(Latin, Londinium; French, Londres; Italian, Londra), the metropolis of the British Empire, and one of the greatest cities of ancient or modern times, is situate on both banks of the Thames, about 45 miles above its mouth at the North, and 15 below the highest tide-water. Though chiefly within the county of Middlesex, London includes parts of Surrey and Kent, and extends into Essex. St Paul's, the most striking object in the city, is in Lat. 51° 30'. 48. N., Long. 0° 5. 48. W. of Greenwich.

In dealing with so important a subject, it will, perhaps, be expedient to treat shortly of its various branches in the following order, viz.:

I. Rise, progress, and present extent of London. II. Number, occupations, and social condition of its inhabitants. III. Religious worship and education. IV. Parks, palaces, public buildings, and institutions. V. Civic government, police, defence, representation, &c.

Its early history is lost in obscurity, and the first authentic notice of its existence is that of Tacitus (Annales, lib. xiv., cap. 3), who, in alluding to Londinium, says, "Cognomento quidem coloniae non insigne, sed copia negotiatorum et commercium maximo celebre." The derivation of the name "London" has been the subject of much conjecture, but that mentioned by Pennant (London, p. 17) seems most feasible, viz., Llyn Din, from Llyn, in Celtic, a lake, and din, a town. It could not, however, have been a place of importance at the period of Julius Caesar's invasion, as it is not noticed in his Commentaries. About 100 years thereafter the Romans, under Claudius, took possession of the city, and called it Augusta, in honour of that prince. It was erected into a prefecture; and the inhabitants, nominally citizens of Rome, were governed by Roman laws and Roman magistrates.

London was not fortified at an early period of the Roman occupation; for in A.D. 61, the Britons under Boadicea revolted, captured and burned the city, and massacred the inhabitants. The city was soon, however, rebuilt, but is supposed to have remained open till the reign of Constantine the Great. From the number of coins of his time found under the walls, it may be inferred that that emperor constructed the walls; and it is alleged that he made London an episcopal see. The limits of these walls have been pretty exactly ascertained. They commenced near the site of the present Tower, extended along the Minories and back of Houndsditch, across Bishopsgate Street, in a straight line, by London Wall, to Cripplegate; thence southward to Aldersgate, proceeding afterwards by the back of Christ's Hospital and Old Newgate, passing behind the site of Newgate Prison, and so reaching Ludgate; again proceeding westwards to the River Fleet, and terminating at a fort called afterwards Baynard's Castle. Their compass was completed by another wall along the bank of the Thames. Extent of the walls, from end to end of the river, 2 miles and 1 furlong; on the bank, 1 mile and ½th; uniform height, 22 feet. Through gates in these walls roads led to different parts of the kingdom. The great Roman roads, Watling Street and Ermine Street, had their termini at the London Stone, or Roman Milliarium, a portion of which still remains, and is inserted in the most conspicuous part of St Swithin's Church, abutting on Cannon Street. The names of the gates are still preserved in streets, &c.—viz., Ludgate, Aldersgate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Newgate, Cripplegate, and Postern Row, on Tower Hill.

After the Romans withdrew their forces from England, London suffered severely till the Saxons fixed themselves in the country. It is said to have become then the capital of the East Saxon kingdom; at any rate, it quickly regained its former importance, and is called by Venerable Bede a "princely town of trade." Soon after the introduction of Christianity, Old St Paul's, and St Peter's at Westminster, were founded.

When the Saxon monarchies were united in the person of Egbert, London became the capital of the consolidated kingdom, and such it has continued to be. In the reign of Alfred it recovered from the effects of the Danish invasion, as well as from those of a fire, which nearly consumed it in 893.

After the battle of Hastings, the city submitted to Wil- In the following reign it was visited by a hurricane and an inundation; the latter carrying away the first wooden bridge over the Thames. Henry I. granted a new charter to the city in 1100, restoring the privileges it enjoyed previous to the Conquest, and conferring on the citizens the right of electing their own magistrates. It is said that this document served as the model for Magna Charta. The population in 1141 was estimated by Peter of Blois at 40,000. The title of the chief magistrate was changed by Henry II. from Portreeve to Bailiff; and in 1191 he is called Lord Mayor in a document issued by the Court of Aldermen. In 1198 Richard I. committed the duty of fixing a national standard of weights and measures to the sheriffs of London and Middlesex. John, by several charters, conferred additional favours on the city; among others, the jurisdiction and conservation of the Rivers Thames and Medway; and the power of choosing sheriffs.

In 1221, the first stone of the present Westminster Abbey was laid by Henry III.; and in 1236 water was conveyed in pipes from the village of Tyburn to the city.

In 1258 and 1270 the city was visited by famine, and in 1348 by a species of plague, on all of which occasions it suffered grievously.

Under Edward I. London was first divided into twenty-four wards, each to choose common councilmen and an alderman. Edward II., in 1316, prohibited as a nuisance the burning of coal, then lately introduced, but his mistake was soon discovered and rectified. Under Edward III. the city received the perpetual right of magistracy over Southwark. In 1381 the citizens were alarmed by the insurrection of Wat Tyler, but this was soon suppressed. Street lamps were first used in 1416. In the wars of the Roses, London chiefly favoured the interests of the House of York; and after the battle of Barnet, in 1471, Edward IV. knighted the mayor, recorder, and twelve aldermen. This was the era of the first printing-press, constructed and worked by Caxton in Westminster Abbey; as well as of the erection of water cisterns and conduits in several parts of the city and suburbs.

In the reign of Henry VII., a disease called the "sweating sickness" carried off two mayors and six aldermen, with many citizens. Some considerable improvements were made in this reign, as well as in that of Henry VIII., to which the suppression of religious houses by the latter materially contributed; these giving way to schools, hospitals, and charitable institutions.

Thanks to the wisdom of Elizabeth, the prosperity of London rapidly advanced during her reign. The refugees from the Netherlands introduced numerous manufactures before unknown in England, and in this way conferred especial benefits on London.

By maps of the time of Elizabeth and James I., it may be seen that the chief part of London then consisted of Newgate Street, Cheapside, the Poultry and Cornhill, and the various streets and alleys leading from them to the Thames. Along the Strand, towards Westminster, were houses on both sides—those to the S., and abutting on the river, being the palaces of the chief nobility. The names of Salisbury, Norfolk, Buckingham, Arundel, Essex, &c., have been perpetuated in the streets now on the sites of palaces and gardens formerly belonging to these families. Spring Gardens formed a series of walks, with bowling-green, &c., extending from Charing Cross towards Whitechapel Palace, whence to the Abbey there was a regular street. On the Surrey side, there were not ten buildings between Lambeth and the west foot of Blackfriars Bridge; but from that point a row of houses was continued to the Borough. Southwark then extended but a short distance along High Street; and there were small scattered houses from Tooley Street to Horsleydown. In the reign of James I. brick was introduced as a substitute for wood in London houses, and the streets were first paved with stones. The city was severely visited by the plague in 1604, and again in the reign of Charles I. During the civil war, a majority of the corporation took part with the Commons, and the city treasury was of great service to their party.

After the Restoration London began greatly to revive; Plague and but a serious check was given to it by the last visit of the great fire, plague, which raged from June till the end of December 1665, and destroyed nearly a third of the population. This was speedily followed by the "Great Fire," which commenced 2d September 1666, lasted four days and nights, and in that time reduced to ashes five-sixths of the whole city within the walls. The ruins covered a space more than a mile long and half a mile broad; and the value of buildings and goods consumed was estimated at ten to twelve millions sterling. But though severe at the time, this visitation contributed materially to the improvement of the city. It was rebuilt on a more commodious plan by Sir Christopher Wren in about four years. From the time of its recon-

Reconstruction, few stirring events occurred. The first stone structure of St Paul's was laid in 1675. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 brought to London many French Protestant families, who peopled Spitalfields, and introduced the manufacture of silk. The continued growth of the city in the reign of Queen Anne occasioned the act of 1711 for building fifty new churches, the cost being paid by a tax on all coals brought into the Thames. The streets were then first generally lighted; fire-engines were provided, and measures taken for watching the city. In her reign, Clerkenwell, Old Street, the lower part of Shoreditch, Marlborough Street, Soho, Bedford Row, Red Lion Square, and a district north of Holborn, were annexed to the metropolis.

In the reign of George I., some additions were made to London, chiefly to the north of Oxford Street and about Berkeley Square. In the reign of George II., some new parishes were erected, viz., St George's, Bloomsbury; St Ann's, Limehouse; St Paul's, Deptford; and St Matthew's, Bethnal Green. The River Fleet was covered, and a market built on it; Grosvenor Square, Westminster Bridge, and Great George Street were built; and roads were formed in several directions, the principal one skirting the northern part of the city from Paddington to Islington.

The accession of George III. gave a fresh stimulus to improvement and extension. A new bridge at Blackfriars, with handsome streets leading to it, and many new dwellings on the Surrey side, were erected. On the N.W. side the parishes of St Pancras and Marylebone were formed. At the same period the street pavement for foot passengers was first laid down, the kerneils removed from the middle to the sides of the streets, and the numbering of houses introduced. The American war gave a temporary check to extension; but soon after the peace of 1783, the advance became more rapid than ever. Docks were constructed, the commerce of the city rapidly augmented, the ground near the water side was covered with buildings, and, westward, Bedford, Russell, and Brunswick Squares quickly sprung up. From the Regency in 1811, London advanced in extent and in elegance still more rapidly. Regent's Park was formed, and surrounded by handsome terraces; and within the last few years the extensive and fashionable districts called Belgravia and Tyburnia—the former to the south and the latter to the north of Hyde Park—have been created, and literally covered with houses of a high class. In 1851 there were 305,933 inhabited houses in the metropolis, and there are no less than 6300 streets enumerated in the London Postal Guide for January, 1857. It is difficult to assign any distinct boundaries to the metropolis, as almost continuous lines of houses stretch like branches from the main trunk of London, to Chiswick, Kensal Green, Kilburn, Hampstead, Highgate, Stamford Hill, and Upper Clapton in Middlesex; Stratford and North Woolwich in Essex; Greenwich and Lee in Kent; and Dulwich, Norwood, Clapham, Wandsworth, and Putney in Surrey. These, too, are constantly increasing in length and breadth; the vacant spaces between distant lines of road being filled up with extraordinary rapidity. The circle formed on a radius of 4 miles from Charing Cross excludes a large portion of London; but its extreme length may be set down as 10 miles, and its breadth at about 6. There are four divisions of the metropolis which, though rather vague, are pretty generally understood by Londoners,—these are, the City, the West End, Lambeth, and the Borough; the two first on the Middlesex, and the others on the Surrey side of the water. The city of London proper has an area of 725 acres, and contains 108 parishes,—97 within, and 11 without the walls. In its most limited sense, the metropolis includes the cities of London and Westminster, the parliamentary boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Finsbury, Marylebone, Lambeth, and Southwark. Annexed is an account of the population of the various cities and boroughs above mentioned, as ascertained by the different censuses, beginning with the first in 1801:

| Cities and Boroughs | 1801 | 1811 | 1821 | 1831 | 1841 | |--------------------|------|------|------|------|------| | London City | 156,859 | 125,434 | 122,863 | 120,702 | 127,869 | | Westminster ditto | 168,210 | 162,658 | 182,085 | 201,842 | 219,930 | | Tower Hamlets Borough | 184,568 | 237,487 | 291,650 | 357,246 | 419,730 | | Finsbury | 134,616 | 167,130 | 201,731 | 259,123 | 265,043 | | Marylebone | 97,642 | 125,566 | 174,344 | 240,294 | 287,465 | | Lambeth | 49,886 | 76,906 | 108,555 | 160,563 | 197,412 | | Southwark | 94,813 | 103,763 | 123,663 | 134,117 | 142,620 | | Total | 876,694 | 994,746 | 1,207,482 | 1,476,048 | 1,652,902 |

The metropolitan district comprised within the bills of mortality includes, with the cities and boroughs embraced in the foregoing table, other integral parts of London, like Chelsea, Brompton, and Kensington; and the suburbs, such as Greenwich, Wandsworth, Hammersmith, Putney, &c. In this view, the area of the metropolis is 78,029 acres, comprising 186 parishes, and the present population may be estimated at upwards of 2½ millions. Annexed is an account of the population of this area at the date of each census, commencing with 1801:

| Years | Population | Years | Population | |-------|------------|-------|------------| | 1801 | 958,883 | 1831 | 1,654,594 | | 1811 | 1,138,815 | 1841 | 1,948,417 | | 1821 | 1,378,947 | 1851 | 2,562,236 |

But many merchants and citizens, taking advantage of the easy access to the country afforded by the railways, occupy houses at such places as Kingston, Esher, Walton, Richmond, Twickenham, Staines, Windsor, Reigate, Brighton, &c., making daily journeys to and from the city, so that they and their families are not included in the foregoing account.

The situation of London, on the banks of a great tidal river, is also peculiarly favourable for a large city, in a sanitary point of view. The subsoil is partly clay (the London clay of the geologist). The valley of the Thames has a gradual ascent on the north side; and the south side, though below the level of spring tides, has been well secured against inundations by embankments. The air is temperate and rather dry than moist; and the health of the inhabitants has gradually but rapidly improved from the earlier part of last century, when the deaths were annually one in twenty of the population, whereas at present they are about one in forty.

It may therefore be safely affirmed that, in proportion to its population, London is much more healthy than any other great city. The registrar-general and Board of Health, however, point out in their various reports to Parliament how much more salubrious are some parts of the metropolis than others. But London, comparatively healthy as it is, has been in times past, and is still, occasionally visited by pestilence. The great plague of 1665 and its ravages have already been mentioned; but at that period open drains and filthy habits were the order of the day. From the bills of mortality for 1665, it appears that 97,306 burials took place, of which 68,596 were those of victims to the plague; while the total baptisms were 9967.

In 1854 there were 84,885 births and 74,697 deaths in London; but the rate of mortality in that year was greatly increased by the cholera, no less than 11,661 persons having died of that disease. This mortality from cholera, however, large as it appears, was less than that of 1849; the deaths in the latter being at the rate of 62, and in the former of 43 to every 10,000 persons living.

Annexed is a statement of the annual rate of mortality per cent. in London and the whole of England during each of the five years ending with 1854:

| Deaths to 100 Persons Living | |-----------------------------| | 1850 | 2:104 | 2:339 | 2:258 | 2:435 | 2:292 | | England | 2:077 | 2:199 | 2:236 | 2:288 | 2:352 |

Fevers and pulmonary diseases are those most fatal in the metropolis.

In 1851 there were in London 3149 independent gentlemen, and there were also 4674 male and 22,284 female annuitants.

We extract from the population returns of 1851 and subjoin a classified statement of persons, distinguishing their sexes, employed in the chief trades and professions in the metropolis:

| Trades and Professions | Males | Females | Total | |------------------------|-------|---------|------| | Bakers | 11,580 | 543 | 12,123 | | Blacksmiths | 7,807 | 23 | 7,830 | | Boatmen and bargemen | 4,417 | | 4,417 | | Booksellers, publishers, and bookbinders | 5,285 | 293 | 5,578 | | Boot and shoe makers | 30,855 | 7,158 | 38,013 | | Brewers | 2,617 | | 2,617 | | Bricklayers | 13,919 | | 13,919 | | Brush and broom makers | 2,928 | 1,205 | 4,133 | | Butchers | 4,588 | | 4,588 | | Cabinetmakers and joiners | 4,558 | 1,451 | 11,009 | | Cement carriers, and carriers | 8,656 | 41 | 8,697 | | Carpenters and joiners | 23,453 | | 23,453 | | Clerks (commercial) | 16,420 | | 16,420 | | Coachmakers (all branches) | 2,715 | | 2,715 | | Cheesemongers | 4,948 | 81 | 5,029 | | Coal-heavers and labourers | 4,020 | | 4,020 | | Coopers | 3,876 | | 3,876 | | Curriers, tanners, and workers in leather | 5,764 | 219 | 5,983 | | Dressmakers, milliners, and seamstresses | 65,138 | | 65,138 | | Drapers | 7,466 | 958 | 8,424 | | Engine and machine makers | 6,583 | 9 | 6,592 | | Fishmongers and fish-dealers | 1,571 | 157 | 2,728 | | Grocers | 7,938 | 692 | 8,630 | | Grocers and tea dealers | 3,880 | 980 | 4,860 | | Grocers and tea dealers | 7,933 | 698 | 8,631 | | Hat manufacturers (all branches) | 3,326 | 1,227 | 4,553 | | Jewellers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths | 5,388 | 287 | 5,675 | | Law clerks | 5,670 | | 5,670 | | Masons, paviours, and stone-cutters | 4,578 | | 4,578 | London.

