LITURGY is derived from a Greek word denoting the public service which citizens were bound to render to the state on certain prescribed occasions, but which is used in the Septuagint to express the public service of God. Liturgies may be of three kinds. Either they may form an imposed ritual, responsive in its character, and prescribed absolutely to minister and people for their invariable use, as is the practice in the Anglican and Lutheran amongst the Reformed churches; or they may take the form of a discretionary ritual, not responsive, and therefore supplied, as in France and Switzerland, to the minister alone, for his guidance in the matter and manner of worship, leaving variation as to the manner according to his judgment. This was the practice in the Church of Scotland during nearly a century of its existence, and it is retained in the Reformed churches of the Continent. The third method is that of rudrical provision, consisting of directions without examples, and omitting any precise forms of prayer. Of this character is the Directory for Public Worship, composed by the Westminster Assembly, which now forms the rule of worship in Presbyterian churches of Scotland and America. A fourth method of public worship—if there be such where no method exists—is that of entire freedom, such as has been claimed by some denominations since the days of the older Independents, who denounced all forms, as hampering the liberty of the individual. The expediency of any of these methods has been the subject of much and angry discussion at all the most decisive epochs of ecclesiastical history, and in this article we propose to limit ourselves to a short historical view of the various liturgies in the different sections of the Christian Church.
Amongst the Israelites, certain forms of prayer and praise seem to have been used from the earliest times. So far as we know directly from the Old Testament, the earliest prescribed forms were those according to which the priests were commissioned to bless the people, and the forms of prayer in presenting the first fruits and tithes. The Psalms of David also constituted a public liturgy; and some have argued from the metrical forms of various public prayers inserted in the record of Jewish history, that these also belonged to a prescribed service. The modern prayers of the Jews, however, many of which are attributed to the pen of Ezra, are certainly of far more recent date. They are only nineteen in number, and most, if not all, are later than the establishment of Christianity. That men were "taught to pray" in the days of our Saviour, seems evident from the Liturgy circumstances which gave rise to the promulgation of the Lord's Prayer, and, whatever may have been the design of that formula, it is certain that it soon came to be used as a prescribed form in the Christian Church. (See Wheatley's Illustration of the Book of Common Prayer, and also compare Hind's Rise and Progress of Christianity.) From the incident in Acts iv. 24, it may be gathered that large masses of converts were able to join vocally in public supplication. In the earliest times of the Church, frequent reference is made to certain constituted prayers in general use (see Comber's Scholastic History of Liturgies), but in general these extended no further than to individual churches, and were arranged for local use by the ruling presbyter or bishop. Gradually, however, these spread from the metropolitan churches to the rural districts, and ultimately they became divided into great classes of national liturgies. Mr Palmer, in his Origines Liturgicae (Oxford 1832), considers that all the liturgies of the primitive churches may be reduced to four: 1st, The great Oriental liturgy, which prevailed from the Euphrates to the Hellespont, and from the Hellespont to the southern extremity of Greece; 2nd, The Alexandrian, which from remote antiquity has been the liturgy of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the country extending from the Mediterranean Sea towards the W.; 3rd, The Roman, which prevailed throughout the whole of Italy, Sicily, and the civil diocese of Africa; and 4th, The Gallican, which was used throughout Gaul and Spain, and probably in the exarchate of Ephesus until the fourth century. These, in the course of ages, were endlessly varied and diversified. From the whole history of these, it seems evident that there never was one catholic liturgy; that none of the liturgies now existing can be traced back to the apostles; but that formal prayers of some sort were used from the very beginning of the Christian Church. The Greek Church, at least so far as it is under the dominion of the Patriarch of Constantinople, possesses three liturgies, which are used at different seasons of the ecclesiastical year. That of Basil of Cesarea is the longest, and holds pre-eminence in solemnity, as it is said also to do in point of antiquity. It is reserved for the most solemn festivals of the church,—Christmas, Lent, and Good Friday,—as well as for a few other occasions. The second bears very undeservedly the name of Chrysostom, being considerably later than his days. It is read on all the other days of the year except during a few days in Lent, when the Liturgy of the Presanctified, a composition of the seventh or eighth century, takes its place.
Amongst the Eastern sects a characteristic variety of liturgies prevails. The ancient Coptic Christians had as many as twelve different forms, and these still linger among the Ethiopians. They were,—1. The Liturgy of St John the Evangelist; 2. Of the Fathers of the Council of Nice; 3. Of Ephesians; 4. Of St James of Sarug; 5. Of St John Chrysostom; 6. Of Jesus Christ; 7. Of the Apostles; 8. Of St Cyril; 9. Of St Gregory; 10. Of the Patriarch Dioscorus; 11. Of St Basil; and, 12. Of St Cyril. Amongst the Copts, however, all the minor liturgies fell into abeyance, being discountenanced by the patriarchs; and the usage of the church came to be limited to the liturgies of Basil, Gregory, and Cyril. Amongst the Syrian Catholics, the Liturgy of St James is preferred, but numerous others are also found in use.
