Ancient Geography, a celebrated kingdom of Asia Minor. The ancient writers inform us that Lydia was first called Maeonia, or Meonia, from Meon, King of Phrygia and Lydia; and that it was known under no other denomination until the reign of Atys, when it began to be called Lydia, from his son Lydas. Though Lydia and Maeonia are by most authors indifferently used for one and the same country, yet they are sometimes distinguished; that part including Mount Tmolus, and watered by the Pactolus, being properly called Maeonia; and the other, situate upon the coast, Lydia. This distinction is observed by Homer, Callimachus, Dionysius, and other ancient writers. In after ages, when the Ionians, who had planted a colony on the coast of the Ægean Sea, began to gain influence, that part was called Ionia, and the name of Lydia given to the ancient Maeonia. Lydia, according to Pliny, Ptolemy, and other ancient geographers, was bounded by Mysia Major on the N., by Caria on the S., by Phrygia Major on the E., and by Ionia on the W., and was situate between the 37th and 39th degrees of N. latitude. But what the ancients style the kingdom of Lydia was not confined within these narrow boundaries; it extended from Halys to the Ægean Sea. Pliny's description includes Æolis, situate between the Hermus and the Caicus.

Some of the ancients conceive the Lydians to have been a mixed colony of Phrygians, Mysians, and Carians; but others, finding some conformity in religion and religious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tuscan, who were a Lydian colony, conclude, without further evidence, that they were originally Egyptians. All we know for certain is, that the Lydians were a very ancient nation; and this is manifest from their tales; for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, and Arachne, are all said to have been the children of Lydus. Zanthus, in his Lydiaea, quoted by Stephanus, informs us, that the ancient city of Ascalon, one of the five satrapies of the Phillistines, mentioned in the books of Joshua and the Judges, was built by one Ascalus, a Lydian, whom Achiamus, King of Lydia, had appointed to command a body of troops which he sent into Syria, we know not on what occasion. The Heraclidae, or Kings of Lydia descended from Hercules, began to reign before the Trojan War, and had been preceded by a long line of sovereigns sprung from Atys, and hence styled Atyadæ—a strong proof of the antiquity of that kingdom.

The Lydians began very early to be governed by kings, whose authority seems to have been despotic, and the crown hereditary. We read of three distinct races of kings reigning over Lydia—the Atyadæ, the Heraclidae, and the Mermnadæ. The Atyadæ were so called from Atys the son of Cotys, and grandson of Manes, the first Lydian king. But the history of this family is obscure and fabulous. The Atyadæ were succeeded by the Heraclidae, or the descendants of Hercules. This hero having, by the direction of the oracle, been sold as a slave to Omphale, Queen of Lydia, in order to expiate the murder of Iphitus, had by one of her slaves, during his captivity, a son named Cleo-laus, whose grandson Argon was the first of the Heraclidae who ascended the throne of Lydia. This race is said to have reigned 505 years, the son succeeding the father for twenty-two generations. They began to reign about the time of the Trojan War. The last of the family was the unhappy Candaules, who lost both his life and kingdom by his imprudence. Of this event an account is given by Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom he passionately loved, and believed to be the most beautiful of her sex. He extolled her charms to Gyges, his favourite, whom he used to intrust with his most important affairs; and to convince him the more of her beauty, resolved to show her to him quite undressed. Enraged at this wanton affront, she told Gyges that he must either by his death atone for the criminal action he had been guilty of, or put to death Candaules, the contriver of it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia as his reward. Gyges chose the latter alternative, and having stabbed the king whilst he was asleep, married the queen, and took possession of the kingdom, in which he was confirmed by the response of the oracle of Delphi. Candaules is said to have purchased, for its weight in gold, a picture painted by Bularchus, representing a battle of the Magnates; a circumstance which shows how early the art of painting had begun to be appreciated in that country, Candaules having been contemporary with Romulus.