Trades and Professions.

| Occupation | Males | Females | Total | |-----------------------------------|-------|---------|-------| | Merchants (general) | 2,671 | 7 | 2,678 | | Milk-sellers and cow-keepers | 3,038 | 1,902 | 4,940 | | Painters, plumbers, and glaziers | 15,369| | 15,369| | Plasterers | 4,378 | | 4,378 | | Porters, messengers, and errand-boys | 33,059| 262 | 33,321| | Printers | 10,355| | 10,355| | Saddlers, harness and collar makers | 2,652 | 94 | 2,746 | | Seamen | 11,857| | 11,857| | Servants, domestic (general) | 32,928| 165,195 | 198,123| | Shipwrights and shipbuilders | 3,273 | | 3,273 | | Silk manufacturers (all branches); see also silk dyers | 7,679 | 8,372 | 15,951| | Stationers | 2,389 | 499 | 2,879 | | Surgeons and other medical men (see physicians) | 5,079 | | 5,079 | | Tailors | 22,479| 8,222 | 30,701| | Tavern-keepers, publicans, and victuallers | 6,972 | 979 | 7,951 | | Tobacconists, and tobacco and snuff manufacturers | 1,513 | 478 | 1,991 | | Warehousemen and women | 3,988 | 84 | 4,072 | | Watchmakers | 4,847 | | 4,847 |

Commerce.

As one of the great occupations of its inhabitants, the commerce of London demands the first notice. The capital of a great empire, with immense wealth concentrated in it, having easy access, both by land and water, to all parts of the kingdom, and every facility of communication with foreign countries, London has become, with perhaps the single exception of New York, the greatest commercial city in the world.

The commercial growth and prosperity of London are especially to be ascribed to its great river-port, the Thames. This famous stream has its source within the borders of Gloucestershire, a little to the S.W. of Cirencester, and becomes navigable at Lechlade, 135 miles above London. It is first affected by the tide about 15 miles above the metropolis; but before reaching this point, it is swollen by junction with the Isis, Kennet, Coln, and Wey. The city corporation are the chief conservators of the river, and appoint a navigation committee, who superintend the towing-paths, bridges, water-courses, and whatever relates to the river, as far as a stone a little above Staines Bridge. Higher up, the supervision is divided between the city and a body chiefly composed of the landowners on both sides of the river.

The conservation of the river below London is also in some measure under the government of the City Corporation, but the Trinity House has concurrent jurisdiction, and no ballast can be raised without its authority. The appointment and control of pilots, the placing and repairs of landmarks and buoys to indicate the channels, and the establishment of floating lights, are also under the superintendence of the Trinity House. Close to London Bridge there is water sufficient for vessels of 800 tons burthen, and the legislature has placed the shipping of the port and their moorings under the direction of the harbour-masters nominated by the corporation, and approved by the Trinity House.

The sinuosities, currents, and shoals in the river, and its varying depth, render the navigation rather intricate. The river pilots, who are a distinct class, conduct vessels to Gravesend, where they are relieved by the sea pilots.

Down to 1800, the commerce of London and the shipping interest suffered materially from the crowded state of the river, and the difficulties, delays, and abuses, connected with the berthing and mooring of vessels, and the landing and storing of merchandise. These evils led to the construction of the West India Docks, which were opened in August 1802.

West India docks.

These, next to the Commercial Docks, the oldest in London, were formed in the gorge of the Isle of Dogs, on the Middlesex side of the river. They comprise an import and an export dock (communicating with the river at Blackwall and Limehouse), and a dock of nineteen acres for bended timber.

The export dock, occupies about twenty-five, and the import dock thirty acres. The gates are forty-five feet wide, and admit vessels of 1200 tons. At the highest spring-tides the water is 24 feet deep; and within the docks there is sufficient space for 600 vessels of from 250 to 600 tons. The import and export docks are parallel to each other, but divided by stacks of warehouses. There are sheds for sheltering the goods; and the chief warehouses are capable of storing 170,000 hlbs. of sugar, besides coffee and other tropical productions. The whole space occupied by these docks and warehouses is 295 acres.

The East India Docks at Blackwall now belong to, and East India are managed by the same company as the West India docks. Docks. They were commenced in 1803, finished in 1806, and were intended to accommodate the trade of the East India Company. They include an import basin of eighteen acres, an export basin of about nine, and an entrance basin of 23 acres. The entrance lock is 210 feet wide, the width of the gates 48 feet, and the depth of water in the docks is never less than 23 feet. The extent of warehouse-room at these docks is comparatively small. The East and West India Docks are well inclosed and guarded, and the buildings are fireproof.

The London Docks, situate between Ratcliff Highway and the Thames, were begun in June 1802, and opened in January 1805. They consist of two docks; the western covering twenty acres, and the eastern about seven acres. The latter is entered from Shadwell, and the former near Wapping Old Stairs, and also at the Hermitage. The whole can receive 500 vessels of from 200 to 800 tons. The entire space inclosed is seventy-one acres. The warehouses are very fine; the most extraordinary being that for bonded tobacco. The roof and pillars supporting it are of iron, and the whole building covers five acres of land, and is capable of containing 24,000 hlbs.

The company is governed by a body of directors, of whom the lord mayor is one. The regulations to prevent fire and pilfering are as effectual as in the East and West India Docks.

St Katharine's Docks, situate between the London St Katharine Docks and the Tower, were executed in a year and a half, and first opened in October 1828. The whole extent of the property is twenty-four acres, of which nearly one-half is included in the two docks, communicating by a basin. The entrance lock, near Irongate Wharf, is 180 feet long, and 45 feet broad, and admits ships of from 200 to 800 tons. The warehouses are very large and commodious, and the regulations and charges are similar to those of the other docks.

Victoria Docks, the last constructed, were completed in Victoria 1855. They are situate in the Plaistow Marshes, immediately below the East and West India Docks. The portion of this property appropriated by the Dock Company for their own purposes is about 200 acres, but the dock itself occupies but seventy-four, and affords 234 feet depth of water. The entrance lock at Bow Creek is 300 feet long, and 80 wide. There is a half-tide basin of sixteen acres; and the available warehouse floor is stated to be upwards of eleven acres. The company have also acquired about an acre and a half between Thames Street and the river for the erection of an up-town warehouse. One object of the company is to withdraw from the Thames a portion of the large fleet of colliers which lie at anchor in the Pool, and seriously obstruct the traffic on the river.

On the other bank of the Thames, extending along the Commerce side of the river opposite Limehouse, and terminating nearly at the docks opposite the entrance to the West India Docks, are the Commercial, formerly the Greenland Docks, which existed in the seventeenth century. They are now of great extent, including 120 acres, of which seventy are water, and were designed to receive vessels laden with timber, corn, and London. other commodities more bulky than costly. These docks are entered by a basin near Dog-and-Duck Stairs, sometimes called the East Country Docks, and the main body of the water within is divided into six unequal parts.

Parallel to these is the Surrey Canal, having an inner and outer dock at its entrance in Rotherhithe, by which ships are received, and affording communication with the Croydon Canal.

The Regent's Canal was formed to save expense of carriage through London of articles brought by sea, and afterwards forwarded for consumption to the N.W. parts of the metropolis; and also to communicate with the Grand Junction Canal. The Regent's Canal passes from Paddington by a tunnel under Maida Hill to the Regent's Park, thence to Islington, under which it is carried by a tunnel three-quarters of a mile in length, and so on to Hoxton, Hackney, and Limehouse. It is 9 miles long, and is provided with twelve large locks.

It is not easy, within a moderate compass, to give even a sketch of the foreign commerce of London. It would be an epitome of that of the world. To the British capital are brought the products, natural and artificial, of all soils and all climates. It has in store whatever the ingenuity and industry of man in any part of the globe can spare to exchange for what his own country does not yield. We can, therefore, do little more than state the number and size of the vessels that belong to and frequent the port, and the value of the produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom exported from the same.

Account of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels belonging to the Port of London on 31st December 1855.

| Description of Vessels | Under 50 Tons | Above 50 Tons | |------------------------|--------------|--------------| | Sailing vessels | 617 | 21,293 | | Steamers | 132 | 4,827 | | Total | 749 | 25,630 |

Account of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels which have entered the Port of London from Foreign Countries and the Colonies, in each of the five years ending with 1855.

| Years | Vessels | Tonnage | |-------|---------|---------| | 1851 | 10,341 | 2,170,322 | | 1852 | 9,986 | 2,160,157 | | 1853 | 11,763 | 2,594,113 | | 1854 | | | | 1855 | | |

Account of the Number and Tonnage of Coasting Vessels that entered the Port of London in 1855, distinguishing British from Foreign.

| Description of Vessels | British | Foreign | |------------------------|---------|---------| | Sailing vessels | 17,759 | 2,438,678 | | Steamers | 1,297 | 411,444 | | Total | 19,056 | 2,850,117 |

The conveyance of coals to London employs a great deal of shipping. They are chiefly brought from the northeastern district of the kingdom, and are sold at the New Coal Exchange, lately erected in Lower Thames Street.

Account of the Number of Ships laden with Coal which entered the Port of London in each Year from 1845 to 1855 inclusive.

| Years | Ships | |-------|-------| | 1845 | 11,987 | | 1846 | 10,488 | | 1847 | 11,911 | | 1848 | 12,257 | | 1849 | 12,074 | | 1850 | 12,633 | | 1851 | 11,765 | | 1852 | 12,635 | | 1853 | 12,111 | | 1854 | 11,857 | | 1855 | 10,734 |

Very large quantities of coals now reach London by means of the railways which centre in the metropolis.

Declared Value of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures exported from London to Foreign Countries and the Colonies in 1855 and 1856.

| Year | Gold | Silver | Copper | Total | |------|------|--------|--------|-------| | 1855 | L4,152,183 | L140,480 | L90,966 | L4,353,629 | | 1856 | 9,008,683 | 195,511 | 41,691 | 9,245,885 | | Total | 19,162,960 | 798,519 | 113,375 | 20,074,854 |

The commercial institutions of London are well adapted for business by their localities and regulations. The first object of importance to every ship, on its arrival in port, is the custom-house.

The present custom-house, opened in May 1817, stands Custom House in Lower Thames Street, with its principal and imposing house, front, 480 feet long, towards the river, and occupies the site of a similar but smaller one destroyed by fire in 1814, as a preceding one had been in 1718.

The long room is a noble apartment, 186 feet long, 60 broad, and of an appropriate height, with desks on each side for the several officers; the centre being left for such of the public as have business there. The other parts are distributed so as to suit the several branches of the office. The London customs establishment of clerks, tide-waiters, &c., amounted in 1856 to 2,167; though, as but 1,620 were required for all the other English ports, it would seem as if the numbers here were excessive.

Amount of Customs Duties collected in the Port of London in 1855 and 1856.

| Year | Amount | |------|--------| | 1855 | L11,595,125 | | 1856 | 12,287,619 |

The Society of the Trinity House has its chief establishment in a large and handsome house on Tower Hill, built by Wyatt in 1793. It was incorporated in 1815; but from the terms of its charter, it evidently had a previous existence, and was then established at Deptford Strand. Its privileges were confirmed by the charter of 1608, and its members are now partly men of high rank, and partly those remarkable for naval knowledge and skill in maritime affairs. Its duties as to pilots, lighthouses, buoys, ballast, &c., have already been mentioned. In process of time this society acquired large property; the net revenue under its management having, in 1855, amounted to L204,195. Until the passing of the act 13th and 17th Vic., c. 131, the society spent much of its surplus revenue in pensions to poor and disabled seamen or their widows and orphans; but this act transfers their revenue, as well as the charge for maintaining lighthouses, &c., to the Mercantile Marine Fund. It would appear, from a parliamentary paper lately published, that the Board of Trade expended in 1856 out of this fund L1,388 as rewards for the salvage of life.

The Trinity House contains some portraits of naval heroes, naval trophies, &c.

The Royal Mint, also on Tower Hill, was removed thither from the Tower in 1811. The present building, which is extensive and well suited to its purpose, was completed under the direction of Sir R. Smirke. The interior is appropriately arranged for the manufacture of coin; and the machinery combines great ingenuity and beauty. In consequence of the report of a commission in 1849, the old company of moneymasters was abolished, and a scientific chief has since been allotted to this department, instead of a political one.

The amount of gold, silver, and copper money coined here in the last three years has been as follows:

Account of the Total Value of Gold, Silver, and Copper coined at the Mint in each of the Three Years ending with 1856.

| Year | Gold | Silver | Copper | Total | |------|------|--------|--------|-------| | 1854 | L4,152,183 | L140,480 | L90,966 | L4,353,629 | | 1855 | 9,008,683 | 195,511 | 41,691 | 9,245,885 | | 1856 | 6,002,114 | 462,528 | 11,418 | 6,476,060 | | Total | 19,162,960 | 798,519 | 113,375 | 20,074,854 | The Bank of England, one of the most attractive objects in the city, was founded by act of parliament in 1694, and its business was carried on for many years at Grocers' Hall. In 1733 it was transferred to Threadneedle Street, and soon thereafter the present hall and bullion office were opened. Between 1770 and 1788 the façade was extended, and two wings added, under the directions of Sir Robert Taylor and Sir John Soane. Under the superintendence of the latter, the front and wings of the original structure were harmonized. The area of the bank is an irregular quadrangle; the south or principal front is 365 feet, and the north 410; the east 245 feet, and the west 440. Its principal entrance is from Threadneedle Street, the other two from Bartholomew Lane and Lothbury. The interior contains several open courts, the rotunda, or circular room, numerous offices, committee-rooms, and private apartments for the residence of officers and servants. The business is carried on by a staff of about 800 clerks, &c., whose salaries amount to nearly L200,000. The bank has received nine successive renewals of its charter since it was first granted in 1694, and measures have been taken in parliament this session (the first of 1857) for again renewing it.

The act of 1844, still in force, separated the Bank into two distinct branches, viz.—1. The Issue Department, devoted to its business as agent of the state in creating and issuing paper money, or bank-notes, convertible into gold on demand; and, 2. The Banking Department, where the private business of deposit and discount is carried on. (For an account of the Bank of England, see Paper Money.)

There are sixty private and twenty-eight joint-stock banks in the metropolis. Some few of the former, such as Child's, in Fleet Street, were established before the end of the seventeenth century; while the joint-stock banks are all the offspring of the last few years. There is an establishment near Lombard Street called the Clearing House, where a daily exchange of cheques or drafts on city bankers is effected, and this process tends greatly to facilitate banking business.

The Royal Exchange, colossal in proportions, and occupying a commanding position between the Bank of England and Cornhill, is a spot where great mercantile transactions are daily concluded. The first exchange was built by Sir Thomas Gresham, completed in 1567, but destroyed by the great fire of 1666. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and was opened on 28th September 1669. Again destroyed by fire in 1838, it was rebuilt, and completed in 1846 by Mr Tite. The present building is quadrangular, and the interior surrounded by arcades. In the centre, which is uncovered and unprotected from the weather, stands a statue of Her Majesty by Lough. The outside of the building, except the grand western entrance, is occupied by small shops; and on the upper floor is Lloyd's, where the business of marine insurance is conducted by underwriters. It has been estimated that, on an average, 200,000 persons daily visit the exchange, but this can be little more than conjecture. Merchants and brokers resort much to coffee-houses in the vicinity of the Exchange for the transaction of business.

Most of the larger transactions are negotiated by brokers, who in general confine themselves to one branch of trade, with which they are thoroughly acquainted. Thus we have colonial brokers, insurance brokers, ship brokers, stock brokers, bill or money brokers, &c.

Near the Royal Exchange and the Bank is the Stock Exchange, where real and fictitious sales are made of property in the public funds, &c.; the latter for the most part being a species of gambling.

London, when compared with some of the towns in the north and west of England, can scarcely be called a manufacturing place; yet the various articles produced here employ many thousand persons. The silk manufacture especially employs a large number of hands. Originally introduced by French Protestant refugees, many of their descendants still continue the trade, which employed, in 1851, 15,764 persons, of whom 8277 were females.

The manufacture of London porter and beer is a much more lucrative business, but a London brewery requires a very large capital. Sugar-refining and clock and watch making also prevail to a considerable extent; the latter chiefly in a district called Clerkenwell. London-built carriages are generally considered the best, as they are undoubtedly the most elegant in the world. London enjoys a high reputation for the manufacture of numerous smaller articles, such as mathematical, surgical, and musical instruments, jewellery of the superior kinds, gold and silver plate, &c.

The great number of those employed in house-building proves that the metropolis is still rapidly extending; and though this business received a severe check during the late war with Russia, it was only temporary, as evinced by the general resumption of building in the various outskirts of London.