The Breviary contains the daily service in the Church of Rome. Originally it contained only the Lord's Prayer, with extracts from the Psalms, to which, very soon after, were added lessons from the Scriptures. The obligation to read it daily rests upon the beneficiary clergy alone; but on them it is imposed under pain of mortal sin. Although read only in Latin in the churches immediately depending on the Holy See, fragments of it have found their way into the vernacular of eastern tribes who at one time were in close connection with Rome. Besides the Breviary, there is also the Missal, or volume regulating the celebration of mass. A tradition of the Romish Church ascribes its composition to the apostle Peter, but it does not appear to have been reduced to writing till the middle of the fifth century, and it owes much of its present matter, as well as nearly all its present form, to the genius of Pope Gregory the Great. The Ceremoniale may be designated a liturgy for the pope, embracing all that pertains to the various functions of his office, just as the Pontificale describes the various functions of the Romish bishops, and the Rituale, or Pastoralis as it is sometimes called, contains directions for all the pastoral duties of the inferior clergy. The ancient Gallican Missal dates from beyond the days of Pepin, and is more closely allied to the liturgies of the East than to that of the Latin Church. The old Spanish or Mozarabic Liturgy consisted of the liturgy of Rome, mingled with the oriental liturgies of the Arian Goths, who overran the kingdom. Its use was suspended by the Council of Braga; and it was only saved from oblivion by Cardinal Ximenes, who reprinted it in 1500, and endowed a chapel and canons to use it daily in Toledo. The Ambrosian Liturgy is one of great antiquity, having been only edited and supplemented by the bishop whose name it bears.
The liturgies of the Reformed Churches are all compiled in the vernacular, the use of the Latin tongue having been abolished in worship as soon as it came to be recognised that adoration demanded intelligence. Luther, in 1523, drew up a liturgy for the use of the German Church; but as he had no desire to impose this as a form on all who held the same doctrinal views with himself, all the Lutheran countries have Lutheran liturgies of their own; but these agree in almost every essential particular. In Prussia, the form generally adopted is that drawn up in 1822, for the use of the cathedral church in Berlin. Calvin also drew up a liturgy, for the use of the Reformed Church of Geneva and elsewhere. The Genevan formula was published in 1543, six years before the first book of Edward VI., and while it retained many parts of Christian service which Calvinists now dispense with, it was the first to originate the idea of making the singing of psalms take the place of the vocal response on the part of the people. In its nature it was intended to be compulsory, but a provision was made for extemporaneous prayer and for special prayers on particular occasions. Calvin's Daily Offices were also composed as directions for family prayer; and these are used as a form of morning and evening prayer in several branches of the Reformed Church. In France, the Genevan liturgy long retained its hold supreme in the affections of the people. It was used in the earliest meetings of the Reformed congregations after their organization in 1555; and the last synod or national assembly of the French churches in 1569 issued instructions for preserving its purity. Various modifications have been made on it since the restoration of the Protestant worship, and new prayers have been introduced from other sources, in effect destroying its venerable character. In Scotland, although the liturgy had a short existence in the national church, yet during its continuance in use, it seemed in no way to offend the feelings of the people. John Knox died repeating the words of Calvin's Daily Offices. In 1562 was introduced the Book of Common Order, commonly termed Knox's Liturgy; and two years later its use was enjoined upon the Church by the General Assembly. It was drawn up after the model of the Genevan formulary, and was mainly intended for the readers and exhorters; although even they were invited to avail themselves of the latitude recommended to all the clergy. It is difficult to fix the precise period when the liturgy ceased to be used, but it perished when Knox's overshadowing greatness ceased to influence the practice of the Church. At present the Liverpool, worship of the Presbyterian churches in Scotland is guided by the *Directory for Public Worship*, issued by the Westminster Assembly, which contains directions, but no forms of prayer; but it is scarcely too much to say that in general throughout Scotland, the provisions of the *Directory* are almost entirely forgotten.
In England the *Book of Common Prayer* forms the liturgy of the Established Church. It is founded on the *King's Primer*, published by Henry VIII. in 1546; which, however, contained little more than the Creed, Lord's Prayer, Commandments, and Litany. This, during the reign of Edward VI., underwent two separate revisions, and the *Second Prayer Book of Edward VI.* approaches very nearly to the liturgy of the present day. After having been discontinued during the reign of Mary, it was again revived with the reign of Elizabeth, and received further improvements, especially in the selection of the lessons. Some alterations were introduced during the reign of James I., and consisted chiefly in the appointment of a collect in the daily morning and evening service; the insertion of a prayer for the Royal Family in the Litany; and addition of questions and answers in regard to the Sacraments in the *Catechism*. In 1662 it was revised by both Houses of Convocation, and was sanctioned by act of parliament in its present form. The liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church has been, since 1712, the same with the *Book of Common Prayer*; with as little variation as circumstances will admit, except in regard to the Communion Office.
Of Dissenting liturgies, it is perhaps only necessary to mention Dr Samuel Clarke's *Reformed Liturgy*; the *Sunday Service* of the Wesleyan Methodists, prepared originally by John Wesley; and, on the Continent, the *Liturgia of the Unitas Fratrum* or Moravian Brethren.