Gyges having thus possessed himself of the kingdom of Lydia, sent many rich and valuable presents to the oracle of Delphi, amongst which were six cups of gold, weighing thirty talents, and greatly esteemed for the workmanship. He made war upon Miletus and Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and subdued the whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his permission, the city of Abydos was built by the Milesians. Plutarch and other writers give a different account of his accession to the crown of Lydia, and inform us, without making any mention of the queen, that Gyges rebelled against Candaules, and slew him in an engagement. In Gyges commenced the third race called Mermnadæ, who were also, properly speaking, Heraclidae, being descended from a son of Hercules by Omphale.

Gyges reigned thirty-eight years, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Ardyes, who possessed himself of Priene, and of Sardis the metropolis of Lydia, and after reigning forty-nine years, was succeeded by his son Alyattes, who reigned twelve years, during most part of which he carried on war with the Milesians.

After him came his son Alyattes, who, for the space of five years, continued the war which his father had begun against the Milesians, ravaging their country, and about harvest-time yearly carrying away all their corn; when having on one occasion set fire to the corn in the fields, the flames were carried by a violent wind, which happened at that time to blow, to the temple of Minerva at Assesus, and burned it down to the ground. Not long afterwards, Alyattes falling sick, sent to consult the oracle at Delphi; but the god refused to return any answer until the king should rebuild the temple of Minerva at Assesus. Alyattes, thus warned, despatched ambassadors to Miletus, enjoining them to conclude a truce with the Milesians until the temple should be rebuilt. On the arrival of the ambassadors, Thrasybulus, then King of Miletus, having commanded all the corn which was at that time in the city to be brought into the market-place, ordered the citizens to banquet in public, and to revel as if the city were plentifully stored with all manner of provisions. This stratagem Thrasybulus practised that the ambassadors, seeing such quantities of corn, and the people everywhere diverting themselves, might acquaint their master with his affluence, and thus divert him from pursuing the war. As Thrasybulus had intended, so it happened. Alyattes, who believed the Milesians greatly distressed for provisions, receiving a different account from his ambassadors, changed the truce into a lasting peace, and ever afterwards lived in amity and friendship with Thrasybulus and the Milesians.

After a reign of fifty-seven years, he was succeeded by his son Croesus, whose uninterrupted prosperity, in the first years of his reign, far eclipsed the glory of his predecessors. He was the first who made war on the Ephesians, whose city he besieged and took, notwithstanding their consecrating it to Diana, and their fastening the walls by a rope to her temple, which was seven stadia from the city. After the reduction of Ephesus, he, under various pretences, attacked the Ionians and Æolians, obliging them, and all the other Greek states of Asia, to pay him an annual tribute. Having met with such extraordinary success by land, the Lydian prince determined to render his power equally conspicuous by sea. For this purpose he had serious thoughts of equipping a fleet, with which he purposed to invade and conquer the Grecian islands directly opposite to his dominions. But this design, which, considering the slow progress of maritime power amongst the nations most diligent in attaining it, would probably have failed of success, was prevented by the advice of a philosophical traveller, conveyed in such a lively turn of wit as easily changed the resolution of the king. Bias of Priene, in Ionia (some say Pittacus of Mitylene, in the Isle of Lesbos), whilst he travelled, after the Grecian custom, from curiosity and a love of knowledge, was presented to Croesus at the Lydian court; and being asked by that prince what news he brought from Greece, answered with a republican freedom, that the islanders had collected powerful squadrons of cavalry with an intention of invading Lydia. "May the gods grant," said Croesus, "that the Greeks, who are unacquainted with horsemanship, should attack the disciplined valour of the Lydian cavalry; there would speedily be an end to the contest." "In the same manner," replied Bias, "as if the Lydians, who are totally unexperienced in naval affairs, should invade the Grecians by sea." Struck by the acuteness of this unexpected observation, Croesus desisted from his intended expedition against the islands; and, instead of employing new means for extending his conquests, determined peaceably to enjoy the laurels he had won, and to display the grandeur he had attained. But his happiness was soon afterwards alloyed by the death of his favourite son Atys, who was unfortunately killed in the chase of a wild boar. This loss rendered him disconsolate for two years, and reduced him to a state of inaction till the conquests of Cyrus and the growing power of the Persians roused up his martial spirit, and diverted his mind to other thoughts.

Croesus apprehending that the success which had attended Cyrus in all his undertakings might at last prove dangerous to himself, resolved, if possible, to put a stop to his progress.