The shops in London are, generally speaking, well shops and managed, and many of them are handsomely fitted up, bazaars, especially those in Bond Street, Regent Street, and Oxford Street. The wholesale shops or warehouses are chiefly to be found in the city; the retail shops, particularly those on a large scale, being more general in the west or fashionable end of the metropolis. The bazaars in London, each of which forms an aggregation of shops or stalls, are not now so attractive as they once were. They deal mostly in fancy goods, furniture, toys, &c. The four great establishments of the kind are those in Soho Square and Baker Street, the Pantheon in Oxford Street, and the Pantechinon in Halkin Street, Belgrave Square. The Burlington and Lowther Arcades contain many shops for the sale of the like commodities.

Table showing the Area in square miles, and the Population, of the Metropolis, the Number of Houses therein, and the Number of Families occupying the same in 1851.

| Divisions | Area in Miles | Houses | Population | |--------------------|---------------|--------|------------| | Part in Middlesex | 51 | 213,279| 10,613 | | Part in Surrey | 38 | 72,344 | 4,524 | | Part in Kent | 38 | 20,310 | 1,506 | | Total | 122 | 305,933| 15,643 |

Account showing the Number of Persons over 20 years of age in the Metropolis in 1851, distinguishing the Married from the Unmarried.

| Sexes | Of the age of 20 Years and Upwards | |------------------------|-----------------------------------| | | Total | Bachelors and Spinsters | Husbands and Wives | Widowers and Widows | | Males | 632,545 | 195,657 | 368,624 | 37,664 | | Females | 762,418 | 246,124 | 406,266 | 116,028 |

In 1851 there were, as above stated, 305,933 inhabited houses in London. These for the most part are built of brick, though many of the private houses externally, such as those of the Duke of Sutherland, Lords Ellesmere and Spencer in the Green Park; the Duke of Wellington in Piccadilly, Lord Lansdowne in Berkeley Square, and Mr Holford in Park Lane, are either built of or faced with stone. But it is now very much the practice to cover the brick fronts of houses with plaster or cement in imitation of stone; and though fastidious critics object to the fictitious character thus imparted to them, there can be no doubt that its effect is very good. Admirable specimens of this work may be seen in the magnificent façade of Carlton Gardens towards St James's Park, in Belgrave Square, Albert and Prince's Gates, Hyde Park, &c.

The upper class live principally in that part of London west of Regent Street, consisting chiefly of St James's, Berkeley, Hanover, Cavendish, Portman, Grosvenor, Belgrave, and Eaton Squares, and Park Lane, with the clusters of streets around them. This class, composed in great part of members of the legislature and their families and connections, and forming as a whole what is called the fashionable world, are resident in London for but the smaller portion of the year. Arriving in time for the beginning of the parliamentary session in February, they desert London at its termination in the end of July.

The middle class are scattered over all parts of the metropolis; their business being carried on for the most part in the districts east of Regent Street, they become migratory in the afternoon, some seeking the suburbs, and others living in the squares, terraces, and streets in such districts as Pimlico, Brompton, Bayswater, Portland Town, Camden Town, Holloway, Hackney, Peckham, Camberwell, Brixton, Clapham, &c. In the domestic arrangements of this class, speaking generally, the chief object is comfort; and this is the prevailing characteristic in the dwellings of merchants, tradesmen, and professional men of the metropolis.

The abodes of the poorer classes descend very rapidly in the scale from comparative comfort to downright misery. The skilled operative may manage to have a house of his own, but the more ordinary operative or the labourer must content himself with a lodging. These classes are pent up for the most part in such districts as Whitechapel, Bethnal Green, Southwark, Lambeth, Westminster, Chelsea, Paddington, Marylebone, St Giles, &c. It appears, from Mr Glover's Report on the Lodging-houses of London (January 1856), that there were then 10,284 common lodging-houses, more or less under the superintendence of the police—the estimated population of the same being 82,000. These are, of course, of the very lowest description,—miserable hovels,—yet much improved under the operation of the act of 1851 for their better regulation. Several benevolent societies, such as the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes, are struggling to introduce a better taste among the poor, by building model lodging-houses for their use; but their utmost efforts must be quite inadequate to meet the requirements of the numbers whom they wish to serve.

In the London Post-Office Directory for 1857 are given the addresses of no less than 387 licensed hotels and taverns, and forty-three private hotels. The great hotels, such as the Clarendon, Mivart's, &c., are situate chiefly in the west end of London; and those at the stations of the Great Western, North-Western, and Great Northern Railways, are on a gigantic scale. Comfortable commercial hotels are scattered in great abundance throughout the other parts of the metropolis; and the old-fashioned inns are disappearing fast, or adopting the improvements and conveniences of the day.

The beer and gin shops are very numerous, the proprietors of such establishments numbering, in 1851, 7,891. Large numbers of the working-classes dine in the beer-shops.

It is difficult to form even a conjectural estimate of the consumption of each description of food in London. But calculating that, on the average, 3d. per diem for food be expended for each of the two and a half millions of inhabitants, the annual expenditure of its population under this head will amount to L1,114,068,250. The great provision markets of London are ten in number, of which Mark Lane is confined to corn, the New Cattle Market at Holloway is the substitute for Smithfield Market lately suppressed, Billingsgate Market that for fish, Covent Garden that for fruit and vegetables, Leadenhall the principal one for poultry; and Newgate Market is chiefly for butchers' meat; the remaining five being of a more miscellaneous character. There are also numerous markets on a smaller scale. From these various sources the retail dealers and shopkeepers draw their supplies and distribute them to the inhabitants.

From different quarters we have gleaned the following estimates of the annual consumption of certain articles of London food. All, however, may be considered applicable to the period of the last census in 1851:

| Item | Quantity | |---------------|-------------------------------| | Wheat | 1,600,000 quarters | | Bullocks | 240,000 head | | Sheep | 1,700,000 | | Calves | 28,000 | | Pigs | 35,000 | | Exclusive of large quantities of bacon and ham | | Poultry | 3,748,000 head | | Game, &c. | 1,807,000 | | Fish, wet and dry, of which more than half were herrings | 450,180,900 lb. | | Oysters | 309,935 barrels | | Potatoes | 310,464,000 lb. | | Cabbages | 89,000 | | Onions | 1,489,600 | | Apples | 725,500 bushels | | Foreign eggs | about 75,000,000 | | Milk, the produce of | 13,000 cows |

Although London is supplied with many excellent springs of fresh water, they proved, centuries ago, quite inadequate to the wants of the citizens. As already mentioned, conduits were then adopted as a substitute. The first effort to supply water on a great scale was made in 1608 by Sir Hugh Myddelton,—a spirited citizen, who undertook, at his own risk, to convey a river of fresh and good water to the city. From this we may presume that in Myddelton's time the Thames no longer merited the eulogy of Stowe, that its "water was as cleere as that of the sea." In 1613 the River Lea water was let into the basin at the New River head at Islington, and thence, at the present day, the New River Company, with increased means, transmit the water through pipes to the houses, &c., supplied by them.

At present there are in all nine metropolitan water companies; but their supplies were much complained of as insufficient and unwholesome, especially during the prevalence of cholera in 1832, 1849, and 1854. Remedies have, as will be seen from the annexed table, been applied to the first of these evils, and there is now abundance for domestic purposes, besides a sufficient quantity from the street plugs for flushing the sewers regularly, and supplying the engines in cases of fire.

Thus, while 270,581 houses were daily supplied in 1850 with 44,383,332 gallons, it will be seen by the annexed statement that no less than 81,025,842 gallons were daily furnished in 1856 to 328,561 houses, leaving only about 12,000 houses unprovided by the water companies, within the bills of mortality. Great progress has also of late been made in providing a purer supply.

In consequence of the act of 1852, all water now drawn from the Thames for human consumption is taken at some point beyond the influence of the tidal wave, and so untainted by the impurities of London sewers. The result of a series of analyses of the water supplied by the various companies previous and subsequent to 1852, has been published by the Board of Health. From it we gather that the organic matter now contained in the water is comparatively trifling.

The establishment of public baths and wash-houses in various parts of the metropolis is an important improvement of recent date. London. Table showing the Extent of the Metropolis Water Supply in 1856, taken from Parliamentary Returns, prepared by the Board of Health.

| List of Metropolitan Water Companies | Sources of Supply | No. of Houses supplied | Gross Quantity supplied per Day | Length of Mains and Branches | |--------------------------------------|-------------------|------------------------|-------------------------------|-----------------------------| | New River... | River Lea, Chalk Springs, &c. | 95,083 | 25,000,000 Gallons | 400 to 500 Miles say 450 | | East London... | River Lea... | 70,000 | 16,000,000 Gallons | 331 | | Southwark & Vauxhall... | River Thames, at Hampton... | 41,529 | 10,331,122 Gallons | 432 | | Lambeth... | River Thames, at Thames Ditton... | 28,541 | 6,109,000 Gallons | 206 | | West Middlesex... | River Thames, at Hampton... | 25,732 | 6,895,968 Gallons | 178 | | Chelsea... | River Thames, at Seething Wells... | 25,020 | 5,323,000 Gallons | 198½ | | Grand Junction... | River Thames, at Hampton... | 17,221 | 6,714,292 Gallons | 117 | | Kent... | River Ravensbourne... | 16,077 | 3,500,000 Gallons | 124 | | Hampstead... | Ponds and Chalk Well... | 6,348 | 603,000 Gallons | 33½ | | Plumstead & Woolwich... | Chalk Well... | 3,000 | 550,000 Gallons | 16 |

Total... | | 328,561 | 81,025,842 Gallons | 2,086 |

The average daily supply which, in 1854, was 164 gallons per house, amounted in 1856 to 246 gallons. The annual supply in the latter year would therefore exceed 29,574,432,000 gallons.

The liquid in London next in importance to water is porter or beer,—a malt liquor of great repute, and looked upon by the major part of the middle and lower classes as a necessary of life. The breweries where this beverage is produced are the largest manufacturing establishments in the metropolis; and the capital necessary for the maintenance of one of them, with its necessary appendages, such as public-houses for the sale of the porter, drays, horses, &c., is enormous. To give some notion of the extent to which this business is carried, we subjoin a table (the materials for which are borrowed from McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary), showing the quantity of malt brewed in 1852 by each of the fourteen largest houses in London:

| Quarter... | Barclay and Co... | 112,494 | Heare and Co... | 33,769 | |------------|------------------|---------|----------------|--------| | Quarter... | Truman, Hanbury, and Co... | 124,416 | Calvert and Co... | 32,310 | | Quarter... | Mann and Co... | 30,881 | Charrington and Co... | 26,366 | | Quarter... | Reid and Co... | 17,660 | Taylor and Co... | 15,959 | | Quarter... | Whitbread and Co... | 15,014 | Courage and Co... | 15,014 | | Quarter... | Elliott and Co... | 80,282 | | |

The fuel used in London is almost exclusively coal. Annexed is an account of the quantities brought into London in 1851 and 1852, distinguishing the quantities sea-borne from those conveyed by railways and canals:

| Coastwise... | Inland Navigation and Land Carriage... | Total... | |--------------|---------------------------------------|----------| | 1851... | 3,236,542 tons | 254,421 tons | 3,490,963 tons | | 1852... | 3,330,428 ... | 414,917 ... | 3,745,345 ... |

Of course the consumption is materially affected by the severity or moderation of the winter season.

The general introduction of gas about 1820 wrought quite a revolution in the lighting of London; and unquestionably this city, as a whole, is better lighted than any other metropolis. There are in all sixteen gas companies, which share among them the business of supplying light of this kind to the street lamps, shops, and houses of the metropolis; and the estimated annual consumption in that way is about 6,000,000,000 or 7,000,000,000 cubic feet. It would be impossible to make any similar calculation with regard to the consumption of candles, oil, &c. It may be added, that the use of gas in London for domestic purposes is not by any means universal, on account of its greater impurity here than in such places as Liverpool and Edinburgh.

Perhaps nothing proves more decidedly that the prudential principle is strong among the middle and lower classes banks of London than their extensive use of savings banks. The annexed table shows the number of depositors in the metropolitan establishments of this kind, and the amount of their deposits in 1854.

Number of Depositors in London Savings Banks on 20th November 1854.

| In Savings Banks in— | Number of Open Accounts | Total Amount due to Depositors | |----------------------|-------------------------|------------------------------| | Part of Metropolis in Middlesex | 226,128 | £4,997,150 11 1 | | Do. do. Surrey... | 27,083 | 332,325 10 2 | | Do. do. Kent... | 5,883 | 160,704 1 2 | | Total... | 259,094 | £5,697,190 19 5 |

The first life insurance society in England was established here in 1766; and there are now (1857) no less than 225 insurance offices in London, of which upwards of 200 undertake the insurance of life. But it is not to be supposed that all these offices are equally trustworthy. The number of new offices that are projected every year, and the number that regularly expire within a similar period is convincing evidence that this business, if not overdone, is mismanaged, or tampered with to a considerable extent.

Remarkable as London is for its wealth, it has a large pauper population, necessarily a burden on their richer brethren. It will be seen by the following table that no less than 77,963 persons were in the various poor-law unions and other workhouses in the metropolis during the year ended 25th March 1856.

Table showing the Number of Paupers admitted into the Poor Law Union and other Workhouses of the Metropolis in the Year ended 25th March 1856, and the Number receiving Medical Treatment therein, and the Mortality during the same period.

| Union Workhouses... | Number of Paupers admitted... | Number under Medical Treatment... | Deaths... | |---------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------------------|-----------| | Part in Middlesex exclusive of St Pancras Parish... | 61,768 | 31,075 | 3889 | | Surrey... | 14,428 | 5,084 | 1104 | | Kent... | 1,767 | 1,534 | 263 | | Total... | 77,963 | 37,693 | 5253 |

* No return made to Parliament by this parish.

The amounts received from poor-rates in the metropolis, and expended for the relief of the poor, in the years 1855 and 1856, were as follows:

1855... | 1856... Total amounts received from poor-rates... | £1,292,137 | £1,500,464 ... expended for relief of poor... | 841,302 | 875,284

From other sources, such as almshouses, soup-kitchens, and the miscellaneous charities with which London abounds, many poor people derive the means of existence, either wholly or partially; and an army of street beggars, of whom the majority are impostors, trade too successfully on the credulity of the benevolent. The Mendicity Society has done good service in exposing and punishing many of these cheats, but their business is too profitable to be easily surrendered. Taken as a body, the people of this great city are remarkable for their love of order; yet the amount of demoralization and crime is very large, though perhaps not out of proportion to the population and the temptation that exists in such a place to breach of the law. It is stated in the population tables for 1851, that there are in London upwards of 13,000 males and 18,000 females who have no stated occupation or ostensible means of existence, or, in other words, who live by malpractices. And the annexed account, applicable to 1856, will throw some light on the nature and probable frequency of the crimes and misdemeanours that are most prevalent among them:

| Nature of Offences | Annual number taken into custody | Annual number committed | Annual number convicted | |------------------------------------|---------------------------------|------------------------|------------------------| | Offences against the person | 10,489 | 6,314 | 102 | | Offences against property, | | | | | with violence | 398 | 307 | | | Offences against property, | 20,345 | 8,559 | 1856 | | without violence | | | | | Malicious offences against | 2,685 | 1,742 | 6 | | property | | | | | Forgery and offences against | 1,319 | | 237 | | the currency | | | | | Other offences | 38,003 | 16,736 | 19 | | Total | 73,240 | 43,451 | 2587 |

*This account does not include offences committed within the city.*

Table showing the Amount of Church Accommodation of all kinds in London on Sunday, 30th March 1851, for its Population of 2,362,236; and the Number of Persons who attended Public Worship on that Day:

| Place of Worship belonging to | Places of Worship | Sitings | Number of Persons Attending Public Worship | Places of Worship | Sitings Available | |------------------------------|-------------------|---------|-------------------------------------------|-------------------|------------------| | Church of England | 458 | 409,834 | 261,246 | Morning | 230 | | British Protestant Dissenters| 554 | 250,970 | 165,750 | Afternoon | 510 | | Foreign Protestants | 9 | 3,002 | 1,300 | Evening | 148 | | Roman Catholics | 25 | 18,230 | 35,994 | Morning | 35 | | Other Christian sects | 30 | 5,995 | 3,226 | Afternoon | 29 | | Jews | 11 | 3,692 | 1,472 | Evening | 813 | | Total | 1,097 | 691,723 | 469,168 | Morning | 424 | | | | | | Afternoon | 830 | | | | | | Evening | 682,697 | | | | | | Morning | 329,031 | | | | | | Afternoon | 585,289 |

There are numerous societies in London for the promotion of religious knowledge and morality. The chief of these are,—the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded 1698; the British and Foreign Bible Society, established in 1804, and encouraged by all religious denominations; the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, established in 1701; the Religious Tract Society, instituted in 1799; the London Missionary Society; and the Church Missionary Society,—the former commencing its labours in 1795, and the latter in 1799.