See Kucher's *Bibliotheca Liturgica*; Bingham's *Ecclesiastical Antiquities*; Adams' *Religious World Displayed*; Palmer's *Origines Liturgiae*; and Baird's *Chapter on Liturgies*.
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**LIVERPOOL,**
A borough of England, in Lancashire, and one of the greatest commercial towns in the world, is situate on the Mersey, along which it extends for nearly 6 miles. For 5 miles of this distance, a line or chain of docks runs parallel with the river, and from these docks, at intervals, streets extend at right angles, tolerably direct, to the extremity of the boundary. These are crossed by streets more or less parallel to the river; but as the town grew up rather suddenly, no great attention was paid to regularity. The boundary line, from where it touches the river at the S. to its termination at Bootle Bay, embraces a circle of about 8 miles. As yet the extremities are imperfectly filled up, but in some places the houses extend beyond the line.
Local archæologists have been eager to invest the town with the dignity of a remote antiquity; but their labours have not been very successful. In *Domesday Book* the name does not appear, although sites within its present boundary are mentioned. Mr Picton, in his admirable paper on "Ancient Liverpool," contends that the place mentioned as *Smedone* must have represented Liverpool, and that *Smedone* is identical with Smithdown, now one of the southern streets. This, however, is not likely, for Smithdown was remote from ancient Liverpool, and on the south side of the Pool, then called Mersey Sea. The name has been a subject of unsatisfying contention; for although the final syllable *pool* is derived from the locality, *liver* is of doubtful origin. In early times the town was called indifferently *Lirpool*, *Litherpool*, *Lithpool*, and *Litherpole*. *F* and *v* were commutable; but, in the most ancient records, the name is written indifferently *Lithepol* and *Litherpole*. Mr Baines, in his *History of Liverpool*, is disposed to think that *lith* must be accepted for sea, and thus the derivation will be the pool on the sea. Originally the place was only a small fishing village; for the Mersey, up to a very recent period, was remarkable for its supply of salmon and other fish. The first authentic record of the town is found in a charter of Henry II., in the year 1173, declaring that the estuary of "the Mersey shall be for ever a port endowed with all the liberties belonging to a port of the sea, and that the men of Lypal, near to Toxteth, may come and go from each side of the sea with their ships and merchandise free and without obstruction." It is supposed that his majesty, in this charter, had reference to the conquest of Ireland; for, not content with the bestowal of a barren privilege, he actually erected dwellings called burgage houses, the tenants of which were the primitive freemen of Liverpool. These houses continued to yield a rental to the crown up to the time of Elizabeth, and constituted, to a great extent, the dwellings of the inhabitants. In 1207 King John granted the town a charter, as follows:
"Know ye, that we have granted to all our faithful subjects who have taken burgage houses at Liverpool, that they may have all the liberties and free customs in the town of Liverpool which any other free borough upon the sea has in our territories. And, therefore, we command you, that, securely and in our peace, you may come thither to receive and dwell in our burgage houses; in witness whereof, we transmit to you these our letters patent. Witness—Simon de Pateshill, at Winchester, the 28th day of August, in the 9th year of our reign."
On the apex of the promontory of some 40 or 50 feet above the river, a castle was erected at a very early period. Its erection is ascribed to King John, but it is supposed to have existed, in some form or other, before his time. The king subsequently granted the site of Liverpool to Fitzwarine, but it reverted, in the next reign, again to the crown. The "free customs" of the charter mean exemption from the petty customs; and thus, from that time to this, the freemen have been exempt from the payment of small dues. Henry III. extended their privilege by exempting them from tolls in all the ports of the kingdom; but all merchants frequenting the port of Liverpool were bound to pay due customs. Immediately after granting this charter, King Henry farmed the town to the freemen at £10 per annum. Charters and privileges at that time, however, were easily set aside or violated with impunity; but from the reign of King John to that of Charles II., the crown claimed a right to these dues, and farmed them to various persons. In 1399 John of Gaunt leased the dues and all other profits, arising as well by sea as by land, for 57 marks. From that period the duchy of Lancaster became attached to the crown, and consequently all grants proceeded from the same source. A fee-farm of the town was let to various persons—at one time to the people of the town, at others to individuals; but in 1466 the value had increased to only about £14 a-year. In 1528 it was estimated at not a greater value. A few years afterwards Henry VIII. considered that he had been defrauded by the corporation, and appointed an inquisition for investigating the matter. There was some reason for this, for the freedom of the town was granted to foreign merchants on the payment of a certain sum, which sum relieved them from the burthen of town-dues. The corporation, such as it was, also exerc- Liverpool cised a monopoly, and excluded from trade in the town all who were not members of their municipal body. This, however, had but little effect in retarding the progress of the place; for, notwithstanding the favours of the crown, its prosperity positively declined from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century, from causes quite apart from local or royal measures. In 1346 there were 168 burgages, held at the rate of 12 pence annually; in 1429 these had