In adopting this resolution, which might probably be attended with the most important consequences, he was desirous to learn the will of heaven concerning the issue of the war. The principal oracles which he consulted were those of Branchis in Ionia, of Ammon in Libya, and of Delphi in Greece. But, amongst these respected shrines, the oracle of Delphi maintained its ascendant, as the most faithful interpreter of fate. Croesus was fully persuaded of its veracity; and, generally desirous to compensate the priests of Apollo for the trouble which he had already given, and still meant to give, he sacrificed three thousand oxen to the god, and adorned his shrine with gifts equally valuable for the workmanship and for the materials, viz., precious vessels of silver, ewers of iron beautifully inlaid and enamelled, various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a golden lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three cubits, or nearly five feet in height. In return for these magnificent presents, the oracle, in equivocal and ambiguous language, flattered Croesus with obtaining an easy victory over his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a prosperous reign. The god at the same time enjoined him to contract an alliance with the most powerful of the Grecian states.

Elevated with these favourable predictions of Apollo, Croesus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the only condition required on his part for the accomplishment of his aspiring design. Not deeming himself sufficiently acquainted with the affairs of Greece to know what particular republic was meant by the oracle, he made especial inquiry of those who were best informed concerning the state of Europe, and discovered, that amongst all the members of the Grecian confederacy, the Athenians and Lacedemonians were justly entitled to the pre-eminence. But in order to learn which of these communities deserved the epithet of "most powerful," it was necessary to send ambassadors into Greece. The Lydians despatched on this important commission soon discovered that the Athenians, having been long harassed by internal dissensions, were actually governed by the tyrant Pisistratus. The Spartans, on the other hand, though anciently the worst regulated of all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domestic peace and foreign prosperity ever since they had adopted the wise institutions of Lycurgus. To the Lydian ambassadors, therefore, the Spartan republic appeared to be pointed out by the oracle as the community whose alliance they were enjoined to solicit. Having accordingly repaired to Sparta, they were introduced not only to the kings and senate, but, as the importance of the negotiation required, to the general assembly of the Lacedemonians, to whom they, in few words, declared the object of their commission. The Lacedemonians, pleased with the alliance of a warlike king, and still more with the fame of their valour, readily accepted the proposal. To the strict connection of an offensive and defensive league they joined the more respected ties of sacred hospitality. A few years before this transaction they had sent to Sardis to purchase gold for making a statue of Apollo, and on that occasion Croesus had gratuitously supplied their wants. Remembering this generosity, they gave the Lydian ambassadors at their departure, as a present for their master, a vessel of brass containing three hundred amphoras (above twelve hogsheads), and beautifully carved on the outside with various forms of animals.

Croesus, having thus happily accomplished the design recommended by the oracle, was eager to set out upon his intended expedition. He had formerly entered into alliances with Amasis, King of Egypt, and Labynctus, King of Babylon; and he had now obtained the friendship of the most warlike nation of Europe. The newly-raised power of Cyrus and the Persians seemed incapable of resisting such a formidable confederacy. Elevated with these flattering ideas of his own invincible greatness, Croesus waited not to attack the Persian dominions until he had collected the strength of his allies. The sanguine impetuosity of his temper, unexperienced in adversity, unfortunately precipitated him into measures no less daring than ruinous. Attended only by the arms of Lydia and a numerous band of mercenaries, whom his immense wealth enabled him at any time to call into his service, he marched towards the River Halys, and having with much difficulty crossed that deep and broad stream, entered the province of Cappadocia, which formed the western frontier of the Median dominions. That unfortunate country soon experienced all the calamities of invasion. The Pterian plain, the most beautiful and fertile district of Cappadocia, was laid waste; the ports of the Euxine, as well as several inland cities, were plundered, and the inoffensive inhabitants were either put to the sword, or dragged into captivity. Encouraged by the unresisting softness of the natives of those parts, Croesus was eager to push forwards; and if Cyrus did not previously meet him in the field, he had determined to proceed in triumph to the mountains of Persia. Against this dangerous resolution he was in vain exhorted by a prudent Lydian named Sandanis, whom he dismissed with contempt, and prepared to prosecute his fatal enterprise.

Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of a temper to permit his dominions to be ravished with impunity, afforded the Lydian king an opportunity of bringing the war to a more speedy issue than by his intended expedition into Persia. The army of Cyrus gradually augmented as he advanced. He marched from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Euxine Sea before the army of Croesus had provided the necessaries for their advance. That prince, when apprised of the neighbourhood of the Persians, encamped on the Pterian plain; Cyrus likewise took up a position at no great distance; frequent skirmishes occurred between the light troops; and at length a general engagement was fought with equal fury and perseverance, and only terminated by the darkness of night. The loss on both sides prevented a renewal of the battle; but the numbers as well as the courage of the Persians much exceeded the expectation of Croesus; and as they discovered no intention of harassing his retreat, he determined to fall back towards Sardis.

But this design was defeated by the watchful vigilance of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the enemy to retire without molestation, carefully informing himself of every movement they made, and of every measure they seemed determined to pursue. Patiently watching the opportunity of a just revenge, he waited until Croesus had re-entered his capital, and disbanded the foreign mercenaries, who composed the most numerous division of his army. Cyrus then put his Persians in motion; and such was his celerity, that he brought the first intelligence of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis. Croesus, whose firmness might well have been shaken by the imminence of this unforeseen danger, was not wanting on the present occasion to the duties which he owed to his fame and the lustre of the Lydian throne. Though his mercenaries were disbanded, his own subjects, who served him from attachment, who had been long accustomed to victory, and who were animated with a high sense of national honour, burned with a desire to check the daring insolence of the invaders. Croesus indulged and encouraged this generous ardour. The Lydians in that age fought on horseback, armed with long spears; the strength of the Persians consisted in their infantry. The latter were so little accustomed to the use of horses, that camels were almost the only animals which they employed as beasts of burden. This circumstance suggested to a Mede, by name Harpagus, a stratagem, which, being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately adopted with the approbation of that prince. Harpagus having observed that horses had a strong aversion to the shape and smell of camels, advised that the Persian army should be drawn up with the camels in front, mounted with armed men. As the troops on both sides approached to join battle, the Lydian cavalry, terrified at the unusual appearance of the camels, mounted with men in arms, were thrown into disorder, and the horses, turning their heads, endeavoured to escape from the field; but the Lydians, abandoning their horses, prepared with uncommon bravery to attack the enemy on foot. They were soon obliged to take refuge, however, within the fortified strength of Sardis, where they imagined themselves secure. The walls of that city bade defiance to the rude art of attack, as then practised by the most warlike nations. If the Persian army should invest it, the Lydians were provided with provisions for several years; and there was reason to expect that in a few months, nay, even weeks, they would receive such assistance from Egypt, Babylonia, and Greece, to which countries they had already sent ambassadors, as would oblige the Persians to raise the siege.

The Lydian ministers despatched into Greece met with great sympathy from the Spartans. They immediately resolved, therefore, to send speedy and effectual relief to Croesus; and for this purpose they assembled their troops, made ready their vessels, and prepared everything necessary for the expedition. The valour of the Spartans might perhaps have upheld the sinking empire of Lydia; but before their armament set sail, Croesus was no longer a sovereign. Notwithstanding the strength of Sardis, that city had been taken by storm on the twentieth day of the siege; the walls having been scaled in a quarter which, appearing altogether inaccessible, was too carelessly guarded. This was effected by the enterprise of Hyrcades, a Mede, who accidentally observed a sentinel descend part of the rock in order to recover his helmet. Hyrcades was a native of the mountainous province of Mardia, and, being accustomed to clamber over the dangerous precipices of his native country, resolved to try his activity in passing the rock upon which he had discovered the Lydian. The design was more easily accomplished than he had reason to expect; emulation and success encouraged the bravest of the Persians to follow his example; these were supported by great numbers of their countrymen; the garrison of Sardis was surprised, the citadel stormed, and the rich capital of Lower Asia subjected to the vengeful rapacity of an indignant conqueror. Thus ended the ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued subject to the Persians until they in their turn were conquered by the Macedonians.