Table showing the Number of Sunday Schools in the Metropolis in 1851, and the Number of Scholars attending the same; distinguishing the Religious Denominations under which they are maintained.

| Denomination by which they are supported | Number of Schools | Male | Female | Both Sexes | |------------------------------------------|-------------------|------|--------|-----------| | Church of England | 259 | 24,350| 24,933 | 49,173 | | Protestant Dissenters | 373 | 35,897| 42,784 | 78,681 | | Roman Catholics | 5 | 419 | 400 | 819 | | Congregations undefined | 61 | 5,059 | 4,520 | 9,579 | | Unitarians | 3 | 188 | 160 | 348 | | Total Sunday Schools | 701 | 65,913| 72,687 | 138,600 |

The education of the people has at length assumed its proper importance in the eyes of the public, and a minister of education has this year (1857) for the first time taken his seat in the House of Commons. It will be seen by the annexed table that there are in London 863 public and 3698 private day schools, exclusive of Sunday schools:

Table showing the Number of Day Schools in the Metropolis and attendant Scholars therein in 1851, distinguishing Private from Public Schools, and the means by which the latter are supported.

| Description of Schools | Number of Schools | Number of Scholars | |------------------------|------------------|-------------------| | Public schools supported by taxation | 41 | 4,768 | 2,213 | 6,981 | | Public schools supported by endowments | 99 | 11,225 | 4,803 | 16,028 | | Public schools supported by religious bodies | 581 | 68,543 | 51,326 | 119,869 | | Other public schools | 142 | 13,190 | 11,281 | 24,471 | | Total public day schools | 863 | 97,675 | 69,623 | 167,298 | | Private day schools | 3698 | 43,198 | 43,743 | 86,941 | | Total day schools | 4561 | 140,873 | 113,366 | 254,239 | Yet the cost of education here is heavy, and a great many schools are but indifferently conducted. It would, however, be preposterous to attempt here any general description of those establishments, and it will suffice to allude shortly to those institutions connected with education which are of the highest degree, or that boast of great antiquity, wealth, or usefulness.

The University of London, established in 1836, consists of a body of government examiners, empowered, after due examination, to grant degrees in arts, law, and medicine, to the graduates of University and King's Colleges in London, and to several other proprietary establishments of a similar kind. The senate consists of upwards of thirty members, having a chancellor and vice-chancellor, and the business of the board, and the examinations at stated periods, are conducted in Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Schools of anatomy were first instituted in the metropolis about 1720, and now medical and surgical schools are attached to all the great London hospitals. Lectures are delivered during the winter by men distinguished in the profession, and the extensive and varied practice of the hospitals is thus combined with theoretical study. Examinations for licenses or diplomas to practise medicine are conducted by the College of Physicians in Pall Mall, and similar examinations with regard to surgery take place in the College of Surgeons in Lincoln's Inn Fields.

In May 1855, by order in council, a government commission was established for testing the fitness of candidates for situations in public offices. The office is in Deans Yard, Westminster.

University College, in Gower Street, opened in 1828, is an extensive, well-arranged, and handsome edifice. It is frequented by students of law, medicine, ancient and modern languages, &c. This college is open to all religious persuasions.

King's College, Somerset House, opened in 1831, is, like the rival institution last mentioned, a proprietary establishment, but is peculiarly attached to the Church of England, and instruction in religion here forms part of the course of education, which in other respects resembles that afforded in University College.

St Paul's School, St Paul's Churchyard, founded by Dean Colet in 1509, for the gratuitous instruction of 153 boys, was rebuilt in its present classic form, in 1823. The Mercers Company are the trustees of the institution and have the presentations. John Milton, and John, Duke of Marlborough were educated here.

Christ's Hospital (or the Blue-coat School), originally the house of the Grey Friars, founded in 1226, was turned to its present use in 1552, when, according to Stow, "after the erection of Christ's Hospital in the late dissolved house of the Grey Friars, a great number of poor children being taken in, a school was also ordained there, at the citizens' charge." (Stow, ed. 1633, p. 64.) Edward VI. in the same year granted the hospital a charter, and Charles II. attached a mathematical school, charging the exchequer with L1,000 per annum for its support. The governing body consists of the aldermen of London, governors ex officio, and contributors of L500 each (formerly L400) to the hospital funds, numbering in all, at present (1857), 512. The aldermen of the city have each an annual nomination, and the other governors have presentations as vacancies occur. Most of the children admitted are those of freemen of London, or of clergymen of the Established Church; and it has long since ceased to be what its founders intended—a charitable institution. A branch school is maintained at Hertford for younger children, including 70 girls; and the total average number constantly maintained and educated by the hospital in 1855 and 1856 was 1240, viz., 860 in the London establishment, and 470 at Hertford. They are well fed and taken care of, and warmly though fantastically clothed in the costume of the time of Edward VI. The buildings are old and irregular, except the great hall, completed in 1829, and which, fronting the opening lately made in Newgate Street, is one of the chief ornaments of the city. The revenue and expenditure are generally about equal; the former in 1855 being L58,075, 17s., and the latter L58,647, 4s. 6d. Camden the historian and Richardson the novelist were educated here.

St Peter's College, Westminster (better known as Westminster School), attached to the collegiate church of that name, or Westminster Abbey, was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1560, for forty foundation or queen's scholars. Though originally a free school, it no longer bears that character, as the cost of education, board, and lodging paid for each of the queen's scholars is about L45 a-year. Besides the master, usher, and scholars on the foundation, there are five other masters, two ushers, and many scholars, the latter varying in number from time to time. The queen's scholars are selected from the whole school for proficiency in studies. Eight of the queen's scholars are chosen after each examination, four of whom are sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, and four to Christ Church, Oxford. Ben Jonson, Dryden, Locke, and Gibbon were educated here.

Merchant Tailors' School, "one notable free grammar school," as Stow calls it, was founded in 1561 by the Company of Merchant Tailors. The first school perished in the great fire of 1666, and the present one was erected in 1675 on the same site in Suffolk Lane, Cannon Street. It is built of brick, and supported on the east by stone pillars, forming a cloister. The number of scholars is limited to 250, and presentations are in the gift of the members of the court of "Merchant Tailors" in rotation. After the annualluxemination, some of the scholars are invariably sent to the university; this school being endowed with 35 fellowships, 6 civil law, and 2 unrestricted exhibitions in St John's College, Oxford, 6 exhibitions to any college in Cambridge, and 4 exhibitions to either university. These 53 pieces of university preferment, besides smaller exhibitions, are invariably given to pupils educated at this school.

Gresham College, in Basinghall Street, rebuilt 1843, was founded by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1551, for lectures on divinity, civil law, &c., to be read gratis, at noon in Latin, and at 1 o'clock in English, during the term. The lectures on music and geometry are now delivered in the evening at 7 o'clock. This institution is not practically very useful.

The Charter House (corrupted from Chartreux) is situated in a square of the same name near Smithfield. Originally a house for Carthusian monks, founded by Sir Walter Manny, temp. Edward III., it shared the fate of other religious houses, temp. Henry VIII. After passing through several hands, it was at length bought in 1611 by Thomas Sutton, who converted his purchase into a school and an hospital for decayed gentlemen. The governors are 18 in number; the queen, her consort, and eldest son, gracing the list. At present (1857) this charity supports 44 scholars, and 80 decayed gentlemen. The Charter House has long held a high character as a classical school; and besides the boys on the foundation, there are numerous scholars receiving instruction here. Of those educated on the foundation, many receive exhibitions at either university; and the hospital, in its patronage of nine livings, gives the preference to those educated within its walls. Dr Barrow, Addison, Steele, Blackstone, John Wesley, and various other distinguished men, were Carthusians.

There are seven public parks in the metropolis, viz., Public Hyde Park, St James's, the Green, Regent's, and Victoria Parks, Parks on the Middlesex side, and Battersea and Kennington Parks on the Surrey side of the Thames. The oldest, largest, and most beautiful, are those in the west end of London. Hyde Park is entered from Piccadilly by a series of triumphal gates, and from Oxford Street by a marble arch removed thither from Buckingham Palace. This park, of about 400 acres, is well wooded, judiciously intersected by walks and carriage roads, and ornamented by a piece of water called the Serpentine. During the season the long ride called Rotten Row is thronged in the afternoon by equestrians of both sexes. On the south side of the park, opposite Rutland and Prince's gates, stood the Crystal Palace of 1851. Adjoining this park, are Kensington Gardens, attached to Kensington Palace.

The Green Park, next to Hyde Park, is entered from Piccadilly by a triumphal arch, bearing an equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington. The inner road that skirts this park is called Constitution Hill, and leads to Buckingham Palace, &c. This park is small, but very pretty, and the available space was extended in 1856 by the removal of the reservoir of the Chelsea water-works. St James's Park, first inclosed by Henry VIII. when he built the palace of that name, formed in olden times the pleasure grounds of Whitehall Palace, and was the favourite lounge of Charles II. At present (1857) operations are going on for reducing the depth of the pond in the centre, and for throwing a bridge across it to facilitate the transit of foot passengers from Westminster to Pall Mall. St James's Park is laid out with great taste, and contains some very fine trees.

Regent's Park is nearly circular, and consists of 450 acres laid out in walks and shrubberies, varied by water, and intersected and skirted by carriage roads. It is nearly surrounded by houses of the larger class, built in uniform terraces, and producing a good effect. In this park are the Zoological and Botanical Gardens, and the Colosseum stands on its eastern margin. The establishment of the Zoological Society, consisting of the gardens and a large and increasing menagerie, occupies ground in the north-eastern portion of the park, and was founded in 1826. These gardens form an instructive and agreeable promenade, and were visited by 344,184 persons in 1856. The gardens of the Botanical Society, in the centre of the park, are also attractive, and are frequently used for flower shows, promenades, &c. The Colosseum, erected in 1828 by Burton, is a sixteen-faced polygon, surmounted by a dome 120 feet in diameter, and presents in front a Doric portico of six columns. It has been used for panoramas, &c.; but the attractions of the place have long been on the wane.

Victoria Park, the eastern lung of London, consists of 290 acres, lying between Hackney Common and Ducketts Canal. It was formed under Act 14th and 15th Vict., c. 46., for the benefit of the crowded districts in its vicinity.

Kennington Park, formerly Kennington Common, belongs to the duchy of Lancaster, and was inclosed and laid out as a public park for pedestrians in 1852. It contains about 20 acres, and though yet in its infancy, forms a great boon to the inhabitants of Kennington, Vauxhall, &c.

Battersea Park, on the Surrey bank of the river, opposite Chelsea Hospital, Cheyne Walk, &c., is still incomplete; but as the new suspension-bridge leading to it will be opened this year (1857), it is presumed that the park will soon be finished. 320 acres of land were purchased for this park, but only 200 acres come within the park fence, the rest being allotted to houses, roads, &c. The grounds have been laid out, and are open to visitors; and an esplanade along the whole of its river front has been formed.

There is no palace in London of which, as an architectural work, the inhabitants have any reason to be proud.

Buckingham Palace, however, from its cost and magnitude, and as the only town residence of the sovereign, commands attention. It stands on the site of Buckingham House, built by John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, on that of old Arlington House. This property was purchased by George III., and settled on his consort; and here all their children were born except George IV. In the London reign of the latter monarch, a new palace was commenced by Mr Nash, but was not finished till near the end of the following reign, and was never occupied by William IV. The body of the palace now forms a parallelogram, containing an inner court; a fourth side, or grand front, looking towards the Horse Guards, having been added during the present reign. A still later addition of ball-room, &c., has been made on the south side; and, when the Pimlico improvements have been completed, the palace will stand within its own grounds. The internal arrangements of the palace on the ground floor strike the visitor as singularly mean and unworthy of royalty; the corridors especially being dark, narrow, and low-roofed. The rooms on the first floor, including the throne room, drawing-room, &c., are well proportioned. The picture gallery, though small, contains very choice specimens of the Dutch and Flemish schools. The grounds behind the palace are prettily laid out, and the west side of the building, which fronts them, is much admired. The cost of this palace, before the late improvements were commenced, amounted to nearly Ls.700,000.

St James's Palace in Pall Mall, which, among diplomats, gives its title to the English court, is a long, straggling, palace, dingy building, and its appearance is still what Pennant styled it, "uncreditable." It was built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital for lepers, founded previous to the Conquest, and it has been extended and altered frequently since his time. His daughter Mary died in this palace; and here Charles I. slept for the last time. Charles II. and the old Pretender were both born in it; and here the two first Georges kept their mistresses. The state apartments, which look towards the park of the same name, are spacious, and used exclusively for levees and drawing-rooms. The corridors and ante-rooms, however, are rather confined. Some portions of this palace are allotted to the members of the Cambridge branch of the royal family.

Kensington Palace stands in the parish of St Margaret's, Westminster, westward of Hyde Park, and between the ten palaces, Kensington and Baywater roads. It was originally built by Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards Lord Chancellor Nottingham; and his son sold it to William III. He and his queen, Queen Anne and her consort, and George II., were all partial to this place, and all died here. Queen Victoria was born, and her uncle, the late Duke of Sussex, lived and died in this palace. It is large and irregular, built at various periods, and of red brick. The principal entrance is on the west side; but the interior presents nothing of interest. Some of the rooms have been allotted as residences to dependants of the court; and a portion of the grounds to the west of the palace, formerly used as a kitchen garden, was, in 1841, subdivided and leased for building purposes, and is now nearly covered with large mansions.

The gardens to the east of the palace are open to pedestrians, and are the favourite resort of the inhabitants of western London. These grounds are extensive, and present a variety of surface in wood and water that renders them particularly charming. In summer a regimental band plays here twice a-week; and on such occasions Kensington Gardens are the gayest and most frequented promenades in the metropolis.

The new Palace of Westminster (of which Sir Charles Barry is architect) occupies the site, on the banks of the Thames, of the old Houses of Parliament, burnt down in October 1834. The new houses were commenced in April 1840, and are (1857) not yet finished. The palace, not having antiquity on its side, and having proved costly beyond all expectation, is perhaps more severely criticised than it otherwise would have been. But it has some defects which are too obvious to escape notice. The raft- London. cal one is its want of elevation, and this is exaggerated by the length (900 feet) of the building, and the contrast formed by the gigantic height of the Great or Victoria Tower at the southern end, which is upwards of 500 feet.

On the river front, the only one completed, the richness of tracery and endless variety of minute and laboured ornament is astonishing to a close observer. Built of a Yorkshire stone, this front rests on a foundation of granite, and has a long terrace nearly on a level with high water. This, in consequence of an invasion of the Thames, is now protected and inclosed by a dwarf wall. The royal entrance to the palace is under the Victoria Tower, through an archway 65 feet high.

The most interesting entrance, through old Westminster Hall, does not properly belong to the new palace, but, from its proximity, has been easily appropriated as the main approach to both branches of the legislature. The majestic proportions of this fine structure are very imposing, and the historical associations connected with it give it additional interest. Here Sir William Wallace, Sir Thomas More, Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, Charles I., and the rebel lords of 1745, were tried and condemned to death; and here Warren Hastings and Lord Melville passed through the ordeal of impeachment. This glorious relic of antiquity dates from the time of William Rufus. Walking to the upper end, and ascending the stair to the left, the visitor finds himself surrounded by statues of men eminent in the legislature of former days, such as Clarendon, Hampden, Falkland, Selden, Walpole, Chatham, Mansfield, and Fox. These are for the most part good, and all appropriate. This vestibule leads into the central or St Stephen's Hall, surmounted by a lantern tower. The hall is well proportioned, and decorated in unison with the rest of the building. Three other corridors centre in it; that to the right leading to the House of Lords, and the opposite one to the House of Commons; the third being the way to committee-rooms, offices, &c. On entering the House of Lords, the richness and profusion of the gilding and painting are apt to dazzle the eye; but perhaps this may be remedied when the whole is mellowed by lapse of time. The throne is especially gorgeous. The House of Commons is much plainer than that appropriated to the Lords.

The square clock tower, at the north end of the palace, is upwards of 300 feet high, and is all but completed. It has lately been furnished with an enormous bell, 16 tons weight, called "Big Ben," in honour of Sir Benjamin Hall, chief commissioner of works.

Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, is situate on the Surrey bank of the Thames, almost opposite the Houses of Parliament. The property came to this see so far back as 1197, in consequence of an exchange with the see of Rochester. About 1250 great additions were made to the palace by Archbishop Boniface (of Savoy). Again, prior to 1443, Bishop Chicheley greatly improved it, and founded the Lollards' Tower, so called from its use as a prison for the early reformers of that name. Rings, to which they were chained, are still attached to the walls of a room at the top of this tower.

The palace was farther extended and improved by Archbishops Cranmer, Pole, Parker, and Laud; and Archbishops Bancroft and Abbot left all their books and MSS. to the incumbents of the see.

During the civil wars in the time of Charles I., Lambeth suffered severely, and the library was saved solely by the dexterous management of John Selden. The palace being in a ruinous state when Dr Juxon was appointed to this see after the Restoration, he did much to restore it, and added the noble apartment now used as a library. He and Archbishops Sheldon, Tenison, Secker, and Cornwallis made valuable additions to the collection of books, which now number from 20,000 to 25,000 volumes, with from 1200 to 1300 MSS. (See Libraries.) During the incumbency of the late archbishop (Howley), important and costly additions, designed by Mr Blore, and completed in 1833, were made to the palace. The old banqueting-hall, with a fine oak roof, and the chapel, are both worthy of remark; and the palace is oak panelled nearly throughout. Gardens of 12 acres are attached, but they are unpleasantly situated, and surrounded by houses of an inferior order. The site of the palace, too, is low, and must, from its proximity to the river, be occasionally damp and disagreeable.

Having already noticed those establishments in London, including the Custom House, which are chiefly subservient to the commercial intercourse between the metropolis and foreign countries, we proceed to mention the other public offices, &c., of most importance.

The offices of the first lord of the Treasury, the chancellor of the Exchequer, and of the secretaries of state for Foreign and Colonial affairs, are all in Downing Street, but their outward appearance would not challenge remark except of a depreciatory kind. The Privy Council Office, Board of Trade, Treasury, and Home Office, looking towards Whitehall, present on the contrary, a uniform and handsome front, erected a few years ago by Sir Charles Barry. Proceeding towards Charing Cross, the Horse Guards is the next building of note, and includes the offices of the Commander-in-chief, adjutant-general, quarter-master-general, &c. Behind it, in St James's Park, is the parade-ground for the guards. Then comes the Paymaster-general's office, not at all remarkable in an architectural point of view, and next to it the chief branch of the Admiralty, forming the head-quarters of the board and secretaries. The building has a lofty portico over the main entrance, with two wings projected to a screen fronting the street and inclosing a quadrangular court. The chief departments of the War Office occupy the house in Pall Mall formerly appropriated to the old ordnance department and other premises since acquired on either side.

Somerset House was erected for the most part in 1775–1782, by Sir William Chambers, on the site of a palace commenced by the Protector Somerset, and used as a royal residence by Queen Elizabeth and Charles II. It is one of the noblest features of London, contrasting most favourably in elevation and architectural and general effect with many other public buildings of the capital. It occupies a space upwards of 800 feet wide, and 300 deep, and forms three quadrangles, the central one being on a very large scale. The river front is a spacious terrace, to which a west wing, in perfect harmony with the main body, has just been added. The east end, a part of King's College, being of brick, and otherwise unlike the rest of this grand structure, slightly mars its effect as a whole. The front towards the Strand, and that just completed in Wellington Street, are of much smaller extent, but well proportioned. Somerset House is almost exclusively devoted to public offices, such as the Inland Revenue Department (employing in the metropolis alone in 1857 a staff of 900 officers), the larger branches of the Admiralty, the Audit Office, Office of the Registrar-General, &c.

The Post-Office, in St Martin's-le-Grand, is a gigantic establishment, and one whose arrangements must necessarily attract the most general attention throughout the empire. Considering the enormous extent of the national correspondence, the business of this department is conducted with wonderful correctness and celerity. The London establishment at present (1857) consists of about 590 clerks, and 2060 sorters and letter-carriers. There are also in the metropolis about 300 district and pillar post-offices. London.

Statement showing the number of Letters conveyed through the Post-Office from one district of London to another in each year from 1850 to 1855:

| Year | Letters | |--------|---------| | 1850 | 38,887,844 | | 1851 | 40,582,932 | | 1852 | 40,403,297 | | 1853 | 42,816,314 | | 1854 | 46,191,569 | | 1855 | 45,844,963 |

The gross post-office revenue of the kingdom in 1855 amounted to £2,716,420, and the net revenue to £1,905,150.

Various plans for concentrating the majority of the great offices in Whitehall have been lately under consideration, and parliament has taken one step towards approving such a scheme by voting a sum for erecting a new foreign office.

The East India House, in Leadenhall Street, was erected in 1726, but has been greatly enlarged. Its principal front, towards Leadenhall Street, built within the last thirty years, is 200 feet in length, having in the centre a portico of six Ionic fluted pillars, supporting a frieze with allegorical figures. It contains some fine apartments, especially the great court-room. The library is rich in books, and especially in MSS., illustrative of the history and antiquities of India. The old museum is filled with Indian curiosities of every kind; and this year (1857) another museum has been constructed, exclusively for exhibiting the varied products of the British Empire in the East.

The East India Company was formed in 1599, and chartered by Elizabeth in 1600. Its commercial character ceased in 1853; and it is now merely a political body, governing British India under the superintendence of the Board of Control. The Board of Directors of the India Company consists partly of nominees of the crown; but is in great part made up of representatives elected by the proprietors of India stock. The revenues of India, managed by the Company, amounted, in 1854-5, to £27,312,235, and its expenditure to £29,019,599.

The Tower of London, so full of interest to all readers of English history, was commenced by William the Conqueror in 1078; and the Great, or White Tower, and the curious Norman chapel within it, still extant, were finished by his son, William Rufus, in 1098. Since that period nine lesser towers have been added. For many centuries this fortress was used as a palace and a state prison, and contained the chief mint of the kingdom; but it is no longer used for any of these purposes. The only portions to which the public are admitted, are—the armouries; the jewel-house, containing the regalia and coronation plate; the Beauchamp tower, in which Lady Jane Grey was confined; and St Peter's church. The collection of armour is good, and the most remarkable specimens are pointed out and described to visitors by attendant warders dressed in the costume of the yeomen of Henry VIII's guard.

There are also within the precincts of the Tower a portion of the records of the kingdom in charge of the Master of the Rolls; the military store branch of the War Office; and a barrack built on the site of the grand store-house destroyed by fire in 1841, and usually occupied by a battalion of the Foot Guards. Very pretty gardens have taken the place of the old moat, drained as a nuisance in 1843. The well-known Traitors' Gate is situate about midway in the Tower wall which faces the Thames; and near it is the Bloody Tower, which, according to history and tradition, has deservedly earned its name. The spot on Tower Hill famous for executions, is opposite the western angle or bastion of the Tower.

The chief officers attached to this ancient fortress (now a fortress only in name) are the constable, lieutenant, and deputy-lieutenant. The Duke of Wellington held the first-mentioned office for many years previous to his death, and a statue to his memory stands near the White Tower.

The cathedral church of St Paul's, inferior in size, but in some points superior in design to St Peter's at Rome, stands on Ludgate Hill, the site of old St Paul's, as well as of London's previous churches. Old St Paul's, built, it is supposed, in 603, temp. Ethelbert, and afterwards extended and restored at various times, suffered frequently by fire, before its final destruction, with the greater part of the city, in 1666.

The first stone of the present cathedral was laid by Sir Christopher Wren, in 1675, and it was completed by him, after his own design, in 1710. It is cruciform, classic in style, and in effect singularly grand; the centre of the cross being covered by a dome of faultless proportions. It has frequently been remarked, that the whole of this edifice was reared under one architect, by one master mason, and during the incumbency of one Bishop (Dr Compton) of London, while the erection of St Peter's, by twelve successive architects, occupied 145 years. Undoubtedly St Paul's is similar in many respects to St Peter's, but it is not at all a servile copy; and though in miniature, when compared with the Roman temple, it forms a noble monument to the genius of its architect. The height of St Paul's, from the pavement of the churchyard to the top of the cross, is 370 feet; its length, from E. to W., 510; and width, from the entrance of the north to that of the south transept, 250 feet. The circuit of the cathedral is 2292 feet, the ground it covers upwards of 2 acres, and the whole is inclosed by a dwarf wall and railing. The west end, 180 feet wide, is ornamented by twelve Corinthian, supporting eight composite columns; and the outer portion, of the whole is decorated by pilasters of these two orders. The north and south entrances are uniform and semicircular, and this is the shape of the eastern end. The whole is built of Portland stone, now much discoloured by time and London smoke; but this acquired tint, dark and varied as it is, seems to accord with the solemn dignity and grandeur of the church.

The interior of the cathedral is worthy of the exterior, and presents its most imposing aspect to a visitor entering from the west, and so approaching the choir. When the centre of the transept is reached for the first time, and he stands under the dome, feelings of wonder and delight cannot be restrained. The height and span of the dome convey at a glance the idea that this must be the sublime in architecture.

The simple grandeur of the interior is, perhaps, somewhat marred by the presence of monuments in a style of art scarcely worthy of such a place. The most important of them are those to Dr Johnson, and Howard the philanthropist; Lords Nelson and Howe; Sir Ralph Abercromby, Lords Rodney, Collingwood, Cornwallis, and Heathfield; Generals Moore and Picton, &c. The most appropriate monument is that over the entrance to the choir. It is a marble slab in honour of Wren himself, bearing an inscription ending with the words—"Si monumentum requiris circumspice."

The choir in which the service is daily performed contains a great deal of carved wood by Gibbons, and is furnished with an organ of powerful and fine tone.

In the crypt are the tombs of Nelson and Wellington.

By an inside staircase the visitor may reach a circular gallery within the dome, called, from an effect in acoustics produced by its shape, the "Whispering Gallery." The paintings by Sir James Thornhill, in the interior of the dome, illustrative of the life of St Paul, and cleaned and restored in 1856, may here be seen to advantage.

From hence the passage is short to the Stone Gallery, on the outside of the dome; and by a more difficult ascent, the Golden Gallery is gained. From this point, in clear weather, the view of the surrounding city and its environs is most comprehensive and striking. Above this gallery are the hall and cross, the former 6 feet in diameter, and capable of containing eight persons. St Paul's is the cathedral church of the see of London,—the most important bishopric in the empire, the incumbent ranking next after archbishops, and enjoying an income of £10,000 a-year.

The revenues of the diocese, which includes the whole of Middlesex and parts of Surrey, Essex, and Kent, are estimated at upwards of £30,000 a-year. The affairs of the cathedral are managed by a dean and chapter, consisting of four canons residential, four prebendaries, and other officers.

Westminster Abbey, the scene of so many important events, and so full of historic associations, claims even more minute attention than the sister cathedral. The accounts of its origin are nearly as vague and uncertain as those of old St Paul's. According to tradition, it originally stood on an island in the river, formed, it is supposed, by a branch of the Thames which inclosed parts of Pimlico and Westminster. At any rate, there is good reason for believing that the Abbey existed before the end of the eighth century. It was rebuilt by King Edgar, and extended and enriched by Edward the Confessor. The larger portion of Westminster Abbey, as it now stands, was built by Henry III., and completed in 1245. Like most cathedrals, it is in the form of a cross, though somewhat irregular, from the addition of chapels and cloisters at various times. The length of the Abbey, exclusive of Henry VII.'s chapel, is 383 feet; the extreme breadth at the transept, 203 feet; the height of the nave being 102, and that of the towers 225 feet. Henry VII.'s chapel, at the eastern extremity, is a gorgeous specimen of the Gothic architecture of his time. It was commenced in 1502, built by him as a burial-place for the royal family, and cost £14,000. The Abbey subsequently suffered from neglect, especially after the suppression of religious houses, and during the civil wars of the seventeenth century. Soon after the Revolution, the whole was thoroughly repaired, and the western towers were added by Wren. Sir Christopher, however, could not shake off his innate love for classic ornament, with which, to the horror of the critics, he has liberally invested the Gothic towers.

The Abbey is much hidden by St Margaret's Church; but on approaching Victoria Street from Parliament Street, the buttresses and pinnacles, and whole expanse of this majestic pile, gradually open to view. The entrance to the north transept is much and deservedly admired, and convinces us that the wisdom of our ancestors in matters of architecture is not surpassed at the present day.

The interior is well seen on entering from this side, and still better from the western door. The stone screen separating the choir from the nave is modern, and designed by Mr Blore. Beyond the high altar and further east, are nine chapels, the chief being those of Edward the Confessor and Henry VII. The first contains the shrine of that monarch, with, inter alia, the tombs of Henry III., and his son Edward I. Here, too, are preserved the sword of Edward I., part of his shield, and the Scotch coronation stone, brought by him from Scone in 1296. The chapel of Henry VII., beyond that of Edward the Confessor, forms the eastern extremity of the cross. It suffered by fire in 1803, but underwent a thorough repair between 1810 and 1822 at a cost of £42,000. Chapters of the Order of the Bath were formerly held in this chapel; and on entering, the stalls and banners of the knights attract immediate attention. The next object in prominence is the highly decorated altar-tomb of the founder, bearing effigies of himself and wife. The flat stone ceiling, elaborately ornamented, is worthy particular notice. In and around this chapel are other monuments of interest, such as those to Mary of England; Mary Queen of Scots; Queen Elizabeth; George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, assassinated by Felton; Monk, Duke of Albemarle; and of modern date, one to the Duc de Montpensier, brother to the late Louis Philippe, ex-King of the French. Many royal personages lying in the vaults beneath, such as Charles II., William and Mary, &c., have had no monuments erected to them. In the other private chapels are many antique monuments and brasses.

In the south transept, in and near Poets' Corner, are monuments to the majority of our most illustrious poets, from the time of Chaucer to that of Campbell; and here, as well as in both aisles of the nave and choir, and in the north transept, the profusion of monuments almost bewilders the eye. The names of naval and military heroes, statesmen, historians, philosophers, divines, lawyers, painters, sculptors, musicians, actors, &c., attract one at every turn. The cloisters on the south side of the Abbey are in good preservation, and filled with monuments.

Service is performed daily, and on Sundays the Abbey is much frequented for public worship, though the sermons can rarely be heard by above one-third of those present.

The governing body of this collegiate church consists of a dean and chapter of eight prebendaries, &c. The property belonging to the Abbey being chiefly in the metropolis, is very valuable, and considerable sums are spent, and usually with good taste, in renovating and decorating this national temple.

Of the minor churches, the most remarkable, bearing date prior to the fire of London, are,—St Saviour's, Southwark; the Temple Church, the Savoy and Whitehall Chapels, and St Margaret's, Westminster.

St Saviour's, Southwark, formerly a priory, and one of London's oldest churches, is a most interesting fabric. It has three sides running E. and W., and a cross aisle; and the columns supporting the roof are remarkably graceful. The Lady Chapel, restored in 1802, and at the east end of the church, is much admired. Gower the poet, Fletcher the dramatist, and Massinger, are all buried here—the first having a good monument in the porch.

The Temple Church, situate in the Inner Temple, is quite a gem of its kind, having been restored in 1842, at a cost of £70,000, defrayed by the two societies of the Inner and Middle Temple. The entrance, by a very fine Norman arch, leads into the circular portion of the church, which dates from 1185, and is modelled from the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. This part is peculiarly interesting from its form, its age, and the effigies of cross-legged and recumbent knights, that lie grouped on the floor. The inner portion of the church, built about 1240, is early English in style, rectangular in form, and the dark marble pillars which support the roof, are especially beautiful. Selden and Goldsmith were buried here.

Savoy Church, or St Mary-le-Savoy, near the Strand, is perpendicular in style, with a highly decorated and painted roof, and has many quaint monuments. It was built in the beginning of the sixteenth century, and was originally the chapel of an hospital for 100 poor men, founded on the site of old Savoy Palace by Henry VII., and dedicated to St John the Baptist.

Whitehall Chapel, opposite the Horse Guards, was the celebrated banqueting house, and is now the only remaining fragment of Whitehall Palace. This great work of Inigo Jones is 110 feet long, of hewn stone, adorned by an upper and lower range of pillars and pilasters of the Doric and composite orders. The interior is almost engrossed by one apartment of an oblong form, upwards of 40 feet high, with a ceiling painted by Rubens. It is now used as one of the chapels royal. Through one of the windows of this building Charles I. was led to the scaffold on 30th January 1649.