been reduced to 148; and in the reign of Elizabeth, in 1655, they had fallen off to 135. The population may, therefore, be set down, at the last named period, as about 1000. So poor was the place that for 200 years it returned no member to parliament. The population nestled about the castle, forming no continuous street, but lining, at intervals, the roads or pathways, which were not paved before the fourteenth century. The first palpable step in advance taken by the town was in the reign of Charles II. A new world had then been opened to the enterprise of the old; and Liverpool invited to its port such trade as was created by the infant manufactures of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. As the plantations in America increased so did the trade of Liverpool; and from an early period her merchants took a prominent part in the slave trade. She sent out ships to Africa, conveyed their live burdens to America and the West Indies, and in return brought back to the Mersey the sugar, tobacco, and other produce of those regions. The English merchants and shipowners had competed successfully with the Spaniards and Portuguese; but it was not until 1708 that the first slaver was despatched from the Mersey. Having entered on the trade, they soon participated largely in it; for, in 1752, 101 Liverpool merchants were engaged in the slave traffic, 135 appertaining to London, and 157 to Bristol. The number of Liverpool vessels engaged in the American and West India trade was 106, and of these 88 were slaves. In due time this trade greatly increased; and that it enriched Liverpool may be inferred from the fact that the greater portion of the West Indies belonged to merchants of this place. This trade, however, like every other, was affected by war. It almost ceased during the French war of the eighteenth century, and the merchant ships unemployed were eagerly converted into privateers. At first the gain was immense; but subsequently the French predominated, and Liverpool suffered severely by the privateers of the enemy. On the return of peace, trade was resumed, but not with any accelerated force until the inventions of Arkwright and others created the cotton trade in Lancashire. The war of American Independence had the worst possible effect on the prosperity of Liverpool; and the late war of the French Revolution at first operated most adversely. Still, two circumstances obviated these bad effects. The great increase of population and trade in the United States of America created a demand for British manufactures, and these manufactures had nearly all to pass from the Mersey, which received in return the raw produce indirectly paid for them. At the close of the war Liverpool was still advancing, but not so rapidly as within the last 25 years.
In 1750 Liverpool had only 20 sailing vessels engaged in the continental trade; now she has treble that number, and fleets of screw steamers, which constantly visit every port in the Mediterranean, and render the Mersey a medium of communication between France, Holland, Belgium, and America. The East Indies, too, have been opened to Liverpool enterprise. Since the alteration in the Company's charter, and in the amount of business done in the East, Liverpool stands next to London. Another trade she has almost monopolized—the Australian trade. Her clipper vessels are admitted to be the finest in the world, and, in consequence, the emigration to the antipodes is the largest from this port, and the return cargoes the heaviest; for necessarily the freights are low, as more goods go than come, and cheapness induces shippers to send their wool here rather than to London, although London is the principal market. But Liverpool is now creating a wool market of her own.
The first authentic account of the number of vessels entering the port dates from 1577; and the following returns indicate at a glance the progress of the trade:
| Years | Vessels | Tonnage | Dock Duties | |-------|---------|---------|------------| | 1577 | 1,371 | | L2,336 | | 1780 | 2,291 | | 3,528 | | 1800 | 4,748 | 450,000 | 23,379 | | 1829 | 7,277 | 805,033 | 94,412 | | 1830 | 11,214 | 1,411,964| 151,359 | | 1840 | 15,988 | 2,445,708| 178,196 | | 1850 | 20,457 | 3,530,337| 211,743 | | 1860 | 20,990 | 4,320,918| 258,961 |
The custom-house revenue collected in the port was, in 1855, L3,576,344, 2s. 8d., and 1856, L3,824,177, 1½s. 8d.; showing an increase of L247,843, 12s. The last quarter of 1856 exhibits a comparatively further increase of L118,581 over the corresponding quarter of 1855. The town dues now produce more than L120,000 a-year, and there is another impost called light-dues, which produced in 1856 L99,965, against L86,182 in 1855. These light-dues go altogether to the Board of Trade, and are disposed of as passing tolls. The greater number of vessels frequenting the port comes from the United States of America; for the great trade of Liverpool is in cotton, and the cotton supplied comes in largest quantities from the southern states of the Union. The following returns will give a correct idea of the progress of this trade. In 1770 there were imported into Liverpool 6037 bags 3 bales 3 barrels of raw cotton; but since the improvements of Hargreaves and Arkwright in spinning, the trade has greatly increased. Thus the importation was, in—
| Years | Vessels | Tonnage | Dock Duties | |-------|---------|---------|------------| | 1780 | 6,765,613| | 261,961,452| | 1800 | 56,010,732| | 583,400,000| | 1820 | 143,672,655| | 685,600,000|
In 1856 there were imported into Liverpool 2,028,850 bales of cotton.
A large trade is carried on in flour, grain, and corn. The imports of these in 1856 were—
| Wheat, qrs.| 370,162 | Flour, sacks...| 232,704 | | Corn, do...| 897,407 | Do. barrels...| 1,138,290 |
Two-thirds of all this comes from America. The quantity re-exported is small. The total sugar imported in 1856 was 76,000 tons, of which 17,840 tons were from the British West India plantations, 18,555 from Bengal, and 19,996 from Brazil.
