. | 56,000 | | Stockholm, Benseljern—Exegiostium | Do. | 14,000 | | Tromsø, Society of Arts, 1767 | Do. | 25,000 | | Upsal, University, 1621 | Do. | 135,000 | | Cracow, University, 1340(?) | Uncertain | 59,000 | | Cracow, National, 1804 | Free access | 185,000 | | Pesh, Academy or Teleki, 1829 | Do. | 70,600 | | Pozna, University, 1550 | Open to all comers | 72,000 | | Prague, Premonstratensian | Do. | 110,000 | | Prague, National Museum, 1818 | Free access | 50,000 | | Presburgh, Apponyi, 1829 | Do. | 20,000 | | Warsaw, Royal, 1816 | Do. | 20,000 | | Odessa, Imperial, Zaluski, 1747 | Open to Public | 519,500 | | St Petersburg, Academ of Sciences, 1725| Do. | 118,900 | | St Petersburg, Rumiansoff Museum, 1827 | Do. | 92,958 | | Tamboff, Imperial Private (Heritage), 1763 | Special permission | 80,000 | | Tunis, Town, 1830 | Uncertain | 12,814 | | Seraglio Libraries, 1729-1767 | Special permission | 7,000 |

#### Numerical Rank of So Many of the Preceding Libraries as Contain 150,000 Volumes, or Upwards.

| Cities | Name of Library and Date of Foundation | Printed Vols. | MS Vols. | Total No. of Vols. | |--------|----------------------------------------|---------------|----------|-------------------| | Paris (L.) | Imperial, originated 1350; reorganized 1666 | 815,000 | 84,000 | 899,000 | | London | British Museum, 1753 | 562,000 | 40,000 | 602,000 | | Berlin | Imperial Public, 1755 | 519,500 | 21,000 | 540,500 | | Munich (L.) | Royal, 1550 (?) | 488,000 | 22,000 | 520,000 | | Copenhagen | Royal, 1653; reorganized 1666 | 408,000 | 15,000 | 423,000 | | Vienna | Imperial, 1440; Royal and University, 1811 | 365,000 | 20,000 | 385,000 | | Dresden | University, 1765 | 360,000 | 3,000 | 363,000 | | Oxford | Bodleian, 1555 | 256,000 | 22,000 | 278,000 | | Stuttgart | Royal, 1765 | 245,000 | 3,230 | 248,230 | | Brussels | Royal, orig. 1350; reorganized 1666 | 200,000 | 19,700 | 222,700 | | Munich (R.) | University, 1575 | 200,000 | 2,000 | 222,000 | | Hamburg | City, 1529 | 200,000 | 5,000 | 205,000 | | Naples | Royal, 1780 | 200,000 | 2,000 | 202,000 | | Turin | University, 1712 (?) | 200,000 | 2,000 | 202,000 | | Cambridge | University, 1475 (?) | 197,000 | 3,163 | 200,163 | | Rome | Campana, 1700 | 200,000 | 0 | 200,000 | | Pistoia | Do. | 190,000 | 4,000 | 194,000 | | Breslau | Do. | 190,000 | 4,000 | 194,000 | | Gottingen | University, 1765 | 180,000 | 3,500 | 183,500 | | Dresden | Public (or Palatine), 1800 | 180,000 | 1,589 | 181,589 | | Oxford | National Public, 1807 | 180,000 | 7,000 | 187,000 | | Paris (C.) | Do. | 180,000 | 3,500 | 183,500 | | Strasbourg | University, 1531 | 180,000 | 1,589 | 181,589 | | Edinburg | Advocates, 1682 | 172,000 | 2,000 | 174,000 | | Heidelberg | University, 1700 | 150,000 | 3,000 | 153,000 |