St Margaret's, Westminster, chiefly observable as impeding the view of Westminster Abbey, is also remarkable as the resort for public worship of the House of Commons on solemn occasions. It is of the time of Edward I., but has been repaired and renovated at various periods, and contains tablets to the memory of Caxton the printer and Sir Walter Raleigh. The churches worthy of notice, of a date later than 1666, are chiefly works of Sir Christopher Wren and his disciples, and belong to the Established Church. St Stephen's, Walbrook, considered by critics as the best of Wren's small churches; Bow Church, Cheapside; St Bride's, Fleet Street; St Stephen's, Holborn Hill; St Clement Danes, and St James's, Piccadilly, are all by the same hand. St Martin's-in-the-Fields, and St Mary-le-Strand, by Gibbs, and St George's, Hanover Square, by James; and, of a later date, St Pancras New Church, by Mr Inwood; Marylebone New Church, by Hardwicke; St Luke's, Chelsea; and Miss Coutts' Chapel, in Westminster, are all worthy of attention.

Of the 640 churches and chapels belonging to Dissenters, though they form the vast majority in the metropolis, few deserve remark on account of architectural beauty. The most striking exceptions, perhaps, are the cathedral-like building in Gordon Square, belonging to a sect calling itself the Apostolic Church, and the Roman Catholic cathedral, in St George's Fields, built by the late Mr Pugin, in the decorated style, though one side of the latter is nearly hidden by houses in the neighbourhood.

Perhaps, of all the existing institutions in London connected with the law, the inns of court are the most interesting, partly from their antiquity and peculiar constitution and objects, and partly from their wealth and influence. The four great inns, or societies having the power to call students to the bar, are—the Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. When these "voluntary societies," or aggregations of lawyers, originated, has not been exactly ascertained; but thought not incorporated, they have "for ages submitted to government analogous to that of other seminaries of learning." (Lord Mansfield, quoted in Spilsbury's Lincoln's Inn.) These societies consist of three grades,—viz., benchers, barristers, and students. The oldest of these inns is the Temple, deriving its name from the religious and military order of the Knights-Templars, who founded it in 1185, and possessed it till the extinction of the order in 1311. In the reign of Edward III. the students of common law leased this property, and at length acquired it by gift from James I., who ordered that none should be admitted "into the society of any inn, that is not a gentleman by descent." The societies of the Inner and Middle Temple form two distinct bodies, having separate revenues and regulations; the Temple church, already described, being alone held in common. The whole of the very large property attached to the Temple, extending from Fleet Street to the Thames, except the gardens on the bank of the river, is covered with buildings, and these are divided into suites of apartments for lawyers, or others who choose to resort hither.

Lincoln's Inn lies chiefly between Chancery Lane and Lincoln's Inn Fields, and acquired its name from the inn or residence built here by Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, who died in 1312. This and part of the property of the bishops of Chichester, acquired in the time of Henry VII., constitute the present Lincoln's Inn. The Gothic chapel was built by Inigo Jones; but he, like Wren, seems to have succeeded best in classic architecture. The hall of the society a magnificent structure, 120 feet long, in the Tudor style, was completed by Hardwicke in 1845. The library attached to the hall contains a large and very valuable collection of books and MSS. Among the eminent men who once studied at Lincoln's Inn may be mentioned Sir Thomas More, Oliver Cromwell, Sir Matthew Hale, Lord Mansfield, Pitt, Perceval, and Canning.

Gray's Inn, the last of the four chief inns, is entered from Holborn, and stretches along Gray's Inn Lane. It was the property of the Lords Gray of Wilton in 1505, when it was sold, and afterwards vested in the prior of Sheen, who granted a lease of it to the students of law, renewed by Henry VIII. after the Reformation. The hall and chapel are not remarkable, but the gardens are spacious and well kept. Lords Burleigh and Bacon were of "Graie's Inn." In 1850 the members of the four inns of court numbered upwards of 4000. Attached to the four great inns are nine smaller ones,—viz., Clifford's, Clement's, Lyon's, New, Strand, Furnival's, Thavies', Staple's, and Barnard's Inns.

The chief courts of law are held partly in Lincoln's Inn, Courts of and partly in a building attached to the west side of West-law, &c. minister Hall, already alluded to as the grand vestibule to the Houses of Parliament. In the latter, several doors on the right lead to the Courts of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, of the Chancellor, Master of the Rolls, Lords Justices of Appeal, and Vice-Chancellors. But it is proposed, in completing the Houses of Parliament, to sweep away this building as inconvenient, and as an unsuitable architectural adjunct to Westminster Hall. The new site for the courts has not yet been definitively settled. In vacation, the Chancellor sits in the Old Hall, Lincoln's Inn, and the Master of the Rolls in Rolls' Court, Chancery Lane. The civil law courts,—viz., the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty,—are held in Doctors' Commons. The chief ecclesiastical courts are,—the Prerogative Court and the Court of Arches; and under the superintendence of the former is the registry of wills for the province of Canterbury. At present (1857) there are bills before Parliament to alter and limit the jurisdiction of these courts. The Court of Admiralty decides all cases as to capture of ships, disputes between masters and sailors in merchant ships, &c.

The inferior courts are those of Bankruptcy in Basinghall Street, the Insolvent Debtors' Court in Portugal Street, the Duchy Court of Lancaster in Lancaster Place, the courts of the lord mayor, and of the sheriffs, &c. There are also attached to the metropolis ten of the new county courts for the decision of claims under L50; and the committee of county court judges, established in 1856, act as a court of appeal.

The principal, or Central Criminal Court, is that held at the Old Bailey, its jurisdiction being a circle of ten miles round St Paul's. Nominally the lord mayor presides in this court, but the prisoners are for the most part tried by the judges of the Courts of Queen's Bench, Exchequer, and Common Pleas, and a few by the recorder or common serjeant of the city. Inferior offences are tried before the assistant-judge at the Middlesex Sessions House. The lord mayor sits at the Mansion House, and one of the aldermen at Guildhall, to judge in smaller matters, and there are besides eleven other metropolitan police courts beyond the limits of the city. The magistrates of these thirteen courts have the power to punish by fine and imprisonment for disorderly conduct, and for minor offences, to inquire regarding crimes of the highest nature, and to send prisoners for trial to the Central Criminal Court.

The College of Physicians in Pall Mall and Trafalgar Colleges of Square was founded in 1618, and the present is the third physicians building occupied by them since their institution. It was built by Smirke, opened in 1825, and contains some interesting portraits of eminent physicians, such as Harvey, Sir Thomas Browne, Garth, and Sir Hans Sloane, with busts of Drs Mead, Sydenham, Baillie, &c. The college consists of fellows and licentiates; and to the examinations conducted here we have already adverted.

The College of Surgeons in Lincoln's Inn Fields was erected by Sir Charles Barry in 1835, and contains the celebrated Hunterian Museum, purchased by the government, and entrusted to the college. Admission is obtained by an order from a fellow. This college originated in the Company of Barber Surgeons, chartered in 1461.

Chelsea Hospital, for maimed and superannuated soldiers, Chelsea is supported by government, and is similar in its origin hospital and objects to the twin establishment at Greenwich for London sailors. Chelsea College, partially built in the time of James I., by Dr Sutcliffe, dean of Exeter, was intended for a polemical school of divinity, but this having proved a failure, the property fell to the crown. It was granted by Charles II. in 1667 to the Royal Society, but reconveyed to the crown in 1682 for L1300. An hospital, or infirmary, for old or wounded soldiers was commenced by Wren in that year, and completed in 1690 at a cost of L150,000. It is of brick, with stone quoins, having a front of 790 feet, and walks and gardens upwards of 40 acres in extent. The main building forms three sides of a quadrangle, in the centre of which stands a bronze statue of Charles II. The principal portion of the front is devoted to the chapel, hall, &c., and the two remaining sides are occupied by pensioners (538 in 1856), who are well clothed, lodged, and fed. The out-pensioners, a far larger body, numbering 59,987 in 1856, are scattered all over the kingdom. Near the hospital is the Royal Military Asylum, opened in 1803 for the maintenance and education of the orphan children of soldiers. It consists of a normal school for training regimental schoolmasters, and of model and infant schools; and the boys, of whom there are at present 479, are trained to military exercises and trades, and are dressed in uniform.

Among the most important of the benevolent institutions are those for the cure or alleviation of disease or external injury, such as hospitals, infirmaries, dispensaries, &c. Of these there are no less than 177 enumerated in the London Post-Office Directory for 1857.

St Bartholomew's Hospital in West Smithfield was originally founded in 1102 by Rahere, prior of St Bartholomew, and refounded in 1547 by Henry VIII. It was rebuilt in 1720 by voluntary subscription, and is well supported. The establishment makes up nearly 600 beds, and the average number of outdoor and indoor patients annually relieved is upwards of 70,000.

St Thomas's Hospital in High Street, Southwark, was founded by the prior of Bermondsey in 1213, and refounded by Edward VI. Rebuilt by voluntary subscription in 1693, and extended in 1752, it was again partially rebuilt in 1836. It consists of eighteen wards, possesses about 480 beds, has a revenue of L25,000 per annum, and, on the average, annually affords assistance to upwards of 45,000 in and out patients.

Guy's Hospital, a near neighbour of St Thomas's Hospital, owes its existence to Thomas Guy, a bookseller, who built it and left at his death, in 1724, L219,499 for its support. Again in 1829, Mr Thomas Hunt bequeathed to this institution L200,000. Its ample resources are turned to good account. Here are 544 beds, which are filled every Wednesday morning by applicants whose cases appear the most urgent. There is a separate lying-in charity supported by this hospital, where 1755 cases of confinement were attended in 1856.

To this class belong also—Westminster Hospital, Broad Sanctuary; St George's Hospital, Hyde Park Corner; London Hospital, Whitechapel Road; Charing Cross Hospital, West Strand; Middlesex Hospital, Charles Street, Regent Street; Royal Free Hospital, Greville Street, Hatton Garden; Metropolitan Free Hospital, Devonshire Square, City; King's College Hospital, Portugal Street, Lincoln's Inn; University College Hospital, Gower Street; St Mary's Hospital, Cambridge Place, Edgware Road; and the Seamen's Hospital, on board the "Dreadnought," off Greenwich. To the great majority of these institutions are attached medical schools, where lectures, delivered by those eminent in the profession, and illustrated by practice, are available for an almost unlimited number of students.

There are, again, establishments devoted to the cure or relief of particular diseases, such as the hospitals for consumption in Brompton, the City Road, and Victoria Park; for small-pox, in Upper Holloway, &c.; for diseases of the eye, in Finsbury, Chandos Street, Charing Cross, and Burlington Gardens; besides hospitals for the treatment of cancer, the Lock Hospital, &c.

The lying-in hospitals, too, are very numerous; and there are eleven asylums, &c., for the relief of the blind, and deaf and dumb. The Foundling Hospital, founded by Captain Coram, and incorporated 1739, though not now a charity for foundlings, maintains and educates 500 poor children. Of the lunatic asylums, besides those in the suburbs, the chief is—

Bethlehem or Bedlam Hospital, which originated in the priory of St Mary of Bethlehem, founded for lunatics in 1247. Removed from its original site to Bethlehem, without Bishopsgate, it was given by Henry VIII. to the city in 1545; and, after being again moved to a new site in Moorfields about 1675, it finally was planted in its present position in St George's Fields in 1814. The front of the hospital is magnificent, extending to 697 feet,—the centre being surmounted by a dome and supported by six Ionic columns. The interior is well arranged, warmed, and ventilated; and having been gradually extended down to the present day, it is now capable of receiving about 500 patients.

St Luke's Hospital, a similar institution, more especially devoted to incurables, is situated in Old Street, having been brought hither in 1752 from Windmill Hill, where it was first instituted in 1732.

The numerous institutions for rearing and educating poor children are alluded to elsewhere. Of the infinite number of miscellaneous charities may be mentioned,—the Royal Literary Fund for the relief of poor authors and their families. The fund consists of L30,000 funded property, and L200 a-year derived from land, besides subscriptions. The Royal Humane Society, for rewarding those who assist in the preservation of drowning persons, and for resuscitating the latter; the Society of Friends of Foreigners in Distress; the Society for the Relief of Persons Imprisoned for Small Debts, by which 263 poor prisoners were discharged in 1853; the Magdalen and Guardian Asylums for prostitutes; the Society for the Suppression of Vice; and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

Since the introduction of printing, London has always been the chief resort of the literary men of this country, as well as the head-quarters of the bookselling trade. Now, more than ever, it is the centre of English literary circles, the periodicals, exclusive of newspapers, being almost entirely confined to the capital. Its newspapers, too, excel in ability, information, and circulation, any others in the world. We subjoin a statement showing the number of periodical publications produced in London in January 1857:

| Daily newspapers | Number | Price per Copy | |------------------|--------|---------------| | Newspapers issued thrice per week | 6 | 1d. to 4d. | | Ditto issued twice a-week | 4 | 3d. to 1s. 4d. | | Ditto once a-week | 86 | 1d. to 1s. | | Ditto at more distant intervals | 24 | 3d. to 1s. 6d. |

Total newspapers and stamped publications | 136 |

Weekly magazines, and weekly issues of serial works | 46 | 0½d. to 1s. |

Monthly magazines, &c. do. | 335 | 0½d. to 10s. |

Quarterly reviews, &c. do. | 57 | 1d. to 7s. 6d. |

Transactions of various societies | 26 | 2s. 6d. to 40s. |

Total | 464 |

Besides these there are numerous works published once or twice per annum, and of these the most worthy of remark is Kelly's London Post-Office Directory, an enormous octavo, issued regularly in November and March.

Many books have been published regarding London, but few of them are remarkable. Stow's Survey of London, London, first published in 1598, and since improved by Strype, &c., (in 2 vols. folio, 1754), is the most famous. The works of Maitland and of Pennant are also good. In the Handbook to London, of 1850, Mr Peter Cunningham has amassed a very large amount of information of the most entertaining kind regarding the antiquities of London; and Mr Henry Mayhew, in his work on London Labour and London Poor, has collected a wonderful amount of curious matter and statistics on his branch of the subject. But a good and comprehensive work on London, applicable to past and present times, is much wanted, and would, if well executed, form a valuable addition to English literature.

The British Museum, in Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, has been established for upwards of a century; old Montague House, in which it was first deposited, having been purchased by government from Lord Halifax in 1753. The present building, erected 1823-47, from designs of Sir R. Smirke, stands on the site of the former one. The nucleus of this noble national museum was formed by the collections of Sir Robert Cotton and Sir Hans Sloane; the former acquired in 1700, and the latter purchased by government for L20,000 in 1753. The Museum has since been enriched by the following, among other acquisitions:—the Harleian MSS., purchased in 1755; the Royal Library, presented in 1757, by George II.; the Lansdowne, Hargrave, and Burney MSS., purchased between 1806 and 1818; the noble Library of George III., presented by George IV. soon after his accession, and that of the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville, devised by will, and transferred to the Museum in 1846.

The collection of antiquities is magnificent, consisting of,—1. The Egyptian antiquities, including the trophies of the Egyptian expedition of 1801, presents from various noblemen and gentlemen, and purchases, especially from the collections of Lord Belmore, Mr Henry Salt, and Signor Anastasi. 2. The Elgin marbles, containing the best specimens of Grecian art, purchased for L35,000. 3. The Phigaleian frieze. 4. The Towneley, Greek and Roman marbles. 5. Sir William Hamilton's Greek and Etruscan vases. 6. Richard Payne Knight's fine collection of coins and medals, with the bequest of Rev. C. M. Cracherode, and the donations of Lady Banks and Mr W. Marsden.

The last great additions, and perhaps the most interesting, are the Nimroud marbles, collected from the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon by Mr A. H. Layard.

The collections of natural history are also extensive, especially in mammals, birds, and insects; while the mineral department contains the choice cabinet of Fulke Greville, with numerous additions, and a very fine assemblage of organic remains.

The governing body consists of official trustees, or personages high in the government, church, law, &c.; family trustees,—two of the Cotton family, two of the Harley, two of the Sloane, and one each of the Towneley, Elgin, and Knight families; and fourteen elected trustees, all eminent men.

From 7th May to 1st September, the Museum is open to the public from ten till six o'clock on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays; closing at four o'clock from 1st November to 28th February; and at five o'clock during the rest of the year. Access to the reading-room (now, 1857, on an enlarged scale) attached to the library may be obtained by written application to the librarian, who issues tickets of admission available for six months. (See Libraries.)

The number of visitors to the Museum in 1856, was 334,089 (in 1850, 2,527,216); the number of visitors to the reading-room being, in 1856, 53,567.

The annual expenditure of the Museum trustees is about L60,000, which is chiefly defrayed by the public.

The Geological Museum in Jermyn Street, a branch of the Government Department of Science and Art, is also open to the public. It contains specimens of British minerals, raw and manufactured; and lectures are delivered here on mining, metallurgy, &c.