For carrying on a trade so large great facilities are afforded. In 1715 the first dock was constructed with an area of three acres and a half. This sufficed for forty-two years; but, at an interval of eighteen years, another dock appeared, and within a period of fifty years five additional docks were made. In 1826 the corporation filled up the primitive dock in order to erect the custom-house on its site. In consequence of this proceeding, and the rapid increase of buildings, none of the docks run inland, but all extend along and parallel with the river. From 1830 to 1842, eight new docks were opened; and from 1845 to 1852, not less than fourteen docks and basins have been added. The total water space afforded by the docks is 200 acres; and the quays measure 14 miles in length. The river wall is 5 miles 200 yards long; the total area of the dock estate is 712 acres.
No other port can present anything to be compared with the Liverpool Docks. One serious inconvenience however is, that running along the river wall, they interrupt the ap-
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This is the first year when goods were rated as well as ships. proaches to the ferries, and when the gates are open, stop intercourse for a short time altogether. To remedy this an immense landing stage, constructed by Mr Cubitt, has been placed at St George's Pier, and this has not only promoted the comfort of passengers, but served as a very popular promenade. Another landing-stage has been constructed three times the size of the former one, at a cost of £150,000. Means, too, are under consideration for facilitating approach to the ferries.
Until 1826 there were few warehouses on the dock quays. The warehouses are in general up the town, or at some distance from the quays. The inconvenience of this provoked a lively agitation among the merchants, and, through the great exertion of several members of the council, the Albert Dock was constructed and surrounded, like St Katherine's Dock, London, by piles of ponderous warehouses. Stanley Dock has since also been surrounded by warehouses, and the new Wapping Docks are to have the same advantage.
Extensive as the dock accommodation is, it is no longer adequate to the wants of the port. Several new docks are projected at the N. end, on land reclaimed from the bay, under a certain understanding with the Earl of Derby; and in 1854, the corporation became purchasers of the Birkenhead Dock and estates for a sum of £1,143,000. But these docks, to be rendered available, will require a further outlay of £800,000.
The constitution of the dock management has undergone some changes. The corporation having been the first projectors and supporters of the docks, were recognised as trustees of the estate. Under the act 51st George III., the committee consisted of twenty-one persons, all members of and appointed by the common council, and this continued until the passing of the act 6th George IV. 1825, when the dock ratepayers were first directly represented by returning eight members to the committee; the council electing thirteen, including the chairman, and the council having a veto on the proceedings. This continued until the act of 1851, by which a committee of twenty-four is appointed—twelve by the council, and twelve by the dock ratepayers. The committee appoint their own chairman and deputy-chairman; the chairman being, however, one of the twelve members elected by the council. The council have also a veto on the proceedings of the committee by a majority of two-thirds.
The care of the port is divided between the dock committee and the corporation. The latter constructed the lighthouse and built the Wallasey embankment, to prevent the sea encroaching on the district and impairing the channels leading to the river; and the former provide buoys, and a marine surveyor whose duty it is to note the shifting of the sandbanks, and give notice to the pilots and mariners.
There are several eminent ship-builders in Liverpool, but of late the greater part of the trade has been in repairing and in the building of iron ships. There are five building-yards on the Lancashire side of the river, and three on the other side. Those on the Cheshire side combine graving with building docks, and, although there are several graving docks on the Liverpool side, they are found to be inadequate to the wants of the port. As might be expected, a large trade is carried on in ships. In 1856, 694 ships of 328,991 tons were sold, and of these one-fifth were bought by foreigners.
Liverpool is a place of trade rather than of manufactures, and those manufactures which exist are more for the supply of local wants than for general purposes. An attempt was made to establish a cotton manufactory, but without success.
The origin of the corporation, as we have already shown, was sufficiently humble. Deficient in strength itself, it sought to borrow power from neighbouring greatness, and of course shared the usual fate of dependants. When the house of Molyneux proved unkind, the corporation became the client of that of Stanley; but to the former family it seemed most attached. Against both patrons it occasionally played off the chancellor of the duchy. When compelled or disposed to send representatives to Parliament, it sometimes ventured to nominate one, leaving a blank to be filled up by the predominant power of the day. There was, however, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a partial growth of independence. Individuals acquired wealth; out of riches grew local rivalry; and small emnities were as violent then as at a later period. The corporation was not at first perplexed by forms; all the burgesses assembled at the Market Cross, until the number claiming to be present proved rather too numerous. A common council was then resorted to, but in time this became self-elected. The freemen, until about 1820, retained the right of electing the mayor, but subsequently this was a mere formality. The council filled up the blanks left in their ranks by death or resignation, until 1836, when the Municipal Reform Act restored the body to popular election. In the earlier days of the corporation, heads of the houses of Stanley and Molyneux frequently filled the civic chair, the duty no doubt being performed by deputy. The corporation having been always dependent on the Crown, acquired a sentiment of loyalty which is still discovered in a customary toast at the mayor's table. In the civil wars, the town suffered from three sieges, but it had not much to lose. To the house of Hanover it paid marked devotion, and up to 1836 the predominant feeling in the council was Toryism. The new act divided the town into sixteen wards, and gave to each ward three members and one alderman. At the first election the liberals prevailed, but in a few years the opposite party obtained a majority, and have kept it ever since.
Before the Reform Bill, freemen only could vote for a member of parliament; but as their number was large, frequent and violent contests took place. With one or two exceptions, however, Tory candidates were returned. Mr Brougham, now Lord Brougham, contested the borough with Mr Canning, but lost the election. The freemen being artisans, dependent on the West India and other great interests, were necessarily exposed to certain influences, but in the end nearly all became venal; and at the election of 1830, the friends of the adverse candidates, Mr Ewart and Mr Denison, it is alleged, spent £150,000. This great scandal hastened the reform measure. The Reform Bill continued the privilege of voting to the freemen, and, as usual, they aided the Conservative side. Under the provision of the act, however, their numbers are fast decreasing, and even now a contest is doubtful.
Next to London, the corporation of Liverpool is decidedly the richest in the kingdom. At first her income was miserably small, and centuries passed without improving it; but in 1777 the corporation purchased from Lord Molyneux, for £22,50, his reversion, expectant on the determination of his lease in the town dues, and these rose gradually from £20,000 a-year to £120,000. The income of the corporation is also derived from land within the town, from markets, and from police rates; the whole estimated at £268,000 for 1857. The claim to the town dues has often been questioned. A case was tried in the Court of King's Bench in 1831, and decided in favour of the corporation; but in 1856 Government brought in a bill to abolish them. Great resistance being offered, a select committee was appointed; it heard evidence, but made no report. The people of Manchester are opposed to these dues, and it is believed that ultimately there must be a compromise. The dues consist of small sums, hardly appreciable in amount, collected on merchandise. The dock-rates belong to no special interest, being devoted not to demands, but simply to interest of money borrowed, and the cost of working. With the increase of trade and wealth the mode of doing business underwent a great change. At the beginning of the present century the merchant had his counting-house and warehouse behind his dwelling-house. These mansions may now be seen in Hanover Street, Duke Street, Seel Street, and others, bearing still in their architecture evidence of cost and taste, although now mostly devoted to meaner uses. Thirty years later the mercantile offices began to gather about the Exchange; mean buildings were transformed into lordly edifices; and as much as L600 or L800 a-year is now (1857) paid for a suite of rooms on a single floor. Such rents are, of course, temptations to an increase of buildings; and in 1856 as much as L47 a square yard has been paid for building land near the town-hall. All the opulent classes live in the environs. Up to the year 1833 New Brighton was a sand-hill, without a single tenement on it; now it is covered with villas. The villas cover the hills and crowd the gorges, which extend from the Red Noses to Rock Ferry; while on the Lancashire side, Allerton, Woolton, Wavertree, Old Swan, Knotty Ash, West Derby, Walton, Crosby, Litherland, Waterloo, and Bootle, have been entirely occupied by the mansions and villas of the opulent people of Liverpool.
Although the old corporation admitted of no popular element, they did much in promoting the comfort and prosperity of the town. They gave 40 acres of land for the construction of docks; demolished the old castle, and placed a handsome church on its site; opened new markets; widened narrow and all but impassable streets; contributed to the building of the custom-house; erected several very handsome churches; and lent their aid individually to the establishment of many charitable institutions. Formerly the markets were held in the open streets, which were exceedingly narrow and inconvenient. Originally the conceptions of the council were not very large; and, naturally enough, when they provided markets they were very small ones, in the vicinity of the streets where the articles were formerly exposed for sale. The fish-market and the shambles were, therefore, placed in the neighbourhood of Castle Street; but these proving inadequate to the wants of the population, St John's Market, one of the largest in the world, was opened in 1822. It is 123 yards long, 45 wide, and embraces an area of 8235 square yards. The architecture is substantial though not ornamental. The roof is supported by 116 cast-iron pillars, and the market is lighted by 248 windows. Subsequently St James's Market at the S. end, and St Martin's Market at the N. end of the town were opened; and the corporation have added one market in Gill Street. But all these markets, with the exception of St John's, are indifferently attended; for the number of greengrocers has amazingly increased, and, as in London, bring the marketable necessaries of life to the door of almost every inhabitant. The wholesale butchers and cattle-dealers always held their market outside the town; and some years ago they constructed a very large and efficient market at the Old Swan, 3 miles from the borough.
One of the waterworks—the Bootle—was commenced in 1797; the Harrington Company's works, on a larger scale, followed soon after; but as the supply from these works was scanty, and utterly insufficient in cases of fire, an additional supply of water was obtained by sinking a well in Green Lane, in the township of West Derby. Complaints however continuing; in 1847 the corporation purchased the whole of these works for about L800,000, and soon afterwards obtained an act of parliament for constructing high-service waterworks at Rivington Pike, a few miles beyond Bolton. The distance from Liverpool is 26 miles; and the water was brought thence into Liverpool for the first time in January 1857.