Though not open for general inspection, access may easily be obtained to Sir John Soane's Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and that of the United Service Institution in Whitehall Yard, and they both merit a careful examination.

Exclusive of the government institutions for the promotion of science and art, there are many voluntary associations having the same object. Of these, the first in rank and antiquity is—

The Royal Society, Somerset House, incorporated in 1663, and well known from its Philosophical Transactions, published since 1665. The Society of Antiquaries, founded 1707, has also apartments in Somerset House. Its researches have been given to the public in Archaeologia, first published in 1770. The Society of Arts, John Street Adelphi, established in 1754 for the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce, was incorporated in 1846; and with a kindred object arose the Great Exhibition of 1851 and its Crystal Palace.

There are also, among many more, the following, bearing names indicating their character and objects:—The Medical Society, established 1773. Linnean Society, founded 1785, and incorporated 1802. Horticultural Society, established 1804, and incorporated 1808. Medical and Chirurgical Society, established 1805. Geological Society, established 1807, incorporated 1826. Astronomical Society, established 1820, incorporated 1831. Asiatic Society, for research into eastern literature, founded in 1823. Society of Literature, founded in 1821, and incorporated 1825. Zoological Society, founded in 1825, and incorporated 1829; has an extensive collection of animals in Regent's Park. Geographical Society, incorporated 1830. Statistical Society, founded in 1834. Royal Botanical Society, incorporated 1839, and possessing 18 acres of garden in Regent's Park. Institute of British Architects, established 1834, and incorporated 1837. Institution of Civil Engineers, established 1818, incorporated 1828. Ethnological Society, Newman Street, Oxford Street; Numismatic Society, Gate Street, Lincoln's Inn; the Archaeological Institute and Archæological Association, both branches of the Society of Antiquaries, and established in 1843. Most of these societies publish journals or transactions at stated periods; and they generally hold meetings weekly or every alternate week during six months of the year, from November to June.

There are also numerous institutions which partake, to some extent, the character of clubs, where newspapers and periodical publications are furnished to subscribers, and lectures are delivered by eminent men on various subjects. The oldest and most important of these is—

The Royal Institution in Albemarle Street, founded in 1799. Here Sir Humphry Davy and Sidney Smith delivered lectures, and Dr Faraday still maintains its reputation. It has a tolerable library and the current periodical literature of the day for the use of members. The London Institution in Finsbury Circus, the Russell Institution in Great Coram Street, the Marylebone, the Westminster, and the Pimlico Institutions, and a host of others, are all of the same class.

Again, the mechanics' institutes are after the same model, though on a smaller scale, and of these there are several in the metropolis. The circulating libraries are also very numerous; but perhaps the most important is the London Library in St James's Square, which now contains 78,000 volumes, collected within the last sixteen years. The Library of Sion College, London Wall, founded 1823, and that in Red Cross Street, established by Dr William's, who died 1716, are open to all respectable persons, and contain together about 60,000 volumes.

The National Gallery, which contains the chief portion of the national collection of paintings, constitutes the north side galleries. London: of Trafalgar Square, and occupies one of the best sites in the metropolis. The foundation of the collection was made in 1824 by the purchase of Mr Angerstein's collection, but it has chiefly been increased by donations. The Gallery was erected in 1834-38, has a frontage of 460 feet, and contains, in all, ten rooms for pictures; this accommodation being shared equally by the trustees of the Gallery and by the Royal Academy. It contains many specimens of the Italian and Flemish, and a few of the Spanish schools; of which last the Holy Family, by Murillo, is a remarkably fine picture. There are, too, some good Claude and Poussins in the gallery. In consequence of the late gifts to the public of the collections formed by Mr Vernon and Mr Sheepshanks, and of his own works bequeathed by Mr J. W. M. Turner, the moiety of the Gallery is now quite insufficient for the whole.

On this account a portion, chiefly of the English school, has been temporarily removed to Marlborough House; and a royal commission is now (1857) sitting to fix upon a site for a new Gallery. The rooms in Trafalgar Square and Marlborough House are open to the public from Monday to Thursday inclusive, and to students on Tuesdays and Saturdays. A royal commission has this year (1857) been appointed for the formation of a portrait gallery in honour of distinguished men.

The chief private collections are those of Her Majesty, the Duke of Sutherland, the Marquis of Westminster, Marquis of Hertford, Earl of Ellesmere, Lord Ward, Sir Robert Peel, Mr Hope, Mr Thomas Baring, Mr Holford, &c.

The Royal Academy, chartered in 1768, is established under the same roof as the National Gallery. Here lectures on the fine arts, which now form part of the literature of the country, have been delivered by Sir Joshua Reynolds and other eminent presidents of the Academy. A good collection of paintings and casts, and copies from famous statues, are kept in the Academy for the use of students; and works of living artists in painting and sculpture are annually exhibited here. The sale of tickets yields the Academy a revenue of £5,000 or £6,000 a-year.

The British Institution, founded in 1805, is composed of amateurs, who, for the culture of public taste, lend and borrow good pictures, and exhibit them annually in their gallery, in Pall Mall.

The Society of Painters in Water Colours, established in 1804, has an annual exhibition of productions in this branch of art at 5 Pall Mall East.

The Society of British Artists in Suffolk Street, Pall Mall, is comprised of a section of artists who disapprove of the Royal Academy, or whose works have been rejected there.

The Art Union of London consists of a varying body of subscribers, to some of whom valuable works of art are distributed by lottery, and who all receive annually an engraving from the work of some British artist.

Of the societies for the cultivation of music,— The Royal Academy of Music in Tenterden Street, Hanover Square, was founded in 1822. It affords tuition, vocal and instrumental, to indoor and outdoor students, on the payment of certain fees. There are, besides, the Sacred Harmonic at Exeter Hall, the Philharmonic, and several other similar societies.

London is especially remarkable for its clubs. The chief of these are the following:

| IN PALL MALL | United Service. | |--------------|----------------| | Army and Navy. | United University. | | Athenæum. | | | Carlton. | | | Guards'. | | | Oxford & Cambridge. | | | Reform. | | | Travellers'. | |

With the Junior United Service, in Charles Street, St James's; the Union, in Trafalgar Square; Oriental, in Hanover Square; and the City Club, in Old Broad Street.

Of all the clubs, White's is the oldest and most exclusive, dating its foundation about 1698, and reminding us of the White's chocolate-house of the Tatler, and of the days of Addison and Steele. It has not, however, the architectural pretensions of the club-houses in Pall Mall, some of which are copies after celebrated Italian palaces. Thus the Army and Navy Club is a pretty close imitation of the Palazzo Cornaro on the Grand Canal at Venice. These establishments are furnished in a very sumptuous manner, and afford a very luxurious style of cuisine. The number of members is usually limited, but varies in the different clubs from 300 to 2000. The members are elected by ballot; their entrance-fee varying from 9 to 30 guineas, and annual subscription from 5 to 12. All the clubs are provided with the newspapers and publications of the day, and some of them have extensive and valuable libraries. A few of these establishments, such as Brooke's, the Carlton, Conservative, and Reform, are of a political nature; others are exclusively professional, such as the two United Service, and the Army and Navy Clubs; and some are of a miscellaneous character.

The largest monuments in London are "The Monument," the York and Nelson Columns, and the Wellington Arch. The first, a fluted Doric column 202 feet high, on Fish Street Hill, was constructed in 1671-8, from a design by Wren, to commemorate the great fire of 1666. The offensive inscription on its base, attributing the fire to the Roman Catholics, was removed in 1830.

The column to the late Duke of York, raised in 1833, is at the top of the steps leading from Waterloo Place into St James's Park. It is plain Doric, 124 feet high, built of granite, and surmounted by a statue, 14 feet high, of his royal highness.

The Nelson column is fluted Corinthian, 176 feet high, having on the top a statue of the naval hero by Raily, and on the base sculptured reliefs illustrative of his death and the great events of his life.

The Wellington Arch, at the top of Constitution Hill, was erected from designs by Decimus Burton in 1828, and appropriated in 1846 to the support of an equestrian statue, by Matthew Wyatt, of the late Duke of Wellington.

The equestrian statues are those of Charles I., by Le Sueur, at Charing Cross; William III., by Bacon, in St James's Square; of William, Duke of Cumberland, in Cavendish Square; of George III., by Wyatt, in Pall Mall East; George IV., in Trafalgar Square; and the Duke of Wellington, by Chantrey, in front of the Royal Exchange. The others of note are of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., and Charles II., on Temple Bar; of James II., by Gibbons, in Whitehall Gardens; of Queen Anne, by Bird, in front of St Paul's; of William IV., in King William Street, City; of Her present Majesty, in the court of the Royal Exchange; of Pitt and Fox, in Hanover and Bloomsbury Squares; of the Duke of Wellington, in the Tower; of Sir Robert Peel, in Cheapside; of General Sir Charles Napier, in Trafalgar Square, &c.

proportion to its extent and wealth, has fewer theatres than any other European capital. The largest and most fashionable is Her Majesty's Theatre, or the Italian Opera House, in the Haymarket. Burned down in 1789, it was rebuilt in 1790, and enlarged by Nash in 1818. It is now capable of containing 2500 persons; the boxes and stalls being private property, or let for the season, and the pit and gallery open, on payment, to the general public. The entertainments consist of operas and ballets; the singers, dancers, and musicians being almost exclusively foreigners; but though this house is liberally patronized, especially by the higher classes, far beyond the national theatres, it usually proves ruinous to any one bold enough to undertake its management.

Drury Lane Theatre, in Bridges Street, the only patent establishment since the destruction by fire of Covent Garden Theatre in 1856, nominally enjoys a kind of monopoly of the legitimate drama. The present building is the fourth of a series erected here since 1663, two of which were burned in 1672 and 1809. That now in existence, built in 1811, and improved in 1820, has, it is said, sitting room for an audience of 3500. The regular drama having fallen into neglect of late, partly from the dearth of histrionic talent, and partly from the strong tendency of fashion towards musical entertainments, this house is now very often devoted to operas and dancing.

The Haymarket Theatre, first started in 1720, and rebuilt in 1821, and the Princess's Theatre in Oxford Street, are both small, but well managed and successful.

Besides these there are about seventeen minor theatres, not demanding particular notice here.

During the summer season the gardens at Vauxhall and at Cremorne, and the Surrey Gardens, are usually open in the evenings. Displays of fire-works, horsemanship, balloon ascents, music and dancing, form the chief attractions to those places.

The bridges spanning the Thames in its passage through Bridges London are 9 in number, 8 of these being adapted for carriages. The following table will show the cost and dimensions of these various bridges:

| Name | Date of completion | Material | Cost, including Approaches | Cost, exclusive of Approaches | Number of Arches | Length, Feet | Breadth, Feet | Span of Central Arch, Feet | |--------------------|-------------------|----------------|----------------------------|------------------------------|-----------------|--------------|---------------|---------------------------| | London Bridge | 1831 | Granite | £2,000,000 | £42,150 | 5 | 904 | 53 | 150 | | Southwark | 1819 | Iron arches, stone piers | £80,000 | £384,000 | 3 | 800 | 42 | 240 | | Blackfriars | 1770 | Stone | £200,000 | £157,840 | 9 | 995 | 42 | 100 | | Waterloo | 1817 | Granite | £1,120,000 | £579,915 | 9 | 1380 | 42 | 120 | | Westminster | 1751 | Portland stone | £389,000 | £389,000 | 15 | 1160 | 43 | 76 | | Vauxhall | 1814 | Iron arches, stone piers | Unknown | £300,000 | 9 | 840 | 36 | 78 | | Hungerford Suspension | 1845 | Brick & stone piers, cast iron platform | £113,000 | £98,760 | Nil. | 1536 | 13 | ... | | Chelsea Suspension | 1857 | Iron piers & roadway | £88,000 | £88,000 | ... | 922 | 45 | ... | | Battersea | 1770 | Wood | Not known | | ... | ... | ... | ... |

N.B.—The cost of New Westminster Bridge is estimated at £235,000.

None of the existing bridges have any interesting associations connected with them, except London Bridge, and that only in right of its predecessor, so well known as Old London Bridge. In 1209 the latter (the first stone bridge) was built, and by dint of occasional repairs, it existed for upwards of six centuries. But the obstruction to the tides offered by its peculiar formation, proved so serious an evil, that it was at length necessarily doomed, and one of London's quaintest features disappeared in 1834. New London Bridge, begun in 1824, and completed in 1831, is placed about 200 feet farther up than the old one. It is built of granite, and was designed by the late John Rennie.

Proceeding up the river, the second is Southwark Bridge, leading from Queen Street, City, to Southwark. It was begun by Mr Rennie in 1814, completed in 1819, and is composed chiefly of cast-iron. It was constructed at the expense of a joint-stock company, by whom the tolls are levied.

Blackfriars Bridge, the next in position, commenced in 1760, was finished in 1770. It stands midway between Waterloo and Southwark bridges, and has unfortunately, within the last few years, shown symptoms of decrepitude.

Waterloo Bridge, the most admired of all, comes next, and was commenced in 1811, and finished in 1817. The arches, nine in number, are elliptical, and each 120 feet wide, so that its symmetry is perfect and its roadway a dead level. It was built by the late Mr Rennie for a joint-stock company, and is undoubtedly his greatest work. Canova declared it to be the finest feature of London. But though most ornamental to the city, it is, in consequence of its toll, but little frequented.

Hungerford Suspension-Bridge, opened in 1845, is the only one exclusively for foot passengers; but the proprietors, who levy tolls, contemplate widening the bridge for a carriage-way. It springs on the Middlesex side from Hungerford market, and rests on the Surrey side, near the terminus of the South-Western Railway.

Westminster, the oldest of the metropolitan bridges, was begun in 1739, and completed in 1751. The roadway has been materially lowered within the last twelve years; and the lofty stone balustrade which obstructed the view has been removed, and an unsightly wooden boarding substituted. From the very low situation of the New Houses of Parliament, they are to some extent hidden by this bridge, and it is therefore proposed to build another more in harmony with them.

Vauxhall Bridge, next in order, was commenced in 1813, and finished in 1816, by a joint-stock company still in receipt of the tolls. It affords ready communication with Surrey to Belgravia and other new districts lately created by Mr Cubitt and the Marquis of Westminster.

Chelsea Suspension-Bridge, commenced in 1851, is all but finished, and will be opened this year (1857). It connects Chelsea with the new park at Battersea, and, taken in conjunction with it and the embankment of the Thames from Vauxhall Bridge to Cheyne Walk, forms a gigantic undertaking.

Battersea Bridge, a wooden structure, connects Chelsea with Battersea, and is the last of the bridges within the metropolitan boundaries. It belongs to a body of about thirteen proprietors, who levy tolls, and derive about £500 per annum each as net revenue.

The tunnel under the Thames, one of the wonders of Thames London, is situate about 2 miles below London Bridge, tunnel, starting from the Middlesex side of the river in High Street, Wapping, and leading into Rotherhithe, on the Surrey side. This great achievement was effected by the late Sir Isambert Brunel, the distinguished inventor of block machinery, &c. It was undertaken for a joint-stock company, incorporated in 1824; and the expense was originally estimated at £160,000. The tunnel was commenced in 1825, and, after repeated accidents from invasions of the river, it was, with the assistance of government grants, completed in 1840. It is of brick, and its form is cylindrical; a tube nearly 1200 feet long being cut by a longitudinal division into two equal parts or roadways, 15 feet high by 12 broad. It is entered at either end by long descending stairs; and this difficulty of approach, and other circumstances, have hitherto rendered this great triumph of science and perseverance of comparatively little service to London. It is used to some small extent by passengers, but chiefly visited as a curiosity.

Though the government of by far the greater part of the metropolis is intrusted to the secretary of state for the home department, and administered under him by the commissioners of police; yet that portion known as The City, is under the exclusive superintendence of the Corporation of London, a body wielding considerable power, and possessed of extensive property.

The origin of this body has been shortly alluded to in the commencement of this article. It consists of the lord mayor, the court of aldermen, 25 in number, exclusive of his lordship, and 206 members forming the court of common council. The lord mayor is chosen annually from among the aldermen, but is capable of re-election. The right of nominating two aldermen worthy of election to the dignity, is restricted to those freemen of the city who have been admitted into the livery of their respective guilds or companies. The court of aldermen then decide which of the two is to be promoted. The number of livery-men in 1856-7 was 6611. (See LIVERY.) The other essential qualification for the mayoralty is previous service as sheriff. The aldermen hold office for life. They are elected one for each of the 26 divisions or wards of the city, and all resident freemen are entitled to vote in the election for their ward, whether they are livery-men or not. Each alderman appoints one deputy, and in some cases two, for his ward.