The present town-hall, a noble structure, stands nearly Liverpool on the site of the original Market Cross. The primitive structure was a thatched edifice, erected on arches, somewhat after the fashion of the present town-hall of Chester. Above were the council-room and assembly-room, and the space underneath was intended to be used as an exchange. In 1754 it was opened with great eclat; but the arcades beneath being dark, the merchants declined to use it, and still continued to assemble on an open place in the street. In 1795 the building was consumed by fire, but was restored two years afterwards; the interior being pretty much what it is now. The present dome and cupola were completed in 1802, and the projecting portion and its rustic arced basement were added in 1811. The interior of the building is very fine. There are a spacious hall, a council-room, treasurer's office, and town-clerk's offices, on the basement story. A very splendid staircase leads to a suite of drawing-rooms, a very fine dining-room, an immense ball-room, with a smaller one attached. On the first landing of the staircase stands Chantrey's statue of Canning, considered one of that great artist's masterpieces; in the reception-rooms is a portrait of Canning by Lawrence, and one of George III. by Shee; and also portraits of the Duke of Kent, George IV., and William IV. In the council-chamber are portraits of various gentlemen who have passed the mayoral chair; the last taken being that of Mr William Wallace Currie, the first mayor of the borough under the Municipal Reform Act. The town-hall is made, with great propriety, to form one square of the exchange. This noble pile of building was commenced in 1803. The cost was estimated at L80,000; and although no one was allowed to take up more than ten shares, the whole sum was subscribed in less than two hours. The building was completed in 1809, at the cost of L110,840. It forms three sides of a square, the fourth being formed by the town-hall. The inclosed area is 197 feet by 178, and has in the centre a bronze monument in honour of Nelson, erected in 1813, at a cost of L9000. It was designed by M. C. Wyatt, and executed in bronze by Westmacott.
The mercantile offices which have sprung up around the Exchange are remarkable for their architectural beauty, as well as for their convenience. Water Street, from the town-hall to George's Dock, presents a succession of such buildings. On the site of the old tower, the last remnant of the Castle, have been erected the Tower Buildings—a mass of counting-houses, ornamented towards the river by an Italian tower, now used as a semaphore telegraph station. Fenwick Street, at right angles with Water Street, presents a succession of buildings equally beautiful. The Corn Exchange is in Brunswick Street; and in the same street is the Union Bank, a perfect architectural bijou; and a little further on, in James Street, at the top of Fenwick Street, is the North and South Wales Bank, equally entitled to notice. In Castle Street stands the Branch Bank of England, constructed by Mr Cockerell; and in the same street the Commercial Bank Buildings, erected after Mr Cunningham's design. North John Street, which runs parallel with Castle Street, is entirely devoted to offices; and in Dale Street are situated the Royal Bank Buildings, remarkable for boldness of design. The custom-house, which stands at the foot of South Street, was built after a design of John Foster, at the cost of L283,804. The estimate was L175,000; and although the building is an imposing one in appearance, it is regarded as not fully answering its purposes. In front of it is a bronze statue of Huskisson, by Gibson. Part of the custom-house is used as a dock-office, and another part of it as the post-office; for neither of which is the building particularly suitable. To the E. of the custom-house is the Sailors' Home, which is admirably adapted to the intended object of the Marine Board, and for a sailors' depot. Lord Street, Church Street, and Bold Street boast very splendid shops. These streets are the most fashionable resort. The shops compete in extent and grandeur with those of Regent and Bond Streets, London, and in one or two instances are pronounced superior. At the extremity of Bold Street is one of the finest churches in Liverpool—St Luke's, from a design of Foster, one of the discoverers of the famous marbles; and higher up, in Hardman Street, is the Blind Asylum and the Philharmonic Hall. The portico of the Blind Asylum chapel is a fac-simile of that of Jupiter Panhellenius at Ægina, after the design of Foster. This hall cost £37,000, was built after the design of Mr Cunningham, and is unquestionably one of the most admirable music halls in the world. It is lighted by an ingenious plan of concealed gases under the ceiling; it will accommodate 3000 people; and is admirably ventilated. The Philharmonic Society embraces the wealth and fashion of Liverpool. It gives from a dozen to twenty concerts in the year, and at these concerts, from time to time, appear all the great artists who visit England. Subscribers only are admitted to the boxes and stalls; but spacious galleries, capable of containing 1000 persons, are open to the public at prices varying from one to five shillings each. A very beautiful little chapel, belonging to the Unitarians, stands contiguous to the last-mentioned building; and in the vicinity there are several other chapels, including that of the Blind Asylum.
When Liverpool had completely emerged from its obscurity, laudable efforts were made to provide for the amusement and intellectual improvement of the people. The Athenæum Library and News-room owes its origin, in 1799, to the celebrated Roscoe, who was a native of Liverpool; and the Lyceum was built in 1804, when the old Liverpool Library was removed to it. The Royal Institution, founded in 1814, was intended for the instruction of the public, by the delivery of scientific and literary lectures, the establishment of public schools, and the formation of a museum of natural history and works of art. A news-room was also established in the Union Buildings, Duke Street; but the great news-room of the town is that in the E. side of the Exchange Buildings, to which subscribers are admitted by the annual payment of three guineas each. The room above it is also a Lloyd's room, devoted exclusively to the underwriters. The subscribers to the general news-room number more than 3000. The Athenæum Library, containing many valuable works, was, until recently, not a lending library; but in 1856 it was resolved that subscribers should be permitted to take out works for reading at home. The Lyceum Library has always been a lending library, and is unquestionably one of the largest and best conducted in England. There are also several private libraries of considerable extent in the town. The Royal Institution has a theatre for lectures, a gallery of ancient art, a museum of considerable value, to which the public are admitted every Monday, and a school of high repute, but which is no longer under the control of the members of the Institution. A free library was established here in 1852. (See article Libraries.)
In Lime Street is the London and North-Western Railway Station, which owes much of its architectural attraction to the liberality of the town-council, who contributed largely to the cost. Opposite to it St George's Hall stands out boldly in a large open space on the brow of a descent; and when the Free Library is built on the north side, a magnificent place will present itself for ornament and recreation. St George's Hall is a massive pile of building in the classical style of architecture, designed by the late Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, and after his decease, carried out by Charles Robert Cockerell, R.A., of London, the professor of architecture to the Royal Academy. The ground on which this ornament to Liverpool has been erected slopes down considerably to the W.; and a plat-form has been built containing a number of apartments, and an extensive apparatus for warming and ventilating the building above. On this basement, at the south end, a magnificent portico, with a double row of Corinthian columns, eight in front and four behind, and a pediment filled with sculpture, rises from an extensive flight of steps, forming the principal feature of the building. At the N. end a semicircular arrangement of eight attached columns incloses a hall, which appears to be the natural entrance to the edifice, and is so used when concerts are given. But there are three other entrances more generally available at the E. side, under a colonnade of sixteen pillars, forming what is called the east portico, also approached by a handsome flight of steps. Considering this to be the main building, the wings N. and S. are carried out with square pillars; the intercolumniations being built up so as to form the outer walls of the apartments within. On these screens it is proposed, at some time, to place statues and bas-reliefs on the panels between the pillars. There is no pediment on this side; but above the main façade there is an attic which extends over the whole building; and a second attic of considerably greater height, to cover the roof of the principal room which has given the name of St George's Hall to the whole structure. This fine hall, intended for public meetings and concerts, is 169 feet long, 74 feet wide on the floor, with galleries on each side 13 feet in depth, and is 84 feet high. The ceiling is semicylindrical, divided by arching and longitudinal bands into panels of various shapes and sizes, which are profusely decorated with plaster ornaments in relief, upon faintly coloured grounds, in the style of the modern continental Renaissance. Tritons and mermaids, tridents, masks, caducei, fasces, various coats of arms, St George and the Dragon, are scattered in profusion over the vault, which is supported on each side by five lateral arches springing from six columns of polished red Aberdeen granite, and massive piers which divide the galleries into deep recesses. On the western side these recesses are occupied by five lofty windows, 18 feet 6 inches high, and 8 feet 7 inches wide. The capitals of the columns are plaster, painted to imitate the granite shafts, it having been contemplated at one time to make them of bronze. The frieze of the entablature above them is curvilinear, and also painted to imitate red granite. The spandrels of these lateral arches are decorated with colossal figures, in alto-reliëvo, of Prudence, Fortitude, Science, Art, Justice, and Temperance, in duplicate, and principally copied from Raphael's designs of these subjects in the Stanze of the Vatican at Rome. Prudence resembles a figure by Michael Angelo. On the floor, which is a beautiful specimen of Minton's encaustic tiles, inscriptions in Latin and English, referring to the figures above, are worked in so as to furnish both ornament and instruction. A portion of this floor, all round the room, is raised about two feet, to receive the warming and ventilating apparatus. Flights of steps at each end of the hall lead to the Crown Court at the S. end, and the Civil Court at the N. These entrances are between pillars of grey granite supporting an architrave, over which there is a semicircular opening, through which the architect, Mr Elmes, contemplated a vista of the whole length of the three compartments from the back of each court—a length of about 300 feet. His object has been defeated by his neglect to provide a situation for the organ, which is one of the finest in the world, built by Willis, under the superintendence of Dr S. S. Wesley, and is now placed on a circular platform occupying the N. end of the hall, and obstructing the view of the entrance into the Civil Court. Semicircular windows, 33 feet in diameter, concentric with the ceiling, are introduced at each end. There are three entrances on each side, closed by folding gates of bronze, from the corridors, corresponding with the three outer doors. Liverpool, a seaport town of Nova Scotia, capital of Queen's County, on the right bank of a cognominal stream, near its mouth, 75 miles S.S.W. of Halifax; N. Lat. 44° 3', W. Long. 64° 42'. It is regularly laid out, and contains several good public buildings. The harbour is commodious, but the bar admits only vessels of light draught. Timber and dried fish are exported in large quantities to the West Indies and the United States. In 1851, 84 vessels, of the aggregate burden of 9808 tons, and 104 of 12,640 tons, cleared at the port. The exports in that year amounted in value to L30,392, of which the value of L29,049 were sent to the West Indian Islands. Pop. of county (1851) 7256.