The members of common council are chosen annually by the rate-payers of the various wards, but members are for the most part re-elected. As shown in the following table, the several wards differ very materially in extent, and so does the number of their representatives in common council:

| Wards | Common Councilmen | |----------------|-------------------| | Aldergate | 8 | | Aldgate | 8 | | Basilshaw | 4 | | Billinggate | 8 | | Bishopsgate | 14 | | Bread Street | 8 | | Bridge Without | Nil | | Bridge Within | 8 | | Broad Street | 8 | | Candlewick | 6 | | Castle Baynard | 8 | | Cheap | 8 | | Coleman Street | 8 | | Cordwainers | 6 | | Cornhill | 6 | | Forward | 108 |

The ward of Bridge Without is a sinecure reserved for the senior alderman, as there have been no inhabitants in it since the demolition of Old London Bridge. The civic deliberative assembly meeting in Guildhall consists of 232 members, of which his lordship is ex-officio president. The law officers of the corporation are the recorder and common serjeant, both barristers, who have seats in this assembly, but no vote. The sheriffs are chosen annually on Midsummer-Day by the livery, and are executive officers for the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London.

The chamberlain is chosen annually by the livery, but the office is virtually one for life. He has the care of the city revenues. Besides, there are the city remembrancer, solicitor, town-clerk, comptroller, and many inferior officers, most of whom are chosen by the court of common council.

The dignity and power of the lord mayor is great. He is the representative of royalty in the civil government of the city, chief commissioner of its lieutenancy, conservator of the River Thames, and on the demise of a sovereign he becomes pro tem. a member of the privy council. To maintain the fame of the city for hospitality, an allowance of £8000 per annum is made to his lordship, with the use of the Mansion House, furniture, carriages, &c. To generous mayors this sum is insufficient, while the parsimonious profit by the undertaking. But municipal honours are not now, as in the olden time, the pride and ambition of the first merchants and bankers of the city, and from various causes all city men of the highest standing studiously avoid any distinction of this kind.

The 9th of November, when the lord mayor enters into office is kept as a partial holiday in the city. He then proceeds in state to Westminster Hall, where he is duly sworn, and in the evening he gives a banquet in Guildhall to the great officers of state, judges, foreign ambassadors, city functionaries, &c.

The report of the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of the Corporation of London, presented to Parliament in 1854, gives an account of the revenue and expenditure of the city for 1852, from which it appears that the former amounted to £551,971, 5s. 4d., and the latter to £403,983, 1s. 2d., leaving a surplus of £147,988; but of this £127,710 was payable to the government office of works, for metropolitan improvements beyond the limits of the city. The report alluded to recommends some radical changes in the constitution of the corporation, and considerable abridgment of its privileges. Already bills, adopting in great measure the suggestions of the commissioners, have been brought into Parliament, and will most likely ere long pass into law.

Neither the Mansion House nor the Guildhall is remarkable for architectural beauty, though both of them are large buildings. The former was erected in 1740, and the latter in 1789, on the site of a previous Hall built in 1411.

The following are three of the chief items of the city revenue in the year 1855:

- Duties on coals brought to the metropolis: £135,154 - Police rates: £56,505 - Sewer rates: £75,764

Intimately connected with the corporation are the various guilds or companies composed of livery-men, and whose functions in civic elections have been already noticed. Of these companies there are upwards of 80, of which 39 have halls, the rest meeting in Guildhall or in taverns.

In Stow's time there were but 63, and of these there were 12,—

| The Mercers, | The Merchant Tailors, | | Grocers, | Haberdashers, | | Drapers, | Salters, | | Fishmongers, | Ironmongers, | | Goldsmiths, | Vintners, | | Skinners, | Clothworkers. |

—called by him "honourable companies, out of which the lord maire is to be chosen yearly, because those of inferior ranke are not capable of such dignitie." This restriction no longer exists, but the twelve companies still maintain a certain pre-eminence, and are called the "great companies." Some of these are possessed of large property; the goldsmiths, mercers, grocers, fishmongers, merchant tailors, &c., having noble halls where they dispense the most princely hospitality. The goldsmiths (the richest of all) existed as early as 1180, but were not chartered till 1327, and were long the chief bankers of London. At present all articles of gold and silver must be assayed and marked by this company. Their new hall, on the site of the former one in Foster Lane, is classic in style, and of noble proportions, but hidden by neighbouring houses. The others of most mark are Fishmongers' Hall at the corner of London Bridge; Mercers' Hall in The police force, in its present form, was established in 1829. There are in all thirteen police courts in the metropolis, of which eleven are under the superintendence of the Home Secretary, and two under that of the city corporation; justice being dispensed in the former by stipendiary magistrates, and in the latter by the mayor and aldermen. London is indebted for its present efficient police force, as for many other advantages, to Sir Robert Peel. There are in all upwards of 128 city and metropolitan police stations. The following table will show the distribution of the police force between the city and other parts of London:

| Police | Total Number of Men | Average Number on Day Duty | Average Number on Night Duty | |--------|---------------------|----------------------------|-----------------------------| | Force acting under Commissioners of Police, consisting of 18 divisions (A to V and Thames) | 5817 | 2272 | 3545 | | Force under the Corporation of the City of London | 689 | 340 | 249 | | Total | 6406 | 2512 | 3794 |

The prisons for debtors in the metropolis are three in number—the Queen's Prison and Horsemonger Lane Gaol in Southwark, and Whitecross Street Prison in the City. The Queen's Prison contains 220 rooms, but from changes in the law it is now comparatively little used. Formerly, debtors imprisoned here were allowed to purchase the right to live within the rules or liberties of the prison, which extended for a considerable distance around its walls. This system was abolished by 5th and 6th Vict., c. 22.

The numbers of prisoners for debt in two of the metropolitan prisons during the year ended 25th March 1856 were:

| Prisons | Prisoners | |---------|-----------| | Queen's Prison | 400 | | Whitecross Street Prison | 2358 | | Total | 2758 |

Of prisons for criminals there are twelve within the bounds of the metropolis. The first and most noted is Newgate Prison in the Old Bailey, the common gaol for London and Middlesex. The old gaol was burned by a mob in 1780, but a new one having been partially built at that period, it was soon completed. The number of prisoners varies from 300 to 950, though there is not proper accommodation for above 480. In front of this prison sentences of death are carried into effect for capital crimes committed in London and Middlesex.

Under the management of the directors of government convict prisons are the four following:

- Millbank Prison, to accommodate 1100 males and 180 females. - Pentonville ... 560 males. - Belton ... 650 females. - Fulham Refuge ... 180 females.

Besides these there are—

- The House of Correction at Holloway, a new establishment, calculated to hold ... 420 - Cold Bath Fields Prison, near Gray's Inn Lane ... 1398 - The House of Correction in Tothill Fields, Westminster ... 900

The tendency within the last twenty years has been to suppress prisons in the crowded parts of the metropolis; and in this way London has got rid of the Fleet, Marshalsea, and Giltspur Street Prisons; and a fourth—the Bridewell—has fallen into disuse.

There are 71 main sewers, and about 1000 miles of sewers Sewerage, in the metropolis, and the same extent of house or minor drains. In 1854 there were 347 miles of pipe sewers alone, draining about 27,000 houses. But large as this amount of sewerage appears to be, it is still far from being adequate to secure the comfort of the inhabitants, and cesspools and such like nuisances still exist to a considerable extent. The sewers of "The City" are managed by the City Commissioners of Sewers; while the superintendence of the sewers and the gradual extension of a proper system of drainage to every other part of the metropolis has been entrusted to the New Metropolitan Board of Works established in 1855. It is seriously proposed to divert the whole drainage of London from the Thames, to carry it off in a monster sewer, and to throw it into the sea.

Owing to the overcrowded and offensive state of many Cemeteries of the metropolitan churchyards, the necessity for other receptacles for the dead has long been apparent. The consternation produced in London by the late visitations of cholera gave rise to the Metropolis Burials Act and the appointment of inspectors of burial-grounds. All such as are, from time to time, considered dangerous or unwholesome are now, by order in council, closed against funerals. The number of cemeteries in the suburbs of London has constantly increased of late years. Many of these cemeteries are prettily situated, such as those at Highgate and Norwood; and most of them are laid out with great taste. The others of most importance are,—the Brompton Cemetery (the property of government); Kensall Green, on the Harrow Road, formed in 1832, and the property of a joint-stock company; and Abney Park, Stoke Newington, and Nunhead cemeteries. The London Necropolis Company have also a cemetery at Woking, whether funerals are conveyed by railway. It is doubtful, however, whether private companies can safely be trusted with the management of these concerns, as their pecuniary interests are so much at variance with the promotion of public health. It would, therefore, be sound policy on the part of the govern- It is calculated that, on the average, the annual number of destructive fires in this city amounts to 665; and hence the system of insurance against fire is very general. There are in London alone forty-nine offices for effecting this species of insurance; and the chief insurance companies maintain a fire-engine establishment at twenty-two different stations throughout the metropolis. As already mentioned, too, there are fire-plugs in every street for the supply of water for the engines, and fire-escapes for saving life are kept ready at convenient spots throughout the metropolis.

The troops usually kept in London consist of two of the three regiments of Life-Guards and Horse-Guards, and 5 battalions of Foot-Guards, numbering in all 4860; and there is barrack accommodation for 132 officers and 4845 men. The principal barracks for the Foot-Guards are the Wellington Barracks in Bird Cage Walk, the barracks in the Tower, at Charing-Cross, Portman Street Portman Square, and St John's Wood; the chief cavalry barracks being situated in Knightsbridge, Hyde Park, and Albemarle Street, Regent's Park. A volunteer corps, called the Royal Artillery Company, and composed of citizens, is well maintained, and their training-ground lies near the City Road.

As may be seen from the table annexed, the metropolis returns 16 members to parliament; Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Hamlets, and Lambeth, having acquired their right under the Reform Act. The inhabitants of certain districts of London, such as Chelsea, Kensington, Brompton, Notting Hill, &c., which are not included in any of the metropolitan cities or boroughs, form part of the constituency of the county of Middlesex. It has been more than once proposed to constitute Chelsea, Kensington, &c., a parliamentary borough, with the right of returning two members; and from their growing importance, it is likely that this proposition will ultimately be carried out.

Account of the number of Representatives allotted to each of the Parliamentary Cities and Boroughs in the Metropolis, and the Number of Electors Registered in each in 1857.

| Cities and Boroughs | Members | Registered Electors | |--------------------|---------|---------------------| | London (City of) | 4 | 19,115 | | Westminster (City of) | 2 | 13,182 | | Marylebone (Borough) | 2 | 20,851 | | Finsbury* do. | 2 | 20,025 | | Tower Hamlets, do. | 2 | 27,980 | | Southwark, do. | 2 | 10,170 | | Lambeth*, do. | 2 | 18,131 | | Total | 16 | 129,454 |

* The numbers of electors for Finsbury and Lambeth are applicable to 1852.

Greenwich, which is now an outpost of London, also returns two members.

Looking at the map of London, the River Thames attracts the eye as forming one great means of metropolitan internal communication; and the steamers which ply from the east to the west end every five minutes during the day, materially relieve the crowded streets from what would otherwise be an intolerable pressure.

The shipping of London, one of its greatest means of communication, has already been noticed.

The great railways having termini in London are,—the North-Western, Great Western, South-Western, South-Eastern, Eastern Counties, and Great Northern; and these afford means of reaching all parts of the empire with wonderful speed and comfort, and at moderate fares. There are also smaller lines more exclusively for the convenience of Londoners, such as those to Greenwich, Blackwall, Hampton Court, Windsor, &c.

There are at present (1857) in London 4312 hackney cabs, and 1019 omnibuses, for the conveyance of persons from any part of the metropolis to another. The cabs, though not what they should be, and still inferior in comfort and cleanliness to those of other large cities, have been much improved since placed under the more immediate surveillance of the police. They convey two persons, with a moderate allowance of luggage, at the rate of 6d. per mile, within a radius of 4 miles from Charing Cross; while by omnibuses one may travel half-a-dozen miles for 6d., or even less. The extent to which the latter are patronized may be estimated from the weekly traffic receipts of the General Omnibus Company (the chief proprietors of these vehicles), which amounted, in the week ended 7th March 1857, to L10,818, 16s.

The great street thoroughfares are about eight in number, one half running from E. to W., parallel to, or following to some extent the sinuosities of the river, and the rest tending from N. to S., and cutting the others nearly at right angles. Of the former, the most important are,—1st, That running from the Tower through Eastcheap, Cannon Street, Fleet Street, and Strand, and either by Drury Lane and Long Acre to Piccadilly and Kensington, or by Whitehall and Victoria Street to Pimlico; and 2d, That leading from Mile-end through Whitechapel, Cheapside, Newgate Street, Holborn, and Oxford Street, to Baywater. Of those running from N. to S. may be distinguished,—1st, That from Kingsland Road through Shoreditch and Bishopsgate Street, by London Bridge and High Street, Borough, to the Bricklayers' Arms; and 2d, That from Kentish Town Road by High Street, Camden Town, the Hampstead Road, and Tottenham Court Road or Gower Street, through Bow Street, and by Waterloo Bridge and Waterloo Road to the Elephant and Castle.

The Regent, and Grand Junction Canals, besides serving as the means of internal navigation to the Irish Channel, are most useful (as are also, on a smaller scale, the Surrey, Grosvenor, and Kensington Canals) in conveying coals and such heavy goods into the heart and outskirts of the metropolis. The facility of postal communication is elsewhere noticed.

The Electric Telegraph Company have twenty stations in different parts of London; and at charges varying from 1s. 6d. to 5s. and upwards, convey messages to almost all the civilized parts of the old hemisphere, and measures are in progress for completing communication of this kind with America.

The fate of London has often given rise to prophetic conclusions, speculations; and an eminent historian of the present day has shadowed forth its ruin at a somewhat distant period. But though it has increased enormously within the last century, its increased facility of communication, and advance in science, have been in a greater ratio. We may therefore safely quote the words of David Hume as applicable to the London of the present day. Speaking of its enormous and increasing size, he says,—“Some men are apprehensive of the consequence. For my own part, I cannot help thinking, that though the head is undoubtedly too large for the body, yet that great city is so happily situated, that its excessive bulk causes less inconvenience than even a smaller capital to a greater kingdom.”

(H. G. R.)

1 Essay on Public Credit. London, a town of Canada West, capital of Middlesex county, is situated on the left bank of the Thames, an affluent of Lake St. Clair, 115 miles S.W. of Toronto. It stands in the centre of the peninsula which divides Lakes Huron and Erie; and is connected by railway with Detroit, Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec. The town was laid out in 1826 and since then it has risen rapidly into importance. In 1844 and 1845 it suffered severely from fires, which consumed at different times the Episcopal church and many of the houses. These, however, were rebuilt; the former in greater elegance, the latter on a more commodious and substantial plan. In 1855 London contained several fine buildings, such as the city hall, erected at a cost of £15,000; a market-house, and 12 churches, belonging to the Episcopalian, Roman Catholic, Wesleyan, and other denominations. Its schools also fully supply the wants of the community, and are well attended. Iron-casting is carried on with considerable success, while coal is comparatively plentiful. The chief trade of the town, however, is in the grain of the county, which is reputed one of the most fertile in Upper Canada. Pop. (1832) 7000, (1855) about 13,000.

London, New, a seaport-town of the United States of N. America, New London county, Connecticut, on the W. bank of the Thames estuary, 3 miles from the sea, and 120 miles E.N.E. of New York by railway; N. Lat. (of lighthouse) 41° 18' 57", W. Long. 72° 5' 4". It is situated on an acclivity which rises from the waterside, and attains a considerable elevation at the back of the town. The streets are not so regularly laid out here as in most American towns, owing to the inequality of the ground, which rests on a granite formation. Much, however, has been done of late to level the surface. The chief public edifices are,—the custom-house, a handsome granite building near the river, the court-house, and numerous churches belonging to the various denominations, besides public and private schools. The harbour of New London is one of the best in the Union, being 3 miles in length, with 5 fathoms of water, and is seldom obstructed with ice during winter. It is protected from the ocean by Fisher's Island. The great trade of the port is connected with the whale fishery, which is carried on yearly in a number of vessels, having an aggregate burden of 16,000 tons. In 1849, 1949 barrels of sperm oil arrived here, besides 38,030 barrels of common whale oil, and 2688 cwt. of whalebone. The coasting trade and cod fishery are carried on here with much vigour and success; while ship-building and machine-making are also on the increase. The town was settled in 1644, and a large part of it was burned by the British under Benedict Arnold, in September 1781. Pop. (1840) 5519, (1850) 8991, (1853) about 